Zbornik radova Koridor 10 - Kirilo SaviÄ

3rd International Scientific and Professional Conference 

CORRIDOR 10 

a sustainable way of integrations 

Belgrade, 25 October 2012 

Proceedings of the conference 

ISBN 978-86-83059-09-6


CORRIDOR 10 - a sustainable way of integrations 

3 rd International Scientific and Professional Conference 

”Corridor 10 - a sustainable way of integrations” 

Belgrade, 25 October 2012 

Belgrade Chamber of Commerce 

Proceedings of the conference 

Organized by 

R&D Institute “Kirilo Savić” a.d. Belgrade 

and 

Association of Transport and Telecommunications of the Belgrade Chamber of 

Commerce 

in cooperation with the 

Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering, University of Belgrade 

and 

Institute of Traffic and Transport Ljubljana I.I.c. 

Supported by 

Ministry of Transport 

and 

Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development 

of the Republic of Serbia 

Belgrade, 2012 

I



Urednik/Editor: 

ZBORNIK RADOVA/PROCCEDINGS 

3. međunarodna naučno-stručna konferencija 

»Koridor 10 - održivi put integracija » 

Beograd, 20.10.2011. 

The 3rd International Scientific and Professional Conference 

»Corridor 10 - a sustainable way of 

integrations« 

dr Tomislav JOVANOVIĆ, Institut »Kirilo Savić« a.d. 

Recenzenti/ Reviewers: 

dr Tomislav JOVANOVIĆ, Institut »Kirilo Savić« a.d. 

dr Predrag PETROVIĆ, Institut »Kirilo Savić« a.d. 

dr Vesna PAVELKIĆ, Institut »Kirilo Savić« a.d. 

dr Olivera ERIĆ, Institut »Kirilo Savić« a.d. 

dr Ivana ATANASOVSKA, Institut »Kirilo Savić« a.d. 

dr Mirjana Puharić, Institut »Kirilo Savić« a.d. 

dr Milan Janić, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The NETHERLANDS 

Uređivački odbor/Editorial Board: 

Prof. dr Snežana KOMATINA-PETROVIĆ, IZIIS Skopje, FYROM 

dr Vesna PAVELKIĆ, Institut »Kirilo Savić« a.d. 

dr Ivana ATANASOVSKA, Institut »Kirilo Savić« a.d. 

mr Dragan STEFANOVIĆ, Privredna komora Beograda – Udruženje saobraćaja i 

Telekomunikacija 

dr Mirjana Puharić, Institut »Kirilo Savić« a.d. 

Izdavač/Publisher: 

Institut ”Kirilo Savić” a.d., Beograd 

Tiraž: 200 primeraka 

ISBN: 978-86-83059-09-6 

Svi radovi u zborniku su recenzirani/ All papers in Proceedings are reviewed 

Copyright © Institut ”Kirilo Savić”a.d., 2012. 

Organizatori/Organizers: 

Institut »Kirilo Savic« a.d. 

Privredna komora Beograda - udruženje saobraćaja i telekomunikacija 


II



Organizing Committee 

Tomislav JOVANOVIĆ, »Kirilo Savić« Institute a.d. Belgrade, President of the Conference 

Organizing Committee 

Dragoljub STEFANOVIĆ, Association of Transport and Telecommunications of the Belgrade 

Chamber of Commerce, Conference Coordinator, Vice-President of the 

Conference Organizing Committee 

Branko BOJOVIĆ, Magazine of the Association of Civil Engineers, Geotechnical Engineers, 

Architects and Town Planers »IZGRADNJA«, Editor in Chief, member 

Nebojša BOJOVIĆ, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering, 

member 

Slavko VESKOVIĆ, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering, 

member 

Miloš JELIĆ, 

»Kirilo Savić« Institute a.d. Belgrade, member 

Predrag PETROVIĆ, »Kirilo Savić« Institute a.d. Belgrade, member 

Vesna PAVELKIĆ, »Kirilo Savić« Institute a.d. Belgrade, member 

Ivana ATANASOVSKA, »Kirilo Savić« Institute a.d. Belgrade, member 

Dušan MIJUCA, »Kirilo Savić« Institute a.d. Belgrade, member 

Suzana GRAOVAC, »Kirilo Savić« Institute a.d. Belgrade, member 

Milan ŽIVANOVIĆ, »Kirilo Savić« Institute a.d. Belgrade, member 

Scientific Committee 

Miloš IVIĆ, 

University of Belgrade, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering, 

President of the Conference Scientific Committee 

Miroljub JEVTIĆ, »Kirilo Savić« Institute a.d. Belgrade, Vice-President of the Conference 

Scientific Committee 

Branimir STANIĆ, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering, Dean, 

member 

Slobodan GVOZDENOVIĆ, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering, 

member 

Borislav STOJKOV, Republic Agency for Spatial Planning of the Rebublic of Serbia, member 

Dragomir MANDIĆ, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering, 

member 

Milan MARKOVIĆ, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering, 

member 

Milan VUJANIĆ, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering, 

member 

Katarina VUKADINOVIĆ, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering, 

member 

Gojko RIKALOVIĆ, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Economics, member 

Zdenka J. POPOVIĆ, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, member 

Miloš JELIĆ, 


Olivera ERIĆ, 


Vesna ZLATANOVIĆ-TOMAŠEVIĆ, Engineers Association of Belgrade, member 

Tomislav JOVANOVIĆ, »Kirilo Savić« Institute a.d. Belgrade, member 

Mirjana PUHARIĆ, »Kirilo Savić« Institute a.d. Belgrade, member 


III



Dušan TEODOROVIĆ, Professor Emeritus, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, USA, 

member 

Milan JANIĆ, 

Senior Researcher, OTB Research Institute for the Built Environment, Delft 

University of Technology, Delft, The NETHERLANDS, member 

Vaska ATANASOVA, University «St. Kliment Ohridski«-Bitola, Faculty of Technical Sciences, 

FYROM, member 

Peter VERLIČ, Institute of Traffic and Transport Ljubljana I.I.c., SLOVENIA, member 

Momčilo ŠARENAC, Institute of Traffic and Transport Ljubljana I.I.c., SLOVENIA, member 

Peter MÁRTON, University of Žilina, Faculty of Management Science&Informatics, 

Department of Transport Networks, SLOVAKIA, member 

Stjepan LAKUŠIĆ, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Civil Engineering, CROATIA, member 

Snežana KOMATINA-PETROVIĆ, Visiting Professor, IZIIS Skopje, FYROM, member 

Primož KRANJEC, Institute of Traffic and Transport Ljubljana I.I.c, SLOVENIA, member 

Perica GOJKOVIĆ, University of East Sarajevo, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering 

Doboj, REPUBLIC OF SRPSKA, member 

Ratko ĐURIČIĆ, University of East Sarajevo, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering 

Doboj, REPUBLIC OF SRPSKA, member 

Branimir BOŠKOVIĆ, Directorate for Railways, Republic of Serbia, member 

Poster Presentation: 

Vesna PAVELKIĆ, 

Institut »Kirilo Savić« Belgrade, Chairman of the Poster Presentation 


IV



CIP - Каталогизација у публикацији 

Народна библиотека Србије, Београд 

625(082)(0.034.2) 

502.131.1:656(082)(0.034.2) 

625.711.1(4)(082)(0.034.2) 

МЕЂУНАРОДНА научно-стручна конференција 

Коридор 10 - одрживи пут интеграција (3 ; 

2012 ; Београд) 

Proceedings of the Conference 

[Elektronski izvor] = [Zbornik radova] / 3rd 

International Scientific and Professional 

Conference Corridor 10 - a Sustainable Way of 

Integrations, Belgrade, 25 October 2012 = [3. 

međunarodna naučno-stručna konferencija 

Koridor 10 - održivi put integracija, 

Beograd, 25.10.2012.] ; [organized by] 

Institut "Kirilo Savić" ... [et al.] ; 

[urednik, editor Tomislav Jovanović]. - 

Beograd : Institut "Kirilo Savić", 2012 

(Beograd : Institut "Kirilo Savić"). - 1 

elektronski optički disk (CD-ROM) ; 12 cm 

Sistemski zahtevi: Nisu navedeni. - Nasl. sa 

naslovnog ekrana. - Radovi na srp. i engl. 

jeziku. - Tiraž 200. - Bibliografija uz svaki 

rad. - Napomene i bibliografske reference uz 

tekst. - Abstracts. 

ISBN 978-86-83059-09-6 

1. Институт "Кирило Савић" (Београд) 

a) Саобраћај - Одрживи развој - Зборници 

b) Саобраћајне мреже - Коридор 10 - Зборници 

COBISS.SR-ID 196039180 


V



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

GEO-STRATEŠKI IZAZOVI PROSTORA KORIDORA 10 - ISTORIJSKA, SAOBRAĆAJNA, 

EKONOMSKA I KULTURNA GEOGRAFIJA PROSTORA 1 

ODRŽIVI RAZVOJ SAOBRAĆAJNOG SISTEMA U FUNKCIJI RAZVOJA PRIVREDE 23 

THE IMPORTANCE OF REGIONAL RAILWAY LINES REVITALIZATION FOR CORRIDOR 

X IN THE REPUBLIC OF SERBIA 29 

THE METHODOLOGY FOR CALCULATING ELIGIBILITY OF INVESTMENT IN PUBLIC 

RAILWAY INFRASTRUCTURE IN REPUBLIC OF SLOVENIA 36 

PLANNING A COMPLETION OF CORIDORS AS A STRATEGIC PRIORITY 44 

HARMONIZATION OF TECHNICAL REGULATIONS IN THE AREA OF RAILWAY TRACK 

MAINTENANCE 50 

FINANCIAL ANALYSIS OF RAIL INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS 61 

RAILWAY TRAFFIC AND THE MODERN TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGIES-BASIS FOR 

DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORT SYSTEM OF CORRIDOR X 69 

MARSHALLING YARDS ALONG THE PANEUROPEAN RAILWAY CORRIDORS 73 

THE CURRENT STATUS OF PREPARATION AND REALIZATION OF TRANS- 

EUROPEAN RAILWAY LINES PASSING THROUGH THE TERRITORY OF THE SLOVAK 

REPUBLIC 80 

CHANGES OF FLOWS IN ECONOMY SUPPLY CHAINS OF BIH: INFLUENCES ON 

INVESTMENT PRIORITIES ON CORRIDORS X AND VII 90 

OPPORTUNITIES OF THE REPUBLIC OF SLOVENIA AND THE REGION IN THE 

FRAMEWORK OF THE EUROPEAN RAILWAY NETWORK 96 

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF CORRIDOR 10 WITH CORRIDOR 4 106 

ANALYSIS STATE OF THE RAILWAY LINE ON CORRIDOR 10 , WHICH PASS 

THROUGH SERBIA, IN TERMS OF THE MAXIMUM TECHNICAL SPEED 116 

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE CORRIDOR 10 OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF 

SERBIAN 124 

Belgrade, 2012



FACILITATING SPECIFIC TRANSPORT SERVICES ALONG THE CORRIDOR X IN 

ORDER TO ATTRACT TRAFFIC FLOWS 138 

RAILWAY SIDINGS IN SLOVENIA- PROBLEMS AND MEASURES TO INCREASE THEIR 

ATTRACTIVENESS 151 

INTERMODAL INFRASTRUCTURE PLANNING IN LJUBLJANA: FIELD SURVEY AS A 

METHOD FOR PUBLIC PARTICIPATION 159 

MODERN RAILROAD TERMINALS AS RELATED TO URBAN MATRIX DEVELOPMENT 

165 

PROVIDING CO-MODALITY OF PUBLIC PASSENGER TRANSPORT THROUGH A 

STANDARDIZED UNIFIED ELECTRONIC TICKETING SYSTEM IN SLOVENIA 173 

COST ANALYSIS FOR INTRODUCTION OF NEW INTERMODAL TRANSPORT 

SERVICES IN ALPINE REGION 186 

COMPUTER AIDED SUPPORT FOR MODELLING OF RAILWAY CAPACITY CONTAINED 

IN UIC 406 LEAFLET 198 

CONCEPTION OF TRAIN OPERATION TECHNOLOGY ON LJUBLJANA RAILWAY 

STATION DURING EXECUTION OF CONSTRUCTION WORKS SUPPORTED BY 

RAILSYS ENGINEERING SOFTWARE 209 

RESEARCH SOME AERODYNAMICS PHENOMENON OF HIGH-SPEED TRAINS IN 

LOW-SPEED WIND TUNNEL 220 

ROLLING CONTACT FATIGUE OF RAILS 227 

RAIL INSPECTION BY EDDY CURRENT METHOD 238 

NOISE REDUCTION IN RAILWAY INFRASTRUCTURE 252 

ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD UNDER THE ELECTRIC OVERHEAD SYSTEM 25 KV, 50 

HZ OF SERBIAN RAILWAYS 265 

DISMANTLING OF VESSELS AS A SUSTAINABLE PROCESS 281 

REVIEW OF THE TRACK CHARACTERISTICS ON THE CORRIDOR 10 TRACKLINE 

SEGMENT 290 

Belgrade, 2012



NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF SPREADING CO2 AND SO2 EMITTED FROM STACK 

KOSTOLAC B ABOVE THE MUSEUM VIMINACIJUM 300 

ECOTRACK - NEW TYPE OF BALLASTLESS TRACK SYSTEM 310 

TRANSPORTATION DEMANDS OF OIL AND OIL DERIVATES ALONG THE CORRIDOR 

X ON TERRITORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF SERBIA 311 

POSTER PREZENTACIJE 312 

Belgrade, 2012



GEO-STRATEŠKI IZAZOVI PROSTORA KORIDORA 10 - istorijska, 

saobraćajna, ekonomska i kulturna geografija prostora 

Branko BOJOVIĆ, dipl. ing. arh., glavni urednik časopisa „Izgradnja“, Beograd, 

Srbija 

Apstrakt 

U prvom delu referata autor konstatuje postojanje i trajanje geopolitičkih limese na dodirima 

uticajnih sfera svetskih centara moći. Posebno se osvrće na Balkan kao geopolitički limes koji traje 

više od dve hiljade godina i koji je od vremena imperijalizma pa do danas predmet imperijalnog 

inženjeringa raznih vrsta. Stvaranje novih naroda, država i drugih političkih teritorija traje i danas uz 

sve veću zavisnost tih naroda i političkih teritorija od današnjih centara političke moći. 

U drugom delu teksta autor ističe stav da su balkanske zemlje pa i Srbija u procesu tranzicije 

zahvaćene temeljnom deindustrijalizacijom i to najboljeg i najvažnijeg dela privrede, čime su 

pretvorene u poljoprivredne i sirovinske zemlje i tržište za zemlje – nosioce političke moći. Sve manje 

političke teritorije sve više se zadužuju radi izgradnje velikih saobraćajnih infrastruktura. U ovim 

poduhvatima treba biti oprezan, jer iskustvo Srbije pokazuje da Srbija nije ozbiljno valorizovala svoju 

poziciju na moravsko-vardarskom železničkom i autoputskom koridoru. 

U zaključku autor iznosi da su velike infrastrukture uzrok, ali i posledica razvoja, ali da izgradnja 

visokokapacitetnih infrastruktura uz nedovoljno razvijenu, pre svega prerađivačku privredu izaziva 

dalje zaostajanje sekunadrnog sektora, što ima trajne posledice po privredni razvoj. 

Ključne reči: geopolitika, uticijane sfere, koridori, razvoj. 

Belgrade, 2012 1



Rat je nastavak politike drugim sredstvima 

Karl Fon Klauzevic 

Politika je nastavak rata drugim sredstvima 

Branko od Bojovića 

1. UVOD 

Od strane organizatora pozvan sam da dam skroman doprinos ovom skupu. Poziv sam prihvatio 

uprkos brojnim obavezama i ograničenjima. Kao čovek koji se već 50 godina bavi prostornim i 

urbanističkim planiranjem, trudio sam se da razumem geopolitičke pojave i procese, koje su bitne za 

promišljanje razvoja političkih entiteta odnosno teritorija. Ozbiljno planiranje prostora i naselja nije 

moguće bez ozbiljnog razumevanja geopolitike. Pod geopolitkom u ovom slučaju podrazumevam i 

klasično shvaćenu geopolitiku tj. i klasićno shvaćene geopolitičke interese država i naroda, ali i 

geopolitičke odnose unutar pojedinih geopolitičkih teritorija jer je svaki oblik teritorijalnog 

organizovanja istovremeno i oblik internih geopolitičkih odnosa unutar neke političke teritorije. 

Mislim da je važno da kažem da sve što je izloženo u ovom tekstu predstavlja isključivo moj lični stav, 

odnosno moju istinu o problemu o kome je reč. 

U pripremi video-prezentacije pomogao mi je gospodin Dragoljub Štrbac, geograf, istraživač u 

Geografskom institutu „Jovan Cvijić“ Srpske akademije nauke i umetnosti. 

2. OPŠTE NAPOMENE 

Na dodirima velikih (ali često i malih) naroda, religija, imperija i ideologija formiraju se rubna područja, 

neka vrsta geopolitičkih limesa. To su područja gde se iscrpljju uticaji nosilaca geopolitičke moći, to su 

političke teritorije u današnjem svetu u kojima se dodiruju, sudaraju ili sukobljavaju interesne sfere 

nosilaca geopolitičke moći. Granice uticajnih sfera menjaju se ratnim, ali i tzv. mirnodopskim 

sredstvima, u koja se ubrajaju ekonomski ratovi, javni i prikriveni, ratovi verski, demografski, 

kulturološki, etnički, propagandni i dr. Smene ratnih i mirnodopskih dejstava izazivaju stalno talasanje 

u rubnim prostorima odnosno geopolitičkim limesima, a stalne promene koje se u tim graničnim 

područjima dešavaju izazivaju trajnu nestabilnost naroda i država. 

Kroz istoriju čovečanstva i svetsku filozofiju već hiljadama godina se traga za suštinom čoveka. Čovek 

je definisan kao homo sapiens, homo erektus, homo secsualis, homo ludens, homo oekonomikus, 

homo politikus, kao biće prakse i na mnoge druge načine. Hiljadama godina zaboravlja se da je čovek 

pre svega biće prostora i to, koliko je meni poznato, prvi dobro i jasno uočava Špengler u „Propasti 

Zapada“. Čovek je biće prostora najmanje na tri načina. 

Najpre, čovek je prirodno determinisan tako da može da živi isključivo na vasionskom modulu koji se 

zove Zemlja. Istina prilagođen različitosti zemaljskih prostora. Zatim, čovek kao najpre instinktivni, a 

kasnije kao svesni graditelj stalno prilagođava prirodni prostor svojim potrebama, čovek prostor gradi i 

uređuje, odnosno antropogenizuje. Konačno, ljudi se kao pojedinci, porodice, plemena, narodi, 

države, kao predstavnici ideologija i sl., takođe bore za prostor. Ovladavanje resursima, ali i prostorom 

Belgrade, 2012 2



koji je sam po sebi resurs, kao i drugim ljudima je večiti cilj politike. U tom smislu homo politikus je, 

istovremeno i neizbežno, i čovek prostora. 

Borba za prostor je bitan elemenat politike oduvek, sama suština politike koja traje kroz celu istoriju 

čoveka kao biološkog i socialnog bića, ta borba se ispoljava u svim oblicima socijalne organizacije. 

Mislim da je apsolutno tačan aforizam jednog beogradskog aforističara koji je napisao: „Istorija Sve je 

to samo borba za geografiju“. 

Cela današnja zemljina kugla pokrivena je starim i novim geopolitičkim limesima kao što se može 

videti na slici 1. 

Slika 1. Karta sa starim i novim geopolitičkim limesima 

Spisak geopolitičkih limesa u svetu (osim Afrike) dat je u prilogu ovog rada. 

Belgrade, 2012 3



3. BALKAN KAO GEOPOLITIČKI LIMES 

Prostor Balkana je geopolitički limes već hiljadama godina. Istorijski, ali i materijalni dokaz toga je 

izgradnja rimskog limesa na Dunavu i Raniji u 1.veku n.e. Da bi se pristupilo izgradnji, za ono vreme 

kolosalnog sistema fortifikacija unutar ovog limesa, problem je morao postojati bar nekoliko stotina 

godina pre toga. Na teritoriji Balkana razgraničavale su se administrativne jedinice Rimskog carstva u 

vreme tetrarhije, preko Balkana su se razgraničili istočno i zapadno Rimsko carstvo, pravoslavlje i 

katolicizam itd. 

U dve hiljade godina, Balkanom su vladale četiri imperije – Rim, Vizantija, Osmanska Turska i Austrija, 

a aspiracije na prostor Blkana iskazivale su i na njemu se privremeno bazirale Rusija i Sovjetski 

Savez, Britanja, Francuska, Nemačka, SAD, pa čak i Kina u vreme razlaza Albanije i SSSR-a. 

Istovremeno sa vlašću velikih imperija na Blakanu su se formirale mnoge države i razne druge 

političke teritorije, u raznim statusima u odnosu na četiri imperije koje su vladale prostorom Balkana i 

imperija koje su imale aspiracije na prostor Balkana. 

Narodi Balkana su izmešani rasno, kulturološki, verski, jezički i na mnoge druge načine. 

Razgraničenje među balkanskim narodima su od najmanje dve vrste. Nekom vrstom funkcionalnih 

razgraničenja mogli bi da nazovemo etnička, jezička i verska razgraničenja. Nekom vrstom interesnih 

razgraničenja mogli bi da nazovemo razgraničenja koja se dešavaju uglavnom pod uticajem spoljnih 

faktora, jer stvaranje država i nacija na Balkanu ni danas nije završeno. Balkan je u poslednjih oko tri 

stotine godina mesto imperijalnog i etničkog inženjeringa koji traje i danas. Ovde iznosim samo jedan 

primer. 

U Maloj enciklopediji Prosvete odrednica o rumunskom jeziku sadrži dva fragmenta koja navodim: 

„Rumunski jezik je po poreklu romanski, strukturi i rečniku, jedini direktni potomak govornog latinskog 

koji se sačuvao u balkanskim provincijama Rimske Imperije. U procesu formiranja asimilirao je 

slovenske i druge leksičke elemente. Slovenski uticaj prisutan je u toponimici i jednom delu 

poljoprivredne i crkvene terminologije.“ 

„U pisanoj književnosti, crkvenoslovenski jezik, pored toga što se upotrebljavao u crkvi, bio je i 

književni jezik do 18. veka. Ćirilsko pismo održalo se sve do 1860., kad je umesto njega uvedena 

latinica; najstariji pisani spomenik je iz XV v. Štamparsku veštinu doneo je srpski štampar kaluđer 

Makarije, koji je posle gubitka nezavisnosti Crne Gore i prestanka rada štamparije na Obodu, odn. 

Cetinju, otišao u Rumuniju. U XVI v. Štampane su crkvene knjige.“ 

Ova dva citata otvaraju mnogo pitanja – navodim samo dva - tri. Kakav je to direktan potomak 

govornog latinskgo jezika koji je asmimilirao slovenske leksičke elementa, a pisao se ćirilicom. Zar nije 

logičnije predpostaviti da se na prostoru današnje Rumunije govorila neka varijanta staroslovenskog 

jezika sa puno romanizama. Kako je moguće da je crkveno-slovenski jezik potisnuo sasvim izvesno 

superioran latinski jezik i njegovog direktnog ptomka rumunski jezik, itd. Očito, radi se o kolonijalnom i 

imperijalnom inženjeringu iz druge polovineXIX veka, kada je formirana izmišljena rumunska nacija i 

kada je uveden očigledno izmišljeni rumunski jezik. Da je tako potvrđuje jedna bitna činjenica iz istorije 

Srbije. Naime, bliske veze Obrenovića i rumunskog plemstva, sve negde do Berlinskog kongresa, 

očigledno su se zasnivale ne samo na materijalnim interesima, već i na lakoj jezičkoj komunikaciji. 

Ono što je izneto napred potvrđuje i bezbroj drugih činjenica. Veliki rumunski teniser Cirijak, čovek koji 

je doživeo veliku međunarodnu reputaciju i čovek koji je omogućio uspon svom prijatelju našem Bobi 

Živonijoviću, stvarno se sa starinom prezivao Kirijakos. 

Cilj ovakvog etničkog inženjeringa ostvaren je. Velika slovenska masa od Vladivostoka do Jadrana, 

prekinuta je stvaranjem rumunske nacije i države, a tvorci tog imperijalnog inženjeringa time su u 

stvari dobili odrešene ruke u odnosu na slovenski elemenat na Balkanu, pre svega slovenski elemenat 

pravoslavne vere. 

Belgrade, 2012 4



Balkan dolazi u centar svetske političke pažnje posle poraza Osmanske Turske pod Bečom 1683. 

godine. Tada se otvara tzv. Istočno pitanje koje do dana današnjeg nije doživelo svoje konačno 

rešenje. 

Samo tri godine posle odbrane Beča, godine 1686. Pjer Kopen radi kartu deobe Balkana između sila 

pobednica. U podeli Balkana učestvuju Venecija, Austrija, Poljska, Francuska, Engleska, Španija, 

Portugalija, Sveta Stolica, Modena i Parma i na kraju Malteški vitezovi. Prostor Balkana se deli kao 

pustolina, kao ničija zemlja (slika 2). 

Slika 2 Karta podele Balkana iz 1686. godine 

Godine 1772. Kara radi drugu podelu Balkana u kojoj učestvuju Austrija, Pruska, Francuska i Venecija 

(slika 3). 


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Ruska carica Katarina II i Austrijski car Jozef II, iste te 1772. godine započinju pregovore o deobi 

uticajnih sfera na Balkanu, pregovore nastavljaju 1782. godine, a 1787. godine u Jalti potpisuju 

sporazum. Balkan treba da pripadne trima carevinama – Rusiji, Austriji i Turskoj. Razgraničenje Ruske 

i Austirjske interesne sfere je na Staroj Planini, kako se vidi iz priložene karte (slika 4). 

Ova karta u određenom smislu važi i 

danas – njom se definiše pojam 

Zapadnog Balkana koji je u čestoj 

upotrebi od raspada druge Jugoslavije. 

Da je ovaj ugovor u određenom smislu 

živ, vidi se iz činjenice da u rešavanju 

problema Zapadnog Balkana u 

poslednjih dvadesetak godina 

učestvuju, pored ostalih, Jirži Dinstbir, 

Medlin Oldbrajt, Rihard Holbruk, 

Volgang Petrič, Miroslav Lajčak, 

František Lipka, Štefan File i mnogi 

drugi političari sa teritorije nekadašnje 

Austrijske carevine, odnosno 

Austrougarske. 


U želji da trajno potisne Tursku sa Balkana, ruski imperator Aleksandar I 1808. godine, predviđa 

podelu Balkana između Rusije, Austrije i Francuske. (slika 5). 


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Dvadeset godina kasnije, 1828. godine Joanis Kapodistrija daje jedan revolucionaran predlog. On 

takođe predviđa potiskivanje Turske sa Balkana, ali predviđa da Balkan pripadne balkanskim 

narodima, tako da predlaže stvaranje država Dačije (Rumunije), Srbije, Makedonije, Epira i Grčke, dok 

bi Konstantinopolj (Carigrad) ostao slobodan grad (slika 6). 


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Karta Evrope iz 1830. godine (slika 7) pokazuju da velike sile koje su vladale Evropom nisu imale 

razumevanja za ideju Kapodistrije. Na prostoru Jugoistočne Evrope dodiruju se Austrija, Osmanska 

Turska i Rusija, ali se unutar evropskog dela Osmanske Turske naziru počeci nezavisnosti balkanskih 

naroda i država – Grčke, Srbije i Rumunije. 

Slika 7 Karta Evrope iz 1830. godine 

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Karta iz 1914. godine pokazuje pojavu velikog broja malih država na teritoriji Balkana koje su 

naslednici evropskog dela Osmanskog carstva. (slika 8). 

Slika 8 Karta Evrope iz 1914. godine 

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Pred Drugi svetski rat na prostoru Balkana vidi se malo ukrupnjavanje političkih teritorija, jer su 

stvorene prva Jugoslavija i Rumunija. Može se uzeti da je ovo kratkotrajno ukrupnjavanje neka vrsta 

istorijskog ekcesa, bar kada se radi o prostoru Jugoslavije. (slika 9) 

Slika 9 Karta Evrope u periodu 1918 - 1938. godine 

Drugi svetski rat završen je tektonskim poremećajima na evropskom tlu, jer je Sovjetski Savez 

potisnuo zemlje Centralne i Zapadne Evrope na zapad, pre svega Poljsku i Nemačku. (slika 10) 

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Slika 10 Karta Evrope nakon 1945. godine 

Konačno, karta Evrope iz oko 1990. godine, posle raspada Sovjetskog Saveza (slika 11), pokazuje da 

je ceo evropski prostor od Baltičkog do Jadranskog i Egejskog mora pokriven malim državama, 

odnosno malim političkim teritorijama, koje sve skupa čine neku vrstu geopolitičkog limesa između 

Rusije i Evrope. 

Slika 11 Karta Evrope nakon 1990. godine 

Usitnjavanje prostora Osmanskog i Austrijskog carstva, odnosno Austrougarske, posledica je kako 

dejstva velikih sila tako i lokalnih nacionalizama. U procesu raspada imperija i nastanka velikog broja 

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malih nacionalnih država, dolazi do 

pojave velikog broja sukoba između tih 

država, koje se zavađaju i međusobno 

ratuju, vekovima i decenijama. Kao 

primer navodim kartu koja prikazuje 

aspiracije Bugarske prema tajnom 

ugovoru iz 1915. godine koje se tiču 

teritorije ondašnje Srbije. Tajni sporazum 

sklopljen je između Bugarske i Centralnih 

sila (slika 12). Kao kuorizitet navodim da 

je u procesu raspada druge Jugoslavije, 

jedan od vodećih hrvatskih frankovaca, 

sa sličnom kartom putovao u Bugarsku. 

Želja je bila da Hrvatska i Bugarska 

uspostave zajedničku granicu na Velikoj i 

Južnoj Moravi. Naime, priložena karta je 

unekoliko korigovana. 

Slika 12 Plan podele teritorije Kraljevine 

Srbije između Bugarske i Centralnih sila 

iz 1915. godine 

Međusobna omraženost balkanskih naroda je dugotrajna, kako se vidi iz karte genocida (slika 13). 

Karta prikazuje zone genocida nad srpskim narodom, koje su učinili fašisti iz redova Hrvata, Mađara, 

Nemaca, Albanaca, Italijana i Bugara. Karta nije potpuna, jer je u Rumuniji posle 1948. godine 

izvršeno masovno preseljavanje Srba iz Rumunskog Banata u Baragan - pustaru u delti Dunava. 

Druga Jugoslavija i Srbija to pitanje nikada nisu postavile javno, imajući u vidu svoje „prijateljstvo“ sa 

Rumunima, ali Rumuni danas, u vezi sa vlaškim pitanjem, u Istočnoj Srbiji, spremni su na svaku vrstu 

političke ucene kada se radi o ulasku Srbije u Evropsku Uniju. Isto tako, od 1919. godine pa do 

današnjeg dana u Mađarskoj se vrši prislina mađarizacija Srba, jer se svaka Zlata rođena kao Srpkinja 

u mađarske matične knjige upisuje kao Aranka, ali obratno, nijedna Aranka u Srbiji se ne upisuje kao 

Zlata. Nekada se govorilo da je Jugoslavija okružena brigama (Bugarska, Rumunija, Italija, Grčka, 

Albanija, Mađarska, Austrija). Izgleda da tek nailazi vreme da se govori o tome da su srpski narod i 

Srbija izloženi genocidu još od prve polovine 14. veka pa do naših dana. 

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Slika 13 Karta genocida na području SFR Jugoslavije 

4. O KORIDORIMA I POVODOM KORIDORA 

Pojam infrastrukture pojavljuje se u vreme Napoleonovih ratova, kao zbirni pojam za teritorijalne 

instalacije koje treba da obezbede funkcionisanje teritorija u vezi sa planiranim ratnim dejstvima. 

Infrastrukturni sistemi otvaraju prostor za svaku vrstu razvoja, ekonomskog, socijalnog i drugog, jer su 

ti sistemi i uzrok i posledica razvoja. Međutim, u dijalektici života i politike infrastrukturni sistemi i 

pojedinačne infrastrukture mogu da vrše i funkciju spajanja i funkciju razvdvajanja političkih teritorija, 

naroda i država. Tipičan primer te vrste je Dunavski koridor koji prolazeći kroz Vojvodinu, koja je sa 

obe strane Dunava naseljena istim stanovništvom ima integrativni karakter, dok je Dunav hiljadama 

godina bio elemenat razgraničenja Rumunije i Bugarski i političkih teritorija koje su im prethodile. 

Pošto je težište našeg skupa na koridorima 7 i 10, a pre svega na koridoru 10, nalazim da je umesno 

da iznesem nekoliko opštih napomena o infrastrukturnim sistemima, Balkanu, Zapadnom Balkanu i 

Srbiji. 

Karta rimskih puteva (slika 14) pokazuje istorijske putne pravce na prostoru Balkana u rimsko vreme. 

U prilozima 16 i 17, prikazane su putna i železnička infrastruktura prema evropskim dokumentima iz 

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oko 2000. godine (slika 15a i slika 15b). Treba obratiti pažnju na znatno manju gustinu putne i 

železničke mreže u Jugositičnoj Evropi u odnosu Centralnu i Zapadnu Evropu. Konačno, nedavno 

usvojen plan Republike Srbije, prikazuje položaj Srbije u odnosu na evropske koridore (slika 16). 

Slika 14 Karta rimskih puteva 

a) b) 

Slika 15 Puta i železnička mreža iz perioda oko 2000. godine 

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Slika 16 Položaj Srbije u odnosu na panevropske Koridore 

Posle sloma svetskog socijalističkog pokreta, koji je vođen na način Sovjetskog Saveza, tj. od 

devedesetih godina prošlog veka, na prostoru druge Jugoslavije i Srbije nastaje ko zna koji po redu 

proces tranzicije, odnosno nastaje novi prelazni period. 

Tranzicija u Srbiji podrazumeva uvođenje kapitalizma kroz proces privatizacije, temeljnu 

deindustrijalizaciju, naročito onih proizvodnji koje su tehnološki bile najvrednije, gašenje i potpun 

nestanak velikih preduzeća, pojavu velikog broja firmi u oblasti male privrede, sa vrlo ustinjenom 

akumulacijom, nemogućnost tehnološkog i ekonomskog razvoja, zbog gašenja proizvodnje i usitnjene 

akumulacije, pojava komercijalnih banaka, koje su orijentisane samo na sticanje profita i potpuno 

odsustvo razvojnih banaka koje bi mogle da pospeše ekonomski, tehnološki i svaki drugi razvoj. Srbija 

je pretvorena u sirovinsko područje, došlo je do urušavanja čitavog niza institucija, urušavanja 

celokupnog vrednosnog sistema naroda, redukovano je učešće države u podeli rada među državama i 

smanjeno je učešće države u svetskom bogatstvu. 

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Kao ilustraciju za ove tvrdnje navodim da je tokom napada NATO na Srbiju potpuno uništena fabrika 

automobila Zastava, dok fabrika oružja Zastava uopšte nije bombardovana. Rezultat tranzicionih 

promena i rata je potpuno opustošenje Srbije čiji je društveni proizvod danas samo 40% društvenog 

proizvoda iz 1989. godine. Došlo je do masovnog osiromašenja i nezaposlenosti, vodeće nacionalne 

institucije kao što su Narodni muzej, Muzej savremene umetnosti, Narodna biblioteka i druge, 

godinama ne rade. Došlo je do potpune marginalizacije i provincijalizacije svih država Zapadnog 

Balkana, pa i Srbije. 

U procesu raspada Jugoslavije nastale su nove tzv. nezavisne države koje imaju skoro sve osim 

nezavisnosti, čemu pre svega doprinose poslušničke političke elite na vlasti. Te zemlje su stvarno 

objekti, a ne subjekti politike. Te zemlje sa malim političkim teritorijama, malim demografskim 

kapacitetom, ekonomski onemoćale, razjedinjene i suprotstavljene, preuzimaju sve veće i veće 

obaveze u izgradnji transevropskih saobraćajnica. Te države imaju suverinitet samo onda kada se 

zadužuju, u svim ostalim slučajevima one su predmet manipulacija svetskih centara političke moći. 

Istina, od izgradnje velikih infrastrukturnih sistema, odnosno koridora ima nekih koristi u sferi usluga, 

ali je svo to zapošljavanje bez tehnologije i bez objektivnog, stvarnog ekonomskog razvoja. 

Na primeru Srbije i njenog razvoja posle Berilnskog kongresa 1878. godine, trebalo bi se ozbiljno 

zamisliti. Srbija je završila prugu prema Solunu i Carigradu 1884. godine, ali ako pogledate srednje 

gradove na moravskom železničkom koridoru, primetićete da oni nisu ništa bolji nego gradovi iste 

veličine u Bugarskoj. Ako pogledate koridor autoputa od Beograda do Niša, osim Ćuprije, Jagodine i 

Paraćina, autoput nije bio generator nikakvog stvarnog ekonomskog i drugog razvoja. Dunav prolazi 

kroz Srbiju u dužini od 400 km, a Srbija nema relevantnu rečnu flotu, donedavno nije bilo ni jedne 

marine na Dunavu i praktično ni jedne benzinske stanice na kojoj bi jahtmeni mogli svoje brodove da 

snabdeju gorivom. Srbija nije valorizovala svoje pozicije na postojećim rečnim, železničkim i putnim 

koridorima, koji u stvari službe primarno interesima tranzita. Meni lično, pretnje da će putni i drugi 

koridori zaobići Srbiju ne izgledaju ni malo tragično. Koridori kroz Srbiju, Srbiji kao državi i narodu u 

Srbiji doneli su surove nasrtaje u dva svetska rata, odnosno velike štete i objektivno i male koristi. 

Ako su male države Evrope suverene kada se zadužuju za izgradnju velikih infrastrukturnih sistema, 

one se objektivno nalaze u statusu ograničenog suveriniteta, u svim drugim stvarima - one su vrlo 

zavisne u domenu politike, ekonomije, finansija, vojnom domenu i dr. 

Veliki geopolitički igrači, odnosno centri geopolitičke i imperijalne moći investicije i razvoj uslovljavaju 

izgradnjom infrastrukturnih koridora, pružajući malim zemljama nadu u kakav takav ekonomski razvoj. 

Stvarno, centri moći zainteresovani su za tržište, za jeftinu radnu snagu, odnosno ljudske resurse, za 

prirodne resurse, za vojno baziranje i sl. Da se radi o surovim imperijalnim interesima pokazuje npr. 

autoput i železnički koridor od Beograda do Zagreba gde osim Sremske Mitrovice i Slavonskog Broda 

nema značajnijih naselja ni ozbiljnijeg ekonomskog razvoja, isti je slučaj u železničkom i autoputskom 

koridoru od Beograda do Niša itd. Jednostavno, koridori velike propusne moći, putni i železnički nisu 

garant da će do ozbiljnog i opšteg razvoja malih država uopšte doći. Otuda je zaduživanje i 

prezaduživanje malih država rizičan i pomalo samoubilački posao. To se vidi na primeru Grčke, kojoj 

je omogućeno da se prezaduži, a kada je došlo do dužničke krize, iz centara geopolitičke moći, kao 

slučajno i pomalo uzgred, Grčkoj je savetovano da proda ostrva ne bi li se razdužila, Samo toliko. 

Sve te male države nemaju praktično ništa za izvoz – ni po kvalitetu, ni po količini. Sve te zemlje su 

samo tranzitni prostor u službi centara geopolitičke moći. Te centre interesuju koridori unutar ograda, 

prostor izvan žice za njih je od sekundarnog interesa. Koridori povezuju velike geopolitičke igrače, oni 

su samo manjim delom značajni za sistem lokalnih potreba i pružaju nadu da će jednog dana neki 

investitori doći, a možda i neće doći. 

Karakteristično je da zbog velikih finansijskih napora male države zapostavljaju izgradnju i 

modernizaciju kapilarne putne mreže, a to znači i regionalni razvoj, što znači dalje zaostajanje u 

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razvoju prostora izvan koridora. To izaziva negativne demografske procese, kao što je napuštanje 

brdsko-planinskog prostora i naseljavanje stanovništva u malom broju gradova i duž koridora, što 

dovodi do pražnjenja teritorija koje imaju potencijala za razvoj, preopterećenje gradova koji nemaju 

kapaciteta za zapošljavanje nove radne snage itd. 

Postavlja se pitanje gde je izlaz iz ovakve situacije. 

Teorijski model je veoma jednostavan i mogao bi da bude produktivan. On bi podrazumevao 

ujedinjavanje malih zemalja i malih naroda oko zajedničkih interesa što bi dovelo do njihovog 

zajedničkog ekonomskog jačanja na sektoru finansija, tehnološkog razvoja, industrijske i 

poljoprivredne proizvodnje, vojnog jačanja i dr. To bi značilo izlazak tih zemalja iz statusa država 

drugog reda u kome se one danas nalaze, a taj njihov status potvrđuju i dva priloga navedena u 

prethodnom delu teksta koji prikazuju gustinu železničke i putne mreže (slika 15 a i b). 

Posmatrano prekseološki ovakav scenario je nemoguć. Mali narodi i države koji su koliko juče huškani 

jedne na druge i naoružavani za međusobna ratna dejstva, ne mogu ući u ozbiljne kooperativne 

odnose čak i onda kada je to njihov interes. Posledice višestrukih ratovanja, stalnog suprotstavljanja 

interesa ne mogu se prevazići dekretima koja donose centri političke moći. Potrebno je da prođu 

generacije da se takve stvari zaborave. 

Kada se o Srbiji radi to se veoma dobro vidi. Pred Prvi svetski rat, Austrougarska je držala Vojvodinu i 

Bosnu i Hercegovinu, a u Bugarskoj je bila na vlasti nemačka dinastija Koburga. Srbija je bila sa tri 

strane okružena zemlja, čime je njena sudbina trebalo da bude trajno rešena. Po cenu ogromnih 

ljudskih i materijalnih žrtava, Srbija je izbegla sudbinu koja joj je bila namenjena. U Drugom svetskom 

ratu Jugoslavija je napadnuta bukvalno sa svih strana. U današnjem vremenu, prevremenim prijemom 

Rumunije i Bugarske u Evropsku Uniju, Srbija je uvedena ponovo u jedan oblik „prijateljske“ 

geopolitičke blokade, jer je sa svih strana okružena zemljama Evropske Unije i NATO saveza, itd. Sve 

su ovo okolnosti od bitnog značaja za pitanje izgradnje i infrastrukturnih koridora kroz Srbiju. Vekovna 

i višedecenijska neprijateljstva i otvoreni problemi koji postoje između malih država, ne rešavaju se 

već se ignorišu od centara geopolitičke moći, ali oni su klica budućih sukoba koji će se ispoljiti kad-tad. 

Srbija ima loša iskustva sa susedima. Balkanski savez s početka prošlog veka doveo je do ratova 

među saveznicima. Prva i druga Jugoslavija su bili sa aspekta Srba i srpskih interesa vrlo loše 

političko iskustvo, jer su uspostavljlene mnoge asimetrije na štetu Srba i Srbije, od kojih neke i dalje 

traju. Takav je npr. proces privatizacije u Srbiji u kome su Slovenija, Hrvatska i Bugarska kupile mnoge 

fabrike u Srbiji i to bez reciprociteta, jer srpska privreda u tim država nije mogla da kupi ništa. 

Racionalni scenario razvoja za Srbiju je, koncentracija na svoj nacionalni i državni interes kao 

apsolutni prioritet. To podrazumeva uvođenje u vlast nacionalno rasvešćene političke elite, ubrzan 

ekonomski razvoj, ubrzan razvoj obrazovanja, ubrazan tehnološki razvoj, finansijsko osamostaljenje, 

vojno jačanje, valorizacija i kapitalizacija ljudskih i prirodnih resursa, saradnja sa svim zemljama i 

narodima bez ksenofobija, ideoloških i političkih predrasuda, sa primarnim osloncem na prijateljske 

zemlje itd. Imam utisak da je vreme za ovakav odnos prema problemima u Srbiji otpočelo. Polazeći od 

ovakvih pretpostavki mislim da treba preispitati sve razvojne politike u Srbiji, pa i izgradnju 

infrastrukturnih koridora. 

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5. ZAKLJUČAK 

Veliki infrastrukturni, a pre svega saobraćajni sistemi su i uzrok i posledica razvoja. Primarne 

saobraćajne infrastrukture otvaraju prostor za privredni i svaki drugi razvoj, a posle toga treba da 

povećavaju svoje kapacitete shodno ostvarenom pre svega privrednom razvoju. 

U uslovima uništene najvrednije privredne proizvodnje izgradnja velikih tj. visokokapacitetnih 

saobraćajnih infrastruktura je u stvari opredeljenje za status zemlje koja je poljoprivredno i sirovinsko 

područje po karakteru proizvodnje, a tranzitno područje po karakteru saobraćaja. Zadužavanje za 

izgradnju velikih saobraćajnih infrastruktura bez stvarnih garancija za razvoj privrede izaziva sumnju u 

opravdanost ovakvo postavljenih investicionih prioriteta, jer malolitražna privreda sve to može da 

izgradi samo po cenu ozbiljne redukcije razvoja proizvodnih delova privrede. Zato izgradnji velikih 

infrastrukturnih sistema treba pristupiti oprezno i bez euforije. 

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[20] Noam Čomski: Šta to hoće Amerika, Čigoja, 1999.god. 

[21] Atlas svih vojišta II svetskog rata, Štamparija Drag Gregorića, Beograd, 1942.god. 

[22] Školski geografski atlasi, raznih godina , Zavod za izdravanje udžbenika, Beograd 

[23] Školski istorijski atlasi, raznih godina Zavod za izdavanje udžbenika, Beograd 

[24] Jean Touscoz: Atlas geopolitique, Larousse, Paris, 1988.god. 

[25] Georges Duby: Atlas historiques, Larousse, Paris, 1987.god. 

Belgrade, 2012 19



PRILOG 

Spisak geopolitičkih limesa u svetu (osim Afrike) 

• Pacifički region 

– Vanuatu (Novi Hebridi) 

– Kiribati (Gilbertova, Feniksova i Ostrva Lajn) 

– Maršalska Ostrva 

– Mikronezija (Karolinska Ostrva) 

– Nauru 

– Papua - Nova Gvineja 

– Solomonska Ostrva 

– Tonga 

– Tuvalu (Elisova Ostrva) 

– Fidži 

– Novi Zeland 

• Daleki istok ( dodir Kina - Japan) 

– Južna Koreja 

– Severna Koreja 

– Tajvan (Formoza) 

• Daleki istok ( dodir Rusija - Kina) 

– Mongolija 

– Mandžurija (Kina) 

• Indonezija – kopneni i ostrvaski deo 

– Vijetnam 

– Kampučija (Kambodža) 

– Laos 

– Mijanmar (Burma) 

– Tajland 

– Bangladeš 

– Brunej 

– Indonezija 

– Maldivi 

– Malezija 

– Singapur 

– Filipini 

– Šri Lanka (Cejlon) 

Belgrade, 2012 20



• Himalaji 

– Butan 

– Nepal 

– Kašmir (Indija) 

– Tibet (Kina) 

• Srednja Azija 

– Kazahstan 

– Kirgizija 

– Tadžikistan 

– Turkmenistan 

– Uzbekistan 

• Kavkaz 

– Abhazija 

– Azerbejdžan 

– Gruzija 

– Jermenija 

– Južna Osetija 

• Bliski istok 

– Izrael 

– Jordan 

– Liban 

– Sirija 

• Male države Evrope - stare 

– Andora 

– Vatikan 

– Lihtenštajn 

– Luksemburg 

– Monako 

– San Marino 

• Pribaltik 

– Estonija 

– Letonija 

– Litvanija 

Belgrade, 2012 21



• Zapadna Evropa – romansko–germanski kompromis 

– Belgija 

– Luksemburg 

– Holandija 

• Srednja Amerika 

– Antigva i Barbuda 

– Barbados 

– Bahami 

– Belize 

– Gvajana 

– Gvatemala 

– Grenada 

– Dominikana 

– Dominikanska Republika 

– El Salvador 

– Jamajka 

– Kostarika 

– Kuba 

– Nikaragva 

– Panama 

– Portoriko (SAD) 

– Sv. Vinsent i Genadini 

– Sv. Kristofer (Kits) i Nevis 

– Sv. Lucija 

– Trinidad i Tobago 

– Haiti 

– Honduras 

• Južna Amerika – Severni deo 

– Gvajana 

– Surinam 

Belgrade, 2012 22



ODRŽIVI RAZVOJ SAOBRAĆAJNOG SISTEMA U FUNKCIJI 

RAZVOJA PRIVREDE 

mr Dragan Stefanović, Privredna komora Beograda, Srbija 

Slavica Petrović, Privredna komora Beograda, Srbija 

1. MAKROSAOBRAĆAJNE TENDENCIIJE 

Na prostoru Republike Srbije tranzicioni procesi i skroman razvoj tržišta sa ekonomskom krizom, utiču 

na sve privredne aktivnosti. Sveukupne promene na međunarodnom i nacionalnom prostoru zahtevaju 

da se za postojeće i planirane povoljnije uslove sprovedu određene aktivnosti i konzistentne strategije 

razvoja saobraćajnog sistema. U okiru ukupnog razvoja privrede i društva, značajna uloga saobraćaja 

prostorno integriše i stimuliše razvoj mnogih delatnosti, a direktno i indirektno razvija i povezuje 

prostore. U Srbiji su zastupljeni svi vidovi saobraćaja, ali ne prezentiraju dovoljno svoju kompleksnu 

ulogu i značaj za privredu i društvo. Veći potencijal resursa nije iskorišćen, te u pojedinim granama 

zaostajemo za zemljama u svetu. 

Integracioni procesi, trendovi, globalizacija tržišta i porast značaja saobraćaja uslovili su potrebu za 

poboljšanje efikasnosti, ekonomičnosti, zaštite životne sredine i bezbednosti. Prioritet Republike Srbije 

je poboljšanje ekonomske situacije sa razvojem privrednih odnosa sa inostranstvom, većeg plasmana 

proizvoda i usluga, jačanju investicione atraktivnosti na planiranju i izgradnji saobraćajne 

infrastrukture. 

U procesu konstatnih priprema i transformacija za evropske integracije uključene su reforme, odluke i 

posledice.Nova multipolarna ekonomija se ubrzano razvija, a povećavaju su globalni izazovi koji utiču 

na saobraćajne sisteme zemalja i regiona. Saobraćajna politika zasniva se na zahtevima za 

promenama postojećih tendencija, redefinisanja ciljeva i filozofije razvoja. 

Republika Srbija je posvećena razvoju saradnje i evropskim integracijama kao odredište i garancija za 

dugotrajnu stabilnost i napredak saobraćajnog sistema. Uspostavljena je partnerska i institucionalna 

saradnja i povezivanje značajnih učesnika transportnog sektora, a razmatraju se razvojne mogućnosti, 

potencijali i rešenja za izgradnju Koridora i organizovanje intermodalnog transporta na prostoru 

regiona i zemalja EU. U planiranju, sistemski se sprovode aktivnosti za postizanje utvrđenih poslovnih 

ciljeva kroz analize, evolucije i selekcije. 

Saobraćajni koridori kao infrastrukturne ose Evrope treba da podstaknu razvoj privrede i društva na 

prostoru zemalja i regiona. 

Za razvojni put neophodno je da se obezbede povoljni poslovni ambijent za privlačenje većeg nivoa 

investicija, poboljša ekonomska privlačnost, pravna regulativa i efikasnost, poveća konkurentnost kroz 

restruktuiranje privrede i uspostavi novo tržište. Svetski trendovi i procesi sa makroekonomskim i 

privrednim stanjem „pritisli“ su razvoj „intermodalizma“ i ako se nalazi na osloncima potencijala i 

institucionalnoj mreži. 

Belgrade, 2012 23



STANJE, PROMENE I TENDENCIJE 

Ekonomska i 

finansijska kriza 

Državni javni dug 

i deficit 

Tranzicija 

Pad ekonomskih 

privrednih 

aktivnosti 

Investicije 

Poslovna etika 

Siva ekonomija 

Nezaposlenost 

Siromaštvo .. 

... 

ODRŽIVI 

Dileme! 

Štednja ili 

potrošnja 

Evrointegracije 

Stabilnost po.ek 

Harmonizacija p. 

Liberalizacija t. 

Konkurentnost 

Razvojna 

politika 

Investicioni 

razvoj 

Izvoz – podst. 

Razvoj 

infrastrukture 

Energetika 

Informacione 

tehnologije 

... 

RAZVOJ 

Suštinske 

razvojne 

promene 

Strateški 

projekti 

Stanje uslova 

Regionalna 

saradnja 

Podizanje opšte 

konkurentnosti i 

kvaliteta 

Ekonomska 

Jacanje 

investicione 

potrošnje 

Kombinacija 

mera 

eko.slalom 

DRUŠTVO I PRIVREDA 

Slika 1: Aktuelne tendencije razvoja saobraćaja u funkciji privrede 

Definisano plansko uređenje infrastrukture sistema Panevropskih koridora dovodi do racionalnosti, 

povećanja ukupne efikasnosti i bezbednosti povezivanja najbitnijih osobina saobraćjnog sistema i 

smanjenja negativnog delovanja na životnu sredinu. Procesi strateške kompozicije sistema „Tri I“ 

principa (Three I) i razvoj strategije za veću upotrebu Panevropskog sistema saobraćajne 

infrastrukture već odavno traju. Nastavljena je operativna primena planiranog sistema uz određena 

prilagođavanja po pitanju održivosti transportnog sistema i realnom razvoju i n t e r m o d a l i z m a. 

Strategije i projekti razvoja, zakonska regulativa, sprovođenje direktiva sporazuma, konvencija i 

standarda postavili su nove ciljeve, predloge mera i aktivnosti u svim oblastima saobraćajnog sistema 

Republike Srbije i na prostorima Jugoistočnog dela Evrope. Novi koncepti regionalizacije na prostoru 

Evrope stvaraju nove izazove i potencijale razvoja i saradnje. U konglomeratu dimenzija saobraćajnog 

sistema nastaju nove tendencije razvoja. 

Belgrade, 2012 24



KONGLOMERAT DIMENZIJA SAOBRAĆAJNOG SISTEMA 

Povećanje 

efikasnosti i 

funkcionalnosti 

Ekonomičnost/ 

racionalnost 

Bezbednost/ 

pouzdanost 

Konkurentnost / 

kvalitet 

Održivi razvoj sa primenom 

saobraćajnih i informacionih 

tehnologija 

Primena programskih podrški 

veštačke integracije 

Primena programskih podrški 

veštačke integracije 

Primena sistemskih projekata 

sa integralnim rešenjima 

problema 

Izrada modela i prenošenje u 

realno stanje 

Poštovanje zakonskih i bankarskih 

obaveza i organizacije 

Zaštita životne 

sredine 

Razvoj infrastrukture, opreme i 

agregata 

Razvoj Intermodalizma 

Primena novog planiranja, 

upravljanja i organizacije prevoza i 

infrastrukture 

Primena vrednosnih kriterijuma 

društveno ekonomske opravdanosti 

Valorizovanje vrednosti po 

evropskim modelima 

Poslovna etika 

Informisanje i edukacije 

T 

E 

N 

D 

E 

N 

C 

I 

J 

E 

R 

A 

Z 

V 

O 

J 

A 

Slika 2: Dimenzije saobraćajno sistema 

2. ZNAČAJNE PERFORMANSE RAZVOJA SAOBRAĆAJNOG SISTEMA 

U značajnije performanse saobraćajnog sistema, ubrajaju se: 

Povezanost sa ekonomsko-društvenim uslovima 

Harmonizacija propisa i liberalozacija tržišta-konkurentnost 

Novi impulsi u globalnim i regionalnim programima i projektima 

Rezultati bilansa multidisciplinarnih naučno-stručnih aktivnosti 

Neprekidna tehničko-tehnološka unapređenja infrastrukture, prevoznih sredstava i opreme 

Primena novih metodologija za kompleksno planiranje i projektovanje 

Odgovarajući izbor rešenja i optimalno dimenzionisanje organizacije i procesa 

Utvrđivanje optimalnih planova upravljanja eksploatacijom 

Održivi razvoj sistema - intermodalizma 

Pojedinačne i integralne optimizacije po funkcijama i višeznačnim kriterijumima 

Jačanje infrastrukture i kvaliteta usluga 

Stručni kadrovi i neprekidno usavršavanje 

Inovacije 

Dobra raspodela odgovornosti i upravljanje rizikom 

Motivacija kod zaposlenih 

............. 

3. ZNAČAJ I ULOGA INSTITUCIJA 

Kompleksnost niza pitanje razvoja saobraćaja zahteva mnoga rešenja i aktivnosti upravnih i stručnih 

institucija, korisnika i neprekidno zahtevaju usaglašavanje sa nacionalnim i svetskim trendovima. 

Privredna društva/preduzeća se nalaze u procesima koji karakterišu rekonstrukcije, modernizacije i 

realizacije programa mera i aktivnosti za osposobljavanje prevoznih sredstava, poboljšanju 

performansi infrastrukture, ali i u potrebi za ekonomičnije i efikasnije poslovanje. 

Belgrade, 2012 25



U razvoju infrastrukturnih pravaca učestvuju zainteresovani subjekti koji su objedinjeni zajedničkim 

principima i interesima. Institucionalna mreža sastavljena je od nadležnih ministarstava Republike 

Srbije, naučnih institucija, sistema privrednih komora, ... Svaka institucionalna mreža ima svoj značaj i 

ulogu, a posebno na prostoru Koridora. 

Slika 3: Značajne aktivnosti Privredne komore Beograda 

ZNAČAJNE AKTIVNOSTI PRIVREDNE KOMORE BEOGRADA 

Mere ekonomske politike Razvoj privrede Saradnja 

Učešće u reševanju stanja i promena 

Procesi razvojnih promena 

Dinamiziranje privrednih aktivnosti 

Inoviranje i realizacija strateških pravaca i projekata razvoja 

Stvaranje konkurentnosti –uslova održivog razvoja 

Novi oblici regionalne saradnje sa partnerima 

Intenziviranje saradnje sa subjektima 

Kontinuirana edukacija i inoviranje znanja 

Razvoj poslovne etike 

Kontinuirano usavršavanje organizacije, sadržaja i metoda rada 

Izrada komercijalnih programa sa d.e.opravdanosti 

.............................. 

Novi privredni ambijent 

i optimalna struktura prema 

tržištu 

Značajne aktivnosti saradnje grada Beograda i Privredne komore Beograda/Udruženja saobraćaja i 

telekomunikacija diferencirane su i u određenim oblastima. 

1. Javni gradski saobraćaj 

‣ Velika uloga i značaj za privredu i građane 

‣ Poboljšanje efikasnosti, bezbednsoti, ekonomičnosti, 

zaštite životne sredine,... 

‣ Razvoj mreže, organizacije i kvaliteta 

‣ Uvođenje novih tehničko-tehnoloških rešenja 

‣ Razvoj i uvođennje novih integrisanih kapacitetaželeznice 

i lakošinskog sistema 

‣ Poboljšanje saobraćajno-tehničke regulative 

‣ Inovacija postojeće ili izrada nove Strategije saobraćaja 

Grada sa realnim prioritetima razvoja 

2. Beogradski železnički čvor 

‣ Velika nezavršena investicija 

‣ Neiskorišćeni saobraćajni i prostorni kapaciteti 

‣ Inovacija postojećih koncepcija i prostornih rešenja 

‣ Koncepiranje modela fazne realizacije 

‣ Novi značaj i saobraćajno-komercijalne primene 

‣ Nova saobraćajna rešenja mreže 

‣ Definisanje prostora za razvoj privrednih zona 

‣ Ostvarenje društveno-ekonomske opravdanosti 

Belgrade, 2012 26



3. Robni transport 

‣ Neusklađen sa postojećim potrebama i mogućnostima 

‣ Dugoročna planska rešenja zaostaju u razvoju 

‣ Promene strukture delatnosti i aktivnosti u Gradu 

‣ Novi ekonomsko-društveni uslovi i trendovi razvoja 

‣ Razvoj novih tehničko-tehnoloških prevoznih sredstava i opreme 

‣ Razvoj Intermodalizma-Intermodalnog transporta 

‣ Nastavak Institucionalne saradnje 

‣ Razvoj i aktivnosti Intermodalnog Centra Privredne komore Beograda 

SRBIJA – KAPIJA EVROPE 

Potencijali održivog Intermodalnog transporta na prostoru regiona Evrope 

Intermodalni razvojni centar IRC 

Prednosti i mogućnosti za strateške pravce razvoja-analizirane i potvrđene 

Slika 4: Potencijali intermodalnog transporta 

4. Vodni saobraćaj 

‣ Postojeće stanje i uslovima nepovoljni 

‣ Strateški i planski ne sagledani potencijali 

‣ Luke, pristani, plovila, i oprema neodgovorajući 

‣ Ne postoji multimodalni-kontejnerski transport 

‣ Postoji Dunavska Strategija razvoja 

‣ Postoje određeni projekti za Akcioni Plan Dunavske Strategije 

‣ Razvoj i primena informaciono-upravljačkih sistema 

‣ Privredna komora Beograda uključena u deo privrednih aktivnosti 

5. Bezbednost saobraćaja 

‣ Usvojen Zakon o bezbednosti saobraćaja na putevima sa jednim brojem Pravilnika 

‣ Primena Zakona i Pravilnika nije potpuna 

‣ Stručni Saveti za bezbednsot na lokalnom nivou delom aktivni 

‣ Lokalne planove za poboljšanje bezbednosti saobraćaja treba dopuniti 

‣ Koordinaciono Republičko telo postoji 

‣ Udruženje saobraćaja i telekomunikacija organizovalo više stručno privrednih skupova 

Belgrade, 2012 27



‣ Agencija za bezbednost saobraćaja i Privredne komora Beograda potpisali Protokol o 

saradnji 

‣ Formiran Stručni Radni tim za primenu Zakona 

4. ZAKLJUČAK 

Sa planiranim značajnijim aktivnostima na razvoju Koridora, odnosno saobraćajnih osa Reegiona, 

stvaraju se novi uslovi i potencijali za saradnju i poboljšanje društveno - privrednih odnosa na prostoru 

Evrope. 

Postojeće makroekonomsko stanje, uslovi i trendovi značajno utiču na razvoj Koridora i intermodalnog 

transporta na prostoru Evrope. Geografsko - transportne prednosti i određena rešenja u razvoju 

infrastrukture su samo deo potencijala za ocene i opredeljenost koja zavisi od mnogo resursa i 

investiranja, veće potrebe države da se uključi u privredne i saobraćajne aktivnosti. 

Realna primena utvrđene strateške kompozicije multimodalog saobraćajnog sistema definiše se 

opravdano daleko, ali i dovoljno blizu kako bi se ostvarili zajednički ciljevi društveno - ekonomskog 

razvoa i saradnje na prostoru Evrope i Regiona. 

Belgrade, 2012 28



THE IMPORTANCE OF REGIONAL RAILWAY LINES 

REVITALIZATION FOR CORRIDOR X IN THE REPUBLIC OF SERBIA 

Slavko Vesković, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia 

Ivan Belošević, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia 

Sanjin Milinković, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia 

Norbert Pavlović, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia 

Marko Vasiljević, University of East Sarajevo, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering Doboj, 

Doboj, Republic of Srpska 

Abstract: 

To take full advantages of two Corridors and to set up them for the servicing of the Serbian economy, 

it is needed to create transport and infrastructure linkages as single logistic system. The network of 

regional and local railroads and roads should connect the ports (port terminals) on the Danube and 

industrial centers (zones) as major freight flow sources and destinations with railway nodes (rail road 

terminals) on Corridor X. The current state of regional railroads does not provide quality linkages for 

number of industrial centers with Corridor X and the most Danube ports (except for Novi Sad and 

Belgrade). 

Key words: railway, regional lines, revitalization 

1. INTRODUCTION 

To take full advantage of Corridor VII and Corridor X (Pan-European Corridors that are passing 

through the Republic of Serbia) and to set up them for the servicing of the Serbian economy, it is 

needed to create transport and infrastructure linkages as single logistic system. The network of 

regional and local railroads and roads should connect the ports on the Danube and industrial zones as 

major freight flow sources and destinations with railway nodes (rail road terminals) on Corridor X. Also, 

it is necessary to connect to the other port - rail - road terminal on the Danube (Corridor VII). The 

current state of regional railroads does not provide quality linkages for number of industrial centers 

with Corridor X and the most Danube ports, except for Novi Sad and Belgrade (Figure 1). 

Figure 1 Intersecting points of Corridor VII and Corridor X (Belgrade and Novi Sad) 

Belgrade, 2012 29



2. ADVENTAGES OF RAILWAYS 

The question is Why railroads and railways The answer is simple and lies in the basic characteristics 

of the railway as a transport system. The hub function of ports is impossible without the railroads and 

railways. Specifically, a barge 1000 to 5000 tons (small and medium capacity) are serviced from one 

to five trains (possibly less), or 50 to 250 trucks, which means 100 to 500 trucks driving at an 

appropriate route (no less), which is best shown in Figure 2 and in Table 1. 

Figure 2. Ratio between barge, train and truck 

Usage of only road transport for port terminals linkage with hinterland would produce traffic and 

environmental collapse in populated areas around port. It is quite clear that the Pan-European 

Corridors VII and X are one of the greatest development opportunities not only for transport and 

logistics in Serbia, but also its economy as a whole. Their development and modernization, as well as 

the rehabilitation and modernization of regional railroads by defining and implementing a logistics 

concept of Republic of Serbia will make a faster, simpler and administratively cheaper access for 

products from Serbia to the European Union [2]. 

Table 1. Equivalent of road to the rail and inland waterway transport 

Means of transport Capacity Equivalent in trucks 

barge 1500 tons 57 

wagon 50 tons 2 

train 1000 tons 36 

truck 26 tons 1 

Belgrade, 2012 30



3. ACTIVITIES TO ACHIEVE THE FULL FEATURES OF CORRIDOR VII AND CORRIDOR X 

Any closing of a local railroad may create problems for the population and economy of given region. 

The decision to close the railroad, after the initial pseudo economic benefits, in long term typically 

leads to deterioration of all socio-economic indicators. In addition, it should be mentioned that the 

accessibility of the region, its economic power and possible development are as important as the 

profitability of the local railroad. Therefore, it is an urgent need to carry out feasibility study and to 

define model for revitalization of railroads and railways on regional and local bands in the regions in 

Serbia and to offer both volume and quality of the best solution in the current socio-economic times. 

Financial outgoings caused by local and regional railroads in short or even medium term can not be 

reduced with their closing. After their removal stops theoretical possibility that the traffic in the region 

switches from roads to railroads. Because of all these arguments, political decisions based on 

economic indicators are necessary for regions and their regional railroads. It should be noted that so 

far there was no competent methodology for profitability of regional railways and all studies for their 

effectiveness assessment were without professional background [5]. 

Regional and local railways have huge significance for the Serbian economy as a whole. It is known 

that about 2/3 of the most significant freight sources (or the final destinations) are outside the two main 

Corridors and are connected with them mostly by regional and local railroads and roads. The question 

is how to set Corridor VII and Corridor X in service of the Serbian economy, not just transit transport 

First of all it is necessary to define the research methodology for feasibility study of regional railroads 

revitalization. Outputs of this methodology should serve as a tool for strategic decision making [4]. 

Based on such research it is possible to make an action plan to revitalize and modernize regional 

railroads according to the real capabilities of the state, but with the active participation of local 

governments (municipalities, regions, provinces). In addition, there is a need to clearly define and 

determine the status of regional railroads. 

4. ANALYSIS OF REGIONAL RAILROADS AND TERMINALS IN SERBIA 

Favoring of railroads that connect major port terminals and rail nodes on the Corridor X is recognized 

as high interest in the action plan for revitalization of regional and local railroads. In this section we will 

try to mention these railroads and terminals [6]. 

Ports of Belgrade and Novi Sad as intersection points of Corridor VII and Corridor X are at preferable 

geographical positions. Modernization of the transport infrastructure of Corridor X will mostly solve the 

problem about infrastructural linkages (Figure. 3). However, some studies have shown [3] a dilemma. 

The dilemma is whether to build a second track on the existing railroad Novi Sad - Subotica or new 

railroad Novi Sad - Bečej - Senta - Horgoš. Farther solution has many advantages (for example 

shorter and faster connections with Budapest). 

Belgrade, 2012 31



Figure 3. Positions of Belgrade and Novi Sad ports 

Apatin is new port under construction with great potential and ambitions. Following stages are 

necessary to crate port and logistic centre functionality: 

Phase I: rehabilitation of railroad: Apatin factory - Sonta - 12 km. 

Phase II: rehabilitation of railroad: Apatin factory - Sombor - 25 km. 

Transportation route Timisoara - Kikinda - Subotica - Apatin – Bogojevo is very important for full functioning 

of port and intermodal terminal. To perform its function, it is necessary to rehabilitate railroads: Kikinda - 

Senta - Subotica, Sombor - Vrbas and Bogojevo - Odžaci - Novi Sad (Figure 4). 

Figure 4. Positions of Apatin port 

Another port in this region is Danube port in Bogojevo. This port is for bulk cargo, which operates on 

the 3P principle (Private - Public - Partnership). It should be noted that this port has a stable 

development. The limiting factor is the lack of a rail link station Bogojevo. To achieve this the railroad 

Bogojevo - Danube coast should revitalized in length of I 2.7 km. Of course, for the good functioning of 

the port and to realize the full potential it is needed to revitalize the railway Bogojevo - Odžaci - Novi 

Sad in a length of 55 km (Figure 5). 

Belgrade, 2012 32



Figure 5. Positions of Danube port in Bogojevo 

The port Bačka Palanka is a port for bulk cargo but with a lot of related unknowns. The limiting factor 

is poor connection with the railroad Bogojevo - Odžaci - Novi Sad. It is necessary to revitalize the 

railroad Bačka Palanka - Karavukovo in a length of 17 km and the railroad Bogojevo - Odžaci - Novi 

Sad (Figure 6). 

Figure 6. Position of Bačka Palanka port 

Next port is Pančevo, one of the most important ports in Serbia. It is a mixed port, but predominantly 

for general cargo. Project documentation for the intermodal terminal and RoRo terminal are being 

prepared. The limiting factors for the development of the port are poor state of the railroads to 

Zrenjanin and Vršac and unsuitable link with Belgrade (Figure 7). 

For port Pančevo and its connection with Corridor X and industrial centers in Serbia, it is necessary to 

do the following: 

Revitalization of railroad Pančevo - Zrenjanin - Kikinda in a length of 80 km. 

Modernization of railroad Pančevo – Vršac in the length of 90 km. 

Construction of a bridge over the Danube at Vinča and new railroad Pančevo - Belgrade. 

Also, we sugest considering of railway bridge across the Danube upstream from Belgrade as a basis 

for the planning of a new railroad Pančevo - Batajnica on left bank of the Danube [1] . 

Downstream the Danube the next port is Smederevo. It is a port to service the needs of Smederevo 

Steel Plant. It should be noted that the railroad to Mala Krsna is in good condition (Figure 8). The next 

port in the planning documents is Kovin. The port has a very good geographic position. Unfortunately, 

there is no railway connection. It is necessary to revitalize the old railroad Kovin - Bavanište and to 

construct a new railroad Bavanište - Starčevo - Pančevo (Figure 9). It should be noted that in 

professional circles is still a dilemma to replace a bridge at Vinča with a new railway bridge near Kovin. 

It should be resolved professionally and strategically choose. 

Belgrade, 2012 33



Figure 7. Position of Pančevo port 

Figure 8. Position of Smederevo port 

Figure 9. Position of Kovin port 

Port Prahovo was very important port with more than 3 million tons work on an annual level. It still has 

very significant flows of goods for Macedonia and Greece. To achieve an approximate volume of work 

as twenty years ago, it is necessary to revitalize the lines that are in poor condition Pozarevac - Pine - 

Vražogrnac a length of 80 km and Prahovo - Zajecar - Niš a length of 90 km. 

Figure 10. Position of Prahovo port 

For the economy and residents of central and western Serbia it is very important to continue the 

revitalization of the railroad Požega - Kraljevo - Stalać (Figure 11). 

Belgrade, 2012 34



5. CONCLUSIONS 

Figure 11. Railroad Požega – Kraljevo – Stalac 

Based on the above analysis it can be seen strong need to perform research for revitalization of a 

number of regional and local railroads. This research is in context to offer both volume and quality of 

the best solution in the current social - economic time for freight and passenger transport. Therefore, it 

is necessary to develop and define the methodology of research for feasibility study of regional 

railroad revitalization. Output as well as proposals for the organization of regional models of 

passenger and freight transpport should serve as a tool for strategic decisions to be taken by Serbian 

Railways, Ministry of Infrastructure Republic of Serbia and local governments. The output of these 

activities resultes in an action plan to revitalize regional and local railroads in Serbia. It should be 

noted that the Executive Council of AP Vojvodina and the Municipality of four regions (West Backa 

District, North Backa District, South Banat District and Central Banat District) funded this study of the 

railroad revitalization and rail freight and passenger traffic on the lines in these regions. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

This paper is realized and supported in a frame of Serbian-Slovak science and technology cooperation 

within the research project “Reconstruction and revitalization of railway infrastructure in 

accordance with regional development” (No. 680-00-140/2012-09/10 in Serbia and No. SK-SRB-0050- 

11 in Slovakia). 

REFERENCES 

[1] Group of authors: A study of railway's integration in the Belgrade public transit system, ITTE and JUGINUS, Belgrade, 

2006. 

[2] Group of authors: Research of the effect of modernization of railways to create a unique modern transportation system of 

Serbia and effective environmental protection, ITTE, Belgrade, 2008-2011. 

[3] Group of authors: Revitalization of railways and railway passenger and freight traffic in Zapadnobački County, ITTE, Belgrade, 

2007. 

[4] Jovanović V. and other: A simulation model for determining the parameters of the railway modernization and feasibility 

assessment, YUINFO Information Society of Serbia, Kopaonik, Serbia, 2010. 

[5] Stojić, G.: Model Development for Evaluation the Management of Railway Infrastructure (PhD 

dissertation). Faculty of Technical Sciences, Novi Sad, Serbia, 2010. 

[6] Vesković S, Milinković S: Program and the Importance of Regional Railroads Revitalization, II 

Conference: "Danube Corridor: elements for a strategy of infrastructure development, transport, 

logistics and tourism", Municipality Apatin, Vojvodina Chamber of Commerce Committee on 

Transportation and Communications, Pančevo , Serbia, 2010. 

Belgrade, 2012 35



THE METHODOLOGY FOR CALCULATING ELIGIBILITY OF 

INVESTMENT IN PUBLIC RAILWAY INFRASTRUCTURE IN 

REPUBLIC OF SLOVENIA 

Mira Žagar, Prometniinstitut Ljubljana d.o.o., Ljubljana, Slovenia 

Aleksandar Dobrijević, Prometniinstitut Ljubljana d.o.o., Ljubljana, Slovenia 

Adnan Genjac, Prometniinstitut Ljubljana d.o.o., Ljubljana, Slovenia 

Vida Bolha, Prometniinstitut Ljubljana d.o.o., Ljubljana, Slovenia 

Abstract 

The article deals with the methodological approach in determining the financial and economic analysis 

of the profitability of investments in public railway infrastructure in Republic of Slovenia. Cost-benefit 

analysis (as a comparison the scenario "with" and the scenario "without" the project) is used as a 

method, which is consistent with the recommendations of the European Commission and with national 

legislation in Republic of Slovenia. 

The financial and economic analyses are performed, which requires treatment from different aspects, 

the financial analysis is made from the perspective of the investor and economic analysis is made from 

the perspective of national benefits. 

Basic starting points which are usually taken into account within the financial and economic analysis 

and expert basis which are necessary for financial and economic analysis are shown. 

The central part of the article describes the methodology for calculation of profitability indicators which 

were calculated for the investments that were considered within the Study »Public railway 

infrastructure development needs in Slovenia«, where the main economic benefits are: increasing of 

line capacity, increasing of traffic safety, optimizing management of public railway infrastructure, 

savings of train exploitation costs, savings of travelling time, prevented outflow of cargo and 

passengers from the railways to roads and savings of energy consumption. Since the study deals with 

the investment measures on the strategic level, a catalogue of risk with the risk and sensitivity analysis 

was made. 

In conclusion, the article presents which projects are suitable for co-financing by the Cohesion fund of 

European Union and the methodology of calculation the co-financing rate. 

Key words: public railway infrastructure, investment, eligibility, line capacity, cost benefit analysis 


Cost-benefit analysis is used as a method for determining the financial and economic analysis of the 

profitability of investments in public railway infrastructure in Republic of Slovenia, which is consistent 

with the national legislation in Republic of Slovenia and with the recommendations of the European 

Commission. 

Uniform methodology for preparation and evaluation of investments in public railway infrastructure in 

Republic in Slovenia is determined by: 

- Decree on the uniform methodology for the preparation and treatment of investment 

documentation in the field of public finance, 

- Decree on the uniform methodology for the preparation and treatment of investment 

documentation in the field of public railway infrastructure. 

For projects, which are co-financed with the EU funds, the methodology must be consistent with: 

- Guide to Cost-Benefit Analysis of Investment Projects (2008), 

- Working Document No. 4: Guidance on the Methodology for carrying out Cost-Benefit 

Analysis (2006). 

Belgrade, 2012 36



Usually, the projects are considered from two perspectives: 

- Financial analysis, which is made from the perspective of the investor and must answer the 

question: Will the estimated income at current prices exceed the estimated costs It is 

necessary to use the project cash flow forecast to calculate suitable net return indicators and 

profitability of investments. 

- Economic analysis, which is made from the perspective of the whole society and appraises 

the project`s contribution to the economic welfare of a region or country and must answer the 

question: Will the total benefits, that will be generated by new infrastructure, exceed the costs 

which are necessary for its construction and operation 

We move from financial to economic analysis in three steps (Cost-Benefit Analysis of Investment 

Projects, 2004): 

- Elimination of taxes and subsidies and other non-market transfers, 

- Corrections due to the external factors (externalities), 

- Conversion of market to accounting prices and inclusion of additional effects in society 

(determination of conversion factors). 

Determination of eligibility of investments should base on cross-checking of results of both analyses. 

The most common example of investments in public railway infrastructure is that the indicators of 

economic analysis are positive, so the constructions brings economic welfare for society, but the 

indicators of financial analysis are negative and therefore the investors will not recover the value of 

investment in capital. These projects are eligible for co-financing by EU funds. 

2. METHODOLOGICAL ASSUMPTIONS 

To preform financial and economic analysis correctly it is necessary: 

- To determine needs with the analysis of the existing and future demand; 

- Clear identification of the project as a self-sufficient unit of analysis, determination of the 

objectives and measures, that will enable to achieve set goals; 

- To study and estimate alternative options and determine which option is the optimal to achieve 

set goals. 

Calculation of project profitability indicators is made by using cost benefit analysis. Differential 

method is used (incremental approach), which means that investment appraisal aims to compare two 

situations – “with the project” and “without the project” 1 . Situation “without the project” is the base 

starting point for the project analysis and usually represents implementation of the do-minimum option 

(alternative). Do-minimum option enables that the existing condition of the public railway infrastructure 

is preserved and that the condition is not deteriorating. Situation “with the project” represents 

implementation of the best alternative option. 

It is necessary to determine time horizon (observation period) for which the effects of the project are 

observed/calculated. According to European Union recommendation observation period for investment 

in railway infrastructure is 30 years. 

All calculations in the analysis are carried out at constant prices, usually at prices, that are valid at 

time of working out document. 

Costs and benefits occurring in different times must be discounted with discount rate 2 . In Slovenia 

the discount rate is set at country level with the Decree on the uniform methodology for the 

preparation and treatment of investment documentation in the field of public finance in the amount of 7 

%. 

1 Determination of the project cash flows are based on the differences in the costs and benefits between the scenario“with the 

project” and “without the project”. 

2 Discount rate is annual rate at which future values are discounted to the present – multiplying the future value by a coefficient 

that decreases with time. 

Belgrade, 2012 37



If actual economically useful life of the project exceeds the chosen time horizon, at the end of the 

observed period the residual value is considered in the calculation. The residual value is calculated 

by considering the residual market value of fixed assets (as if it were sold at the end of the considered 

time horizon) or by computing with standard accounting economic depreciation formula. 

When we perform financial analysis we usually consider next costs: investment costs of the project, 

maintenance costs of public railway (routine and major) and traffic management costs, as benefits we 

consider inflows from the charging of user fee for the use of public railway infrastructure and residual 

value. 

Basic for determining investment costs are pro forma invoices from design documentation. The 

grounds for determining maintenance and traffic management costs are data of infrastructure 

manager, the basic for defininga user fee is the Network statement of the Republic of Slovenia. 

When preparing economic analysis we consider the same costs as within financial analysis, converted 

in economic values by applying conversion factors. As benefits, that single project bring about, we 

usually consider prevented exploitation costs, time savings for freight and passengers, prevented 

costs of exceptional events (costs of economic losses due to premature death or injuries and other 

material costs) prevented external costs and residual value. We also describe benefits that cannot be 

monetised. 

For evaluation of economic benefits we use data from the following documents: 

- The basis for determination of savings in exploitation costs of traction vehicle/unit are data of 

transport operator; 

- The description of the benefits from the improved traffic safety and prevention of exceptional 

events is based on Reports on exceptional events, that are annually prepared by public 

railway infrastructure manager in Republic of Slovenia; 

- The external costs are adopted from documents External costs of transport, update study 

(2004)and Handbook on estimation of external costs in the transport sector (IWW, University 

of Gdansk, INFRAS, ISI, February 2008); 

- To determine the values of travel time savings and economic losses due to premature death 

or personal injury are data from the document HEATCO: Developing Harmonised European 

Approaches for Transport Costing and Project Assessment; Proposal for Harmonised 

Guidelines (2006). 

Sensitivity testing of evaluation elements and assumptions is performed with sensitivity and risk 

analyses. Sensitivity analysis allows the determination of the critical variables or parameters of the 

model. Such variables are those whose variations, positive or negative, have the greatest impact on a 

project’s financial and/or economic performance. A risk assessment consists of studying the 

probability that a project will achieve satisfactory performance/benefits. 

3. CALCULATION OF PROFITABILITY OF INVESTMENTS, THAT WERE TREATED IN THE 

STUDY “PUBLIC RAILWAY INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT NEEDS IN SLOVENIA” 

In 2011 Institute of Traffic and Transport Ljubljanadraw up a study“Public railway infrastructure 

development needs in Slovenia”. The study examines the possibility of rail transport subsystem 

upgrades and gives the basis for long-term plan for the development of public railway infrastructure in 

the next 20 year period. That development plan will, on the basis of railway transport subsystem 

optimisation and strengthening of its efficiency, enable and encourage further balanced and 

sustainable development of transport subsystem as a whole as well as further strengthening of 

Slovenian economy competitiveness. 

As part of the study we also prepared financial and economic analysis that shows profitability of 

planned investments in public railway infrastructure in Republic of Slovenia on lines that are part of 

Pan-European corridors V. and X.Financial and economic analyses were made on the basis of 

estimation of future traffic flows in Slovenia and its neighborhood and on that ground proposed 

investment measures in the upgrading and new-construction of the main corridor railway lines in 

Slovenia. Considering capacity of public railway infrastructure and term of saturation of lines, 

investment measures were defined, proposed and evaluated within the study, as follows: 

Belgrade, 2012 38



- Condition “0”represents all the renewals on the main lines of public railway infrastructure that 

enables to achieve category D4; 

- Condition »Z1« represents all measures that according to estimation of future traffic flows 

enable sufficient railway capacity until the year 2020; 

- Condition »Z2« represents all measures that according to estimation of future traffic flows 

enable sufficient railway capacity until the year 2030. 

In the first step we made calculation of profitability indicators for investments on each single main line 

and in the next step we performed common calculation of profitability indicators for all investments in 

lines on corridors V. and X. We considered next railway lines: s.b.-Dobova-Zidani Most, Zidani Most- 

Ljubljana, Ljubljana-Jesenice-s.b., Zidani Most-Pragersko, Pragersko-Šentilj-s.b., Pragersko-Hodošs.b., 

Ljubljana-Sežana-s.b., Divača-Koper. 

The main effects that were considered in calculations of profitability indicators for conditions 

“Z1”and“Z2”are: increase of line capacity, increase of traffic safety, optimisation of traffic management 

of public railway infrastructure, savings in exploitation costs of traction vehicle/unit, savings in travel 

time, prevention of outflow of freight and passengers from railway transport to road transport, savings 

in energy consumption. 

Investments also bring effects/benefits that were not monetised due to short time for elaboration and 

strategic level of the study. Those effects should be considered in further more detailed cost benefit 

analyses of proposed investments, because those benefits will contribute to a higher economic 

efficiency of investment measures. It refers mainly to improved level of technical equipment of the 

public railway infrastructure, reduction of specific energy consumption for traction with additive effects 

due to electric energy recuperation, reduced road congestion, prevented costs for construction of 

additional highway lines, road user’s benefits, value of used material, etc. 

As a profitability criteria the following indicators were used: internal rate of return 3 (IRR), net present 

value 4 (NPV) of the investment, benefit cost ratio 5 (B/C) and relative net present value 6 (RNPV) of the 

investment, taking into account the 7 % discount rate. 

We calculated profitability indicators for an observation period of 41 years, namely from the year 2010 

to 2050. All calculations were carried out at constant prices of 2010. 

Financial analysis was carried out from the point of view of the infrastructure owner. Among costs we 

considered investment costs, public railway maintenance costs (routine and major), traffic 

management costs and among benefits we considered inflows from the charging of user fee for the 

use of public railway infrastructure and residual value (only for the new-construction of the public 

railway infrastructure in condition“Z2”). 

In economic analysis we considered also costs and benefits in terms of the overall national benefits 

and are not necessary expressed in cash flows and were therefore not included in financial analysis. 

Costs that were converted form financial values in economic values (using conversion factors) were: 

investment costs, maintenance costs of public railway infrastructure and traffic management costs. On 

the benefit side we considered residual value of the investments (for new-construction), savings in 

exploitation costs of trains, travel time savings, prevented costs of exceptional events, prevented 

external costs, energy savings and road user’s benefits. 

A conservative approach has been used in the calculations, so that the input elements were 

considered more realistic and also examined in the context of sensitivity analysis. 

Calculated financial profitability indicators of investments were negative or less than 1, which for major 

infrastructure investment is not unusual. Investments in infrastructure generally have negative effect 

for the investor himself and they do not turn a profit, but they are very important in social terms, as 

shown by the economic profitability indicators. 

3 Internal rate of return is the discount rate at which a stream of costs and benefits has a net present value of zero. Internal rate 

of return is compared with discount rate, in order to evaluate the performance of the proposed project. 

4 Net present value is the sum that results when the discounted value of the expected costs of an investment are deducted from 

the discounted value of the expected revenues. 

5 Benefit cost ratio is the net present value of project benefits divided by the net present value of project costs. 

6 Relative net present value is the ratio between net present value of the project and discounted investment costs. 

Belgrade, 2012 39



When using the 7 % discount rate the economic net present value was negative, but nevertheless the 

results are acceptable, as it would have a positive NPV when using 4.5 % discount rate. 

In the frame of financial and economic analysis we also made a sensitivity analysis of the calculated 

indicators for changes in the valuation of individual input elements. We have calculated the following 

changes: increase and decrease of investment costs by 20 %, increase and decrease of the overall 

effects of investment by 20 %, increase of investment costs by 20 % and at the same time reduction of 

the economic effects by 20 %, decrease of investment costs by 20 %, and an increase of the 

economic effects of 20 % and the consideration of 3,5 % discount rate. 

Table 1: Economic profitability indicators 

Change in valuation elements 

Conditions "Z1" 

NPV 

IRR (in 

milionEUR) 

Conditions "Z2" 

NPV 

IRR (in million 

EUR) 

- Increase of investment costs by 20 % 2,71 % -1.300,35 2,96 % -2.089,92 

- Decrease of investment costs by 20 % 7,48 % 89,64 6,81 % -62,84 

- Increase of the overall effects of investment by 20 % 5,79 % -315,19 5,75 % -566,81 

- Decrease of the overall effects of investment by 20 % 3,15 % -895,53 3,11 % -1.585,95 

- Increase of investment costs by 20% and at the same 

time decrease of the impacts by 20 %, 1,42 % -1.590,52 1,69 % -2.599,49 

- Decreaseof investment costs by 20% and at the same 

time increase of the impacts by 20 % 8,95 % 379,80 8,27 % 446,73 

- Consideration of 3,5 % discount rate 4,55 % 439,84 4,51 % 820,49 

Basic calculation 4,55 % -605,36 4,51 % -1.076,38 

The results showed that the calculation of the profitability indicators is more sensitiveon the change in 

investment value then on the change in effects. Past experience shows that the investment value is 

actually one of the most critical components of investment projects, because any changes in the 

realization of projects (longer execution of the project, changes in technology performance, ...) reflect 

to the change in investment value. 

We have also simulated the best and worst case scenarios. In the best case scenario, we considered 

a reduction of investment costs and at the same time increasing effects of investments by 20 %, which 

showed that in this case all the economic indicators would be positive. 

In the worst case scenario, we considered an increase of investment costs and at the same time 

reducing effects of investment by 20 %, which showed that in this case IRR is higher than 0 while the 

NPV, using a discount rate of 7 %, was negative. 

Given that the European Commission has recommended the use of lower discount rates than those 

prescribed in the Republic of Slovenia, we performed the calculation of the profitability indicators using 

3,5 % discount rate. Also in these calculations profitability indicators in both conditions "Z1" and "Z2" 

were positive. 

We have made qualitative and quantitative risk analysis, namely for those risks whose existence is 

most likely to arise, based on previous experience in the implementation of transport infrastructure 

projects. Qualitative risk analysis has been made so, that risks were divided into five segments, which 

dealt with the issue in the context of strategic documents and legislation, elaboration of documentation 

and land acquisition, financing investment projects and macroeconomic effects. To each risk we gave 

an assessment of the likelihood to occur, its impact on the project and risk management measures. 

Quantitative risk analysis was made for the changes in investment costs of the project, as the 

investment costs of the projects has proven to be one of the most critical in the sensitivity analysis. We 

made it on the basis of Monte-Carlo method using the software @ Risk. 

Belgrade, 2012 40



4. CO-FINANCING PROJECTS FROM EU COHESION FUNDS 

In order to reduce the existing differences and ensure a steady and sustainable development of all 

States of the European Union, and in particular of all its regions, the EU has developed its regional 

policy. Structural and Cohesion Funds are also part of regional policy. Regional Policy of the 

European Union, along with structural and cohesion funds is a major instrument of solidarity in the EU, 

through which the EU contribute to more balanced development of the whole territory of the EU and 

overcome development gaps between regions. 

Slovenia is also eligible for funding from the Cohesion Fund in financial perspective 2007-2013. 

The project is suitable for co-financing from the Cohesion Fund, if the financial NPV is negative and 

economic NPV positive. The project should contribute to the economic development of the region or 

country, and must be included in the Operational Programme of Environmental and Transport 

Infrastructure Development for 2007-2013. 

It has to be noted that all countries for these projects have to provide part of the funds themselves and 

thus close the financial construction of the project. 

For financial perspective 2007-2013, Institute of Traffic and Transport Ljubljana prepared the CBA for 

the following railway infrastructure projects, which were or will be financed from the Cohesion Fund: 

- Modernization of existing railway line Divača-Koper, 

- Reconstruction, electrification and upgrade of the Pragersko-Hodoš railway line for 160 km/h 

and modernization of level crossings and implementation of subways at stations, 

- Implementation of digital radio system (GSM-R) on Slovenian railway network. 

In the calculations, we took into account all the guidelines of the European Commission to make CBA 

and we also calculated the corresponding share of EU co-financing. The calculations have been 

checked and verified by the technical assistance JASPERS (Joint Assistance to Support Projects in 

European Regions), which operates within the framework of the European Commission. 

The basis for the calculation of the corresponding share of co-financing from EU funds is the financial 

analysis of the project and identification of eligible project costs. 

The level of assistance is based on the "funding gap” of the project, which is the proportion of 

discounted costs of initial investment, which is not covered by the discounted net revenue of the 

project. The calculation of the funding gap is produced by the method shown in the tables below. 

Belgrade, 2012 41



Table 2: 

The calculation of the funding gap 

Main elements and parameters 

Value not 

discounted 

Value discounted 

(net present value) 

1 Reference period (years) 

The analysis is made for the 

construction phase and 

operational phase in period of 

30 years 

2 Financial discount rate of 7% 

3 Total investment cost (in euro, not discounted) 

4 Total investment cost (in euro, discounted) 

5 Residual value (in euro, not discounted) 

6 Residual value (in euro, discounted) 

7 Revenues (in euro, discounted) 

8 Operating costs (in euro, discounted) 

9 

10 

11 

Net revenue = revenues - operating costs + residual value 

(in euro, discounted) = (7) - (8) + (6) 

Eligible expenditure (Article 55 (2)) = investment cost - net 

revenue (in euro, discounted) = (4) - (9) 

Funding gap rate (%) = (10) 

/ (4) 

Table 3: 

Community contribution calculation 

Value 

1. Eligible cost (in euro, not discounted) 

2. Funding gap rate (%) 

3. 

Decision amount, "The amount to which the cofinancing 

rate for the priority axis applies" (Article 41 (2)) 

= (1) * (2) (taking into account the maximum public 

contribution according to state aid rules) 

4. Co-financing rate for the priority axis (%) 7 85 

5. Community contribution (EUR) = (3) * (4) 

After calculating the Community contribution the calculation of the project financial eligibility is made 

again, taking into account that Community contribution is among the revenues. Community 

contribution should be adjusted so, that the financial NPV is still not higher than 0, which prevents the 

granting of ineligible benefits for recipient, like over-financing of the project. 

7 Themaximumco-financingratefortheCohesion Fund is 85%. 

Belgrade, 2012 42



5. CONCLUSION 

In determining the financial and economic eligibility of investments in public railway infrastructure in 

Republic of Slovenia, the method of cost-benefit analysis is used (as comparison of conditions "with" 

and "without" investment), which is consistent with the recommendations of the European Commission 

as to the applicable law in the Republic of Slovenia. The financial eligibility is determined from the 

investor’s point of view while economic eligibility is determined from the point of national benefits. 

In order to produce proper Cost-benefit analysis it is necessary to: 

- determine the needs with the existing and future demand analysis 

- clearly define the project as an independent unit of analysis, with defined objectives and 

measures to help achieve these goals 

- analyze and evaluate the different alternative options and determine which option meets the 

objectives optimal 

Generally, investments in public railway infrastructure for the investor himself have negative effect and 

do not turn profit but they are very important from the social point of view, which show economic 

profitability indicators. The main effects of investments that are considered in calculating the economic 

profitability indicators are increasing line capacity, increasing the level of traffic safety, optimizing the 

management of the public railway infrastructure, savings in train exploitation costs, intravel time 

savings, preventing outflow of freight and passengers from rail to road, savings in energy 

consumption. 

Projects in the field of development of the railway infrastructure are usually suitable for co-financing by 

EU grants. Project is in fact suitable for co-financing from the Cohesion Fund, if the financial NPV is 

negative and economic NPV is positive. The project should contribute to the economic development of 

the region or country, and must be included in the Operational Programme of Environmental and 

Transport Infrastructure. 

It has to be noted that all countries for these projects have to provide part of the funds themselves and 

thus close the financial construction of the project. 

6. LITERATURE AN SOURCES 

[1] Decree on the uniform methodology for the preparation and treatment of investment 

documentation in the field of public finance. Official Journal of RS, No. 60/06 and 54/10. 

[2] Decree on the uniform methodology for the preparation and treatment of investment 

documentation in the field of public railway infrastructure.Official Journal of RS, No. 06/08. 

[3] European Commission, Directorate General Regional Policy (2008). Guide to cost-benefit 

analysis of investment projects, Structural Funds, Cohesion Fund and Instrument for Pre- 

Accession. 257 p. 

[4] European Commission, Directorate General Regional Policy (2006). The New Programming 

Period 2007-2013, Guidance on the Methodology for carrying out Cost-Benefit Analysis, Working 

Document No. 4.23 p. 

[5] Matajič, M. et al. (2011): Strokovno-razvojnanaloga “Analizamožnosti in potreb razvoja javne 

železniške infrastrukture v RepublikiSloveniji”, Prometniinstitut Ljubljana d.o.o., 732 p. 

Belgrade, 2012 43



PLANNING A COMPLETION OF CORIDORS AS A STRATEGIC 

PRIORITY 

Vaska Atanasova, Ph. D, University “St. Kliment Ohridski”, Bitola, Faculty of Technical Sciences, 

Department for Transport and Traffic Engineering, Macedonia 

Ile Cvetanovski, Ph. D, University “St. Kliment Ohridski”, Bitola, Faculty of Technical Sciences, 

Department for Transport and Traffic Engineering, Macedonia 

Abstract 

Traffic network in the Republic of Macedonia is characterize with two transport corridors in direction 

North – South (corridor X) and East – West (corridor VIII), which are mutually crossed and represent 

strategy and economic priority in the Republic of Macedonia. 

In this article we are going to emphasize the importance of rehabilitation of railway corridor X, 

upgrading of road corridor X and unequal development of kinds of traffic. 

Key words: corridor X, planning, traffic 


Republic of Macedonia with its favorable geographical position has always been a country at a 

crossroads. Roads and transport corridors that pass through its territory have a long tradition dating 

back to ancient times. Through it passed roads that connected the East and West, Europe and the 

Orient. This region passed the famous Via Egnatia, which connected the Adriatic Sea to 

Constantinople. Also, the Vardar valley, with its strategic position, was a key communication corridor 

for the Balkan and beyond Southern Europe. Current road corridors VIII (east-west) and X (northsouth), 

which connected the region with Europe and Asia, lead roots of ancient roads "Via Militaris" 

(north-south) and "Via Egnatia" (east-west). 

Right here in the seventies of the nineteenth century was built the first railway line in the region, from 

Skopje to Thessaloniki. So, it used to be. And how is it today Unfortunately, as we do not know to 

recognize this potential that has our country. Potential to links. Therefore in extended texts will be 

shown the importance of the rehabilitation of the railway corridor X and upgrading of the road corridor 

X, as well as the reasons for the eradication of unequal development of kinds of traffic. 

2. UNEQUAL DEVELOPMENT OF KINDS OF TRAFFIC IN REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA 

Roads and rail infrastructure and its continuous development and renewal represent an indicator for 

the development of countries they own. 

In the past 50 years in the traffic system of the Republic of Macedonia was extremely inconsistent 

development in separate traffic branches, unfavorable particularly expressed between road and rail 

transport. As a comparison of the two transport systems (road and rail), road traffic from about 8 

percent in the 50’s, today has risen to about 92 percent in passenger and 89 percent in cargo traffic. 

It is obvious that the implement of rail projects have been neglected at the expense of road transport 

within the existing Trans – European network. 

Major changes occurred in the development and modal distribution of transport between rail and road 

transport in favor of road as consequence of the rapid development of the industry for production of 

motor road vehicles, unequal economic conditions of these two transport systems and increasing the 

flexibility of road traffic adjustment in emerging economic conditions, that is mostly due to the 

possibility of transport of “door to door” and smaller transportation costs for low traffic volume, 

Belgrade, 2012 44



especially at short distances. However, this unfavorable ratio in the use of the railways, in some extent 

influenced and traffic policy which was practiced in the Republic of Macedonia. 

On the development of the road and rail infrastructure in the Republic of Macedonia should not be 

viewed partially, only in local frames, because the development of road and rail infrastructure in our 

country is in interaction with the infrastructure of our neighboring countries, which contributes and 

force the integration of the Republic of Macedonia in the region and the European Union. 

Taking into account some specific comparative advantages of rail transport in terms of road, and 

railway may be of interest for a massive transport of passengers and goods, national strategy must be 

ensured equitable treatment and create conditions for sustainable development of the railway. It 

should establish fairer competition between rail and road traffic, i.e. to determine the external costs 

caused by road transport and focus transport policy toward their coverage by road users themselves. 

This can affect overall transportation costs and the choice of transport vehicle to realize the carry 

shipping. This approach in the transport costs analysis usually is in favor of rail transport because the 

same impact less negatively to the environment compared to road transport as well as in terms of 

traffic safety and reliability and energy savings. 

On unequal development of kinds of traffic in the Republic of Macedonia indicate and the data that in 

the period from 2001 to 2011, the shares of road cargo transport average is 90 %, while rail transport 

contributes only 10 %. 

Improved transport system will foster economic growth, improve citizens’ personal mobility, will reduce 

transaction costs for business and will make the state more competitive and more attractive for foreign 

investment. But, success in the economic growth of a country is the direct coupling and direct 

dependence on the advancement or modernization of existing transportation systems and capacity, 

and mutual harmonization of individual traffic branches, as well as the compliance of transport facilities 

and traffic infrastructure. 

3. IMPORTANCE OF THE UPGRADING OF THE ROAD CORRIDOR X 

Good infrastructure is the basis for rapid economic growth and development, improved 

competitiveness of the economy, faster flow of people, goods and passengers. Given the fact that the 

Republic of Macedonia is on the main corridor east – west (corridor VIII) and north – south (corridor 

X), it is important to realize the capital infrastructure projects that will contribute to increase the 

competitiveness of the national economy, higher economic growth and balanced regional 

development. 

Figure 1: Road corridors VIII and X in the Republic of Macedonia 

Belgrade, 2012 45



The Republic of Macedonia with its extremely favorable central position in the Balkan Peninsula is a 

road junction, but with the current lack of development, especially in the direction east – west, it has 

not been valorized. In view of construction of roads in the Republic of Macedonia appears imminent 

and inevitable need of completing two international road corridors (corridor VIII and corridor X) with a 

comparison of competing corridors in our environment and the need of their completion, would 

rejected danger for their marginalization and avoid the possibility of becoming the Republic of 

Macedonia etc. “appendicitis” on the international road map. 

Corridor VIII (east – west), which is on our territory starts from Deve Bair (border with Bulgaria) to 

Kafasan (border with Albania) with total length through Republic of Macedonia of 304 km, as part of 

the road corridor which passes through Bulgaria – Macedonia – ends in Albania (Durres) and further 

by sea through Palermo (Italy) to Tunis and Algiers. On the territory of the Republic of Macedonia from 

total 304 km, 27,6 % are built on level of highway, and 8,7% are under construction. 

Corridor X (north – south), which on our territory starts from Tabanovce (border with Serbia) to 

Bogorodica (border with Greece) with total length through Republic of Macedonia of 176 km, which 

from northern Europe through Serbia, Macedonia goes to Africa and Asia. From a total of 172 km, 132 

km are build on level of motorway. Recent built sections are: section Negotino – Demir Kapija (16 km) 

and section Smokvica – Gevgelija (11,3 km). Also, within the road corridor X is the sub – section d, 

Veles – Medzitlija, passing and linking Veles, Prilep and Bitola with Greece, with total length of 127,1 

km. 

Figure 2: Length of the road corridors VIII and X on the territory of Republic of Macedonia 

Corridor X is the most important element of the central transport network that connects Greece with 

Austria. Its length is 1 451 km. The current average annual daily traffic on corridor X linking Salzburg 

and Thessaloniki through Ljubljana, Zagreb, Belgrade and Skopje is 15 000 vehicle per day and is 

expected to increase by 6 % per year, or 40 000 vehicles per day, to 2020. 

In most of the territory of the Republic of Macedonia this road corridor is built as a motorway, left just a 

section Demir Kapija – Smokvica with length of 28,18 km, in line with European standards, which will 

complete the main axis of corridor X which pass trough Republic of Macedonia. With the construction 

of the section Demir Kapija – Smokvica, will be fully completed construction of corridor X on highway 

level. With the completion of this section, corridor X will become a modern section in accordance with 

European standards. The main goal of construction is to reduce travel cost and travel time, faster flow 

of vehicle which will positively impact on increase in the transit of persons and goods and raising the 

level of trade between the countries. 

Belgrade, 2012 46



On road corridor X passing through Republic of Macedonia, there is a competitive road corridor, and 

that is the corridor IV, which passes through Romania, Bulgaria to Greece. In addition, we should now 

the advantages and disadvantages of the two corridors. Corridor X has a significantly higher 

proportion of construction of the highway level of competitive corridor, shorter length of the road to the 

EU, shorter travel time, more natural traffic flow, while corridor IV has advantage that travels through 

EU and NATO member countries, without borders, with all the advantages arising from it. It is 

extremely important to emphasize that the ultimate interest of the Republic of Macedonia is not 

allowed to marginalize corridor X, because in that case would become the so – called “Appendicitis” 

international road map and we can lose the status crossroads and become a mere blind alley. 

Upgrade corridor X will allow: 

To facilitate international and transit movements of people and goods in the EU and 

neighboring countries, through the modernization and construction of Pan – European corridor 

X and the main regional network; 

To facilitate international and transit flow of people and goods in EU and its regional 

neighbors, through the completion of the national components of the Pan – European corridor 

X on highway level; 

To facilitate the efficient flow of people and goods, in support of a better standards of living 

and socio – economic conditions in the regions, through the completion of the national 

components of the Pan – European corridors X; 

To promote sustainable development, especially through minimizing the negative effects of 

the transport sector on the environment, as well as improve road safety; 

Increase the basis operational vehicle speeds, which will significantly reduce the time of 

movement, compared to the current time movement of vehicles; 

Reduce of operating costs of the vehicles. The benefits of reducing of operation costs of 

vehicle are results on: saving fuel and saving due the fact that vehicles will spend more 

kilometers of road network in a shorter time; 

Reduce accidents by improving the traffic flow; 

Better level of service. 

In general, the investment in the road network of the Republic of Macedonia will receive the 

following benefits: 

For state as the Republic of Macedonia, perhaps the most important political issue and 

maintenance of geo-strategic central position in the Balkan Peninsula; 

Safer traffic; 

Reduced fuel consumption and reduced transportation costs; 

Increasing international transit traffic through the Republic of Macedonia, due to the higher 

level of service provided on our roads; 

Will reduce vehicle maintenance due to damage from bad roads; 

Taking care to improve the protection of the environment, because vehicles are one of the 

biggest factors in environmental pollution; 

Will increase the attractiveness and availability of our resorts for foreign tourists; 

Construction of new roads will contribute to the development of the construction industry as 

one of the main industries; 

The construction of new and modernization of existing roads, increasing the attractiveness of 

our country to foreign investment and others. 

4. THE IMPORTANCE OF REHABILITATION OF RAILWAY CORRIDOR X 

In the Republic of Macedonia in the last 40 years was not invested in the reconstruction of the railway, 

not built the planned sections that Macedonian railways will be linked with railways of Bulgaria and 

Albania. The Republic of Macedonia in comparison with European countries, except Greece and 

Albania, which were compared with the Republic of Macedonia have and sea traffic, significantly 

lagging behind the development and modernization of the railway network. Railroads, except 

Tabanovce - Gevgelija (section of the Pan-European Corridor X) and Skopje - Volkovo end up as blind 

sidings railroads. Railway Bitola - Kremenica (section of the Pan-European Corridor X-d) while 

continuing to Greece, due to the current state of the gauge practical and it ends as a blind track. 

Belgrade, 2012 47



Railway corridor X in Republic of Macedonia, which is an essential element of the central transport 

network, starting north of the border crossing Tabanovce and ends in the southern border near 

Gevgelija, Bogorodica.the sub – section X-d of corridor X starts and ends at the border crossing 

Kremenica near Bitola. The total length of the route of corridor X, Tabanovce - Skopje - Veles - 

Gevgelija is 215,7 km, while the total length of the route of corridor X-d Veles - Bitola - Kremenica is 

145,3 km. 

Figure 3: Railway corridor X in the Republic of Macedonia 

Most of the railway infrastructure in the Republic of Macedonia has not been renovated in the last 30 

years. Eight percent were rehabilitated in the past 10 years. 20 years ago through the Macedonian 

railways transported 10 million tons of goods per year, and 3 to 4 million tons today. 

The rehabilitation of corridor X on the territory of the Republic of Macedonia has become a priority of 

the Ministry of Transport. Connection on the state with the railways of the countries in the 

neighborhood is of primary strategic importance to economic development and the development of 

bilateral and multilateral exchange of goods and people. From a strategic point of view the state would 

have a huge benefit because Republic of Macedonia has no outlet to the sea and there is a need for 

rail connectivity to ports in neighboring countries. Rail transport in terms of the same would have 

greater competitive ability when the country's railways are connected to another network of railways 

neighboring country. 

Revitalization of the railways under the regional development especially that of the neighboring 

countries and taking into account the geographical transit benefits will significantly contribute to the 

intensification of freight transport through the Republic of Macedonia. There is a general need for: 

Reducing operating and administrative delays at rail crossings; 

Restructuring, commercialization and sharing of infrastructure and operational activities under 

EU norms; 

Determination of commonly needed services and establishment of mechanisms for obtaining 

subsidies, and 

Overcoming the problem of railway finances and the need for ranking future activities to 

eliminate or greatly reduce the current deficit, and at the same time provide equipping railways 

for its key role in the long-term plan of the Macedonian and transport policy of European 

Union. 

With the rehabilitation of the railway infrastructure in the Republic of Macedonia as a strategic 

transport point in the region to boost ties with neighboring countries, but also and the flow of goods 

from and to Republic of Macedonia. Will increase the capacity of the corridor X, will increase the 

Belgrade, 2012 48



speed of movement, will be reduced negative effects on the environment, will be enhanced security, 

will increase the flow of international trade, freight transport, and will contribute to increasing the 

competitiveness of corridor X in terms of corridor IV. Corridor X is important for Republic of Macedonia 

because over 90 % of trade is conducted through it. With international rail corridors on our territory 

should have primary and maximum in general to improve the functionality of the railway network in the 

Republic of Macedonia, and it will increase the interest and ability to transport passengers and goods 

and will create conditions for the profitable management of the railways. 

Republic of Macedonia, not to become a bottleneck or not to be surrounded in international transport, 

in development programs must inject as a priority the development of infrastructure of international rail 

corridors that pass through our country. The development of the railway infrastructure will bring 

numerous benefits to the country as the Republic of Macedonia. However rail has numerous 

advantages compared to road transport. The emissions of harmful gases in transport by rail are lower 

than the road and about nine times in the road and about thirty times in freight transport. Safety in rail 

traffic is about thirty times better than in road traffic. Energy consumption for equal work performed in 

shipping by rail is less than in road transport and about 3,5 times in passenger and about nine times in 

freight transport. Regarding the deployment of land space for the same rank of a road, for railway in 

terms of time takes less area about 1,5 times (one track and single-lane road) to three times (for two 

track and highway). At the same time, rail transport is significantly less dependent on the adverse 

weather conditions in relation to the road. 

5. CONCLUTION 

Road infrastructure is very important for economic development, labor mobility, and competitiveness 

within the international distribution of traffic operations. It is one of the key factors that greatly affect 

the economic development and spatial structure of the country / regions. 

The main regional network is considered to be one of the most important policies for the provision of 

long-term peace, stability and economic prosperity of South East Europe. 

Construction and completion of the Pan-European Corridor X to level of highway, will contribute to 

strengthening ties with neighboring countries, improving the flow of international trade, as well as 

improving connectivity with its remote areas. Improved infrastructure along the Pan-European corridor 

X, open up opportunities to increase traffic by connecting Central Europe with the port of Thessaloniki, 

Greece. 

Corridors VIII and X (road and rail) represented strategic economic priorities which will make Republic 

of Macedonia to grow by only geographically, in real traffic crossroads in the Balkan. The strategic 

importance of these Trans – national axes is that it will contribute to faster and safer shared 

communication and transportation of passengers and goods, leading to economic security and 

stability. 

Mutual alignment of individual traffic branches, as well as the compliance of transport facilities and 

transport infrastructure will contribute to reduce of travel costs, travel time and faster traffic flow that 

will positively affect on the increase of the transit of persons and goods, and raising the level of trade 

between the countries. 

REFERENCES 

[1] Republic of Macedonia, State statistical office 

[2] Railway Pro – The railway business magazine 

[3] Evaluation of the impact on the environment and social issues, Construction of a new highway 

section Demir Kapija – Smokvica as a part of the Pan – European corridor 10, Technical 

summary, November, 2010 

[4] Aleksandar Vuchevski, Corridors that lead nowhere, Macedonian sun 714 / 7.03.2008 

[5] Joint Transport Committee, Republic of Macedonia, European Community, Road Transport 

Infrastructure, May, 2007 

[6] http://www.roads.org.mk/tek_sostojba.html 

Belgrade, 2012 49



HARMONIZATION OF TECHNICAL REGULATIONS IN THE AREA OF 

RAILWAY TRACK MAINTENANCE 

Zdenka Popović, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Belgrade, Republic of Serbia 

Leposava Milosavljević, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Belgrade, Republic of 

Serbia 

Luka Lazarević, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Belgrade, Republic of Serbia 

Abstract 

The European Union has enacted various legislative measures aimed at achieving the opening up, 

integration and harmonization of national railways to form a European railway network. One of the 

essential preconditions for the integration of the Serbian Railways with those of the European Union is 

to approximate Serbia’s railway regulations and standards to those of the EU. Harmonization of the 

technical regulation in the area of railway infrastructure in the Republic of Serbia and the adoption of 

the European standards in sector "Railway applications" are in progress. European Committee for 

Standardization has created a group of standards EN 13848-Railway applications – Track – Track 

geometry quality, which consists of six parts. The objective of creation of this group of standards is 

defining a unique approach for the evaluation of track geometry quality of various European railway 

infrastructures. The Institute for Standardization of Serbia has adopted and published four out of six 

parts of this group of standards. On the other hand, the existing Serbian railway regulations and 

logistics concerning track inspection, quality evaluation and correction of track geometry are in 

collision with those of the European Union. Solving this problem, which represents the essential 

barrier for integrations of the Serbian Railways to the European railway network, requires adoption of 

legal and technical frameworks for the application of European standards. Only after solving the given 

legal and technical limitations, harmonization of technical regulations in the area of maintenance can 

be achieved. On the contrary, harmonized regulations could not be applicable in practice. 

Keywords: Railway, track geometry, maintenance, harmonization, technical regulations. 


The European Union has brought series of regulations and standards in the area of railway 

infrastructure. The aim of such activities is to achieve opening, integration and harmonization of 

national railway networks with European network [14]. 

All railway administrations whose lines are a part of the Pan-European Corridor have an interest to 

bring their capacity to a higher technical and technological level and to ensure reliable operation of 

infrastructure facilities by all European operators. Given the fact that the territory of the Republic of 

Serbia is an important part of the railway corridor X (30.89%), it is necessary to harmonize the 

parameters of Serbian railway main lines with parameters of European railway network, using modern 

technical regulations for the design and maintenance of infrastructure. 

In that sense, one of the essential preconditions for the integration of the Serbian Railways with those 

of the European Union is to harmonize Serbia’s railway regulations with Directives, Technical 

Specifications for Interoperability and applicable technical standards. 

Figure 1 shows the current status of harmonization of subordinate Acts for railway infrastructure 

maintenance in Serbia. 

Belgrade, 2012 50



Fig. 1 The harmonization procedure for technical regulations for railway infrastructure 

maintenance in the Republic of Serbia [9] 

This paper analyses European technical regulations in the area of railway track maintenance, shows 

the current level of harmonization of Serbian regulations with EU technical regulations and gives 

directions for solving this task. 

2. TECHNICAL REGULATIONS IN THE AREA OF RAILWAY TRACK MAINTENANCE IN EU 

2.1. Technical Specification of Interoperability and the conventional railway system 

maintenance 

The Technical Specification of Interoperability relating to the trans-European conventional rail system - 

Subsystem Infrastructure covers the conventional railway system maintenance from the aspect of 

safety, reliability and availability, health, environmental protection and technical compatibility of the 

maintenance installations for conventional rolling stock [6]. The technical installations and the 

procedures used during the maintenance must ensure the safe operation of the infrastructure 

subsystem and not constitute a danger to health and safety. Also, the influence of the technical 

installations and the procedures must not exceed the permissible levels of nuisance with regard to the 

surrounding environment. 

According to [6] the Infrastructure Manager has to define, for each conventional rail line, a 

maintenance plan. The plan defines types of inspection and testing and their frequency, professional 

competences of staff, measuring methods and necessary procedures. Therefore the maintenance 

plan shall contain at least [6]: 

• a set of limit values, 

• a statement about the methods, professional competences of staff and personal 

protective safety equipment necessary to be used, 

• the rules to be applied for the protection of people working on or near the track, 

• the means used to check the respect of in-service values, and 

• the measures taken (speed restriction, repair time) when prescribed values are exceeded. 

Belgrade, 2012 51



Maintenance plan is related to the following elements: 

• requirements for equivalent conicity in service, 

• in service geometry of switches and crossings, 

• track geometric quality and limits on isolated defects, 

• platform edge as required by the "People with reduced mobility" TSI, 

• inspection of tunnels condition as required by the "Safety in Railway Tunnels" TSI, and 

• professional competences for maintenance staff. 

Figure 2 shows the concept development for creation of the maintenance plan. 

Fig. 2 Concept development for creation of the maintenance plan 

The basis for creation of the maintenance plan is measurement data from the railway network. In that 

way, the data collected from the network using track recording vehicles gain great importance. During 

measurements, exceeding of the regulated limit values is registered and if necessary appropriate 

measures for traffic safety insurance can be taken. After the recording run, quality data with further 

instructions regarding registered defects are uploaded on the intranet network and become available 

to all the operators. 

2.2. European standards concerning track geometry quality 

European Committee for Standardization (CEN) has created a group of standards EN 13848 "Railway 

applications – Track – Track geometry quality" which consists of six parts. The sixth part of this 

standard is currently under development and the draft has been submitted to CEN members for voting 

[12]. 

The objective of creation of this group of standards is defining a unique approach for the evaluation of 

track geometry quality of various European railway infrastructures. This group of standards is a basis 

for creation of the railway infrastructure maintenance plan. 

The first part of this European standard "Characterisation of track geometry" specifies the 

requirements for the homologation of track geometry quality as measured by various measuring 

devices fitted on track recording vehicles [1]. It defines each parameter and specifies the requirements 

for measurement, the analysis method and the presentation of results. 

The part 2 "Measuring systems - Track recording vehicles" defines the specification for measurement 

Belgrade, 2012 52



systems to ensure that all track-recording vehicles produce comparable results when measuring the 

same track [2]. In order to achieve this, it is essential to ensure that the methods of measurement are 

equivalent, the transfer functions of the filters are identical and the outputs and data storage formats 

are comparable. 

The part 3 "Measuring systems - Track construction and maintenance machines" [3] and the part 4 

"Measuring systems - Manual and lightweight devices" [4] specifies the minimum requirements that 

shall be met by measuring systems fitted on track construction and maintenance machines, or on track 

geometry measuring trolleys and manually operated devices, to give an evaluation of track geometry 

quality when measuring one or more parameters. 

The fifth part of this European standard "Geometric quality levels" defines the minimum requirements 

for the quality levels of track geometry and specifies the safety related limits for each parameter [5]. 

The sixth part "Characterisation of track geometry quality", which is still under approval, characterizes 

the quality of track geometry based on parameters defined in the first part and specifies the different 

track geometry classes which have to be considered. It covers the following topics: 

• description of track geometry quality; 

• classification of track quality according to track geometry parameters; 

• considerations on how this classification can be used. 

A detailed analysis of the first and the fifth part of EN 13848 is provided in this paper. 

2.2.1. Characterisation of track geometry 

The European standard EN 13848-1 applies to all track geometry parameters including: 

• Track gauge (Figure 4), 

• Longitudinal level (Figure 5), 

• Cross level (Figure 6), 

• Alignment (Figure 7), and 

• Twist (Figure 8). 

All these parameters are determined by the current coordinates of the corresponding points of the left 

and right rail relative to a fixed rectangular XYZ co-ordinate system (Figure 3) [1]. The relative coordinate 

system is centred to the track with clockwise rotation and X-axis represents an extension of 

the track towards the direction of running, Y-axis is parallel to the running surface, and Z-axis is 

perpendicular to the running surface and points downwards. 

1 running direction 

2 running surface 

3 track co-ordinate system 

Fig. 3. Relationship between the axes of the track co-ordinate system [1] 

Track gauge, G, is defined as the smallest distance between lines perpendicular to the running 

surface intersecting each rail profile at points P 1 i P 2 in a range from z p =0 mm to z p =14 mm below the 

running surface (Figure 4) [1]: 

1.1.1 

G x y x y x , (1) 

G ' 

p ' 2 p 1 

Belgrade, 2012 53



Fig. 4. Measurement of track gauge G in accordance with EN 13848-1 

Deviation z p’ in z-direction of consecutive running table levels on any rail, expressed as an excursion 

from the mean vertical position (reference line) and calculated from successive measurements is 

longitudinal level (Figure 5) [1]. 

Longitudinal level of track is defined as follows: 

z ' x z ' x 

p1 

p 

z x 

2 

' 

p 

2 

, (2) 

where: 

z , z – longitudinal levels of left and right rail. 

' ' 

p 1 p 2 

1 running table 

2 reference line 

Fig. 5. Longitudinal level z p’ in accordance with EN 13848-1 

Cross level, h, is defined as the difference in height of adjacent running tables computed from the 

angle between the running surface and a horizontal reference plane. It is expressed as the height of 

the vertical leg of the right-angled triangle having a hypotenuse, s 1 , that relates to the nominal track 

gauge plus the width of the rail head, rounded to the nearest 10 mm (Figure 6) [1]. 

Belgrade, 2012 54



Fig. 6. Cross level in accordance with EN 13848-1 

Alignment is a deviation y p’ in y-direction of consecutive positions of point P on any rail expressed as 

an excursion from the mean horizontal position (reference line) and calculated from successive 

measurements is longitudinal level (Figure 7) [1]. 

Alignment of track is defined as follows: 

y ' x y ' x 

p1 

p 

y x 

2 

' 

, ( 

p 

2 

' 0, y 

p ' 1 p 2 

0 ) (3) 

where: 

y , y – alignments of left and right rail. 

' ' 

p 1 p 2 

1 running surface 

2 reference line 

Fig. 7. Alignment in accordance with EN 13848-1 

Twist is the algebraic difference between two cross levels taken at a defined distance apart (usually at 

the distance equivalent to the wheel-base) (Figure 8) [1]. It is expressed as a gradient between two 

points of measurement: 

Belgrade, 2012 55



v 

v x 

h 

2 

x 

h 

a 

1 

x 

[mm/m or ‰] , (4) 

where: 

v – twist [mm/m or ‰], 

a – length of a measuring base [m], 

h 1 , h 2 – cross levels measured at the beginning and end of the measuring base [mm]. 

Fig. 8. Twist in the area of a transition curve [7] 

2.2.2. Geometric quality levels 

According to [1] track geometry quality is defined as assessment of excursions from the mean or 

designed geometrical characteristics of specified parameters in the vertical and lateral planes which 

give rise to safety concerns or have a correlation with ride quality. 

Defining the geometric quality levels can be significant in [5]: 

• optimization of track geometry maintenance works; 

• optimization of vehicle ride quality and dynamic loading of the track; 

• harmonizing vehicle acceptance procedures. 

Three indicators can describe the track geometric quality: 

• extreme values of isolated defects; 

• standard deviation over a defined length, typically 200 m; 

• mean value. 

Belgrade, 2012 56



Three main geometric quality levels are defined in the European Standard EN 13848-5 [5]. 

The first level is Immediate Action Limit (IAL). It refers to the value which, if exceeded, requires taking 

measures to reduce the risk of derailment to an acceptable level. This can be done either by closing 

the line, reducing speed or by correction of track geometry. 

The second level is Intervention Limit (IL). It refers to the value which, if exceeded, requires corrective 

maintenance in order that the immediate action limit shall not be reached before the next inspection. 

The third level is Alert Limit (AL). It refers to the value which, if exceeded, requires that the track 

geometry condition is analyzed and considered in the regularly planned maintenance operations. 

Table 1 gives the overview of the main geometric quality levels of the track geometry parameters. 

Tab.1. Quality levels of the track geometry parameters according to EN 13848-5 [9] 

Nominal to peak Nominal to mean 

Zero* to peak value Standard deviation 

value 

value 

IAL IL AL IAL IL AL IAL IL AL IAL IL AL 

Track gauge + + + + + + 

Longitudinal 

level 

+ + + + 

Alignment + + + + 

Twist + + + 

* According to [5], mean to peak values are defined for longitudinal level and alignment. In practice the 

mean will be close to zero and therefore zero to peak values may be used. 

The immediate action limit values are derived from experience and from theoretical considerations of 

the wheel-rail interaction. 

For the track gauge, the standard provides limit values for isolated defects (minimum and maximum 

nominal track gauge to peak value) and for mean track gauge (nominal track gauge to mean track 

gauge over 100 m section). 

For the longitudinal level and alignment mean to peak values are defined. The mean values are 

calculated over a length of at least twice the higher wavelength in the D1 range: 3 m < λ ≤ 25 m or D2 

range: 25 m < λ ≤ 70 m. 

The immediate action limit for the track twist as the isolated defect is given as zero to peak value. 

The standard gives no immediate action limit values for cross level because the risk of derailment 

associated with a cross level defect is tied to twist and cant deficiency. Cant deficiency limits depend 

on the track alignment design and construction rules, and the characteristics of the traffic, on each 

network. 

The immediate action limit for the track gauge is given as a function of maximum speed of vehicles 

running on the line, while the immediate action limits for the longitudinal level and alignment are given 

also as a function of wavelengths D1 and D2. The wavelength range D3: 70 m < λ ≤ 200 m (generally 

this range should only be considered for line speeds greater than 250 km/h) is not taken into account, 

as it is not directly linked with safety, but more with vehicle ride quality. The immediate action limit for 

the twist is a function of the measurement base-length applied. 

The intervention and alert limits are mainly linked with maintenance policy. Maintenance policy may be 

directed either at upholding safety alone or at achieving good ride quality, lower life cycle costs or 

more attractive (higher speed) services in addition to safety. The alert limits and intervention limits set 

by the European infrastructure managers will be set at least to ensure safety and can be tightened to 

achieve a given level of ride quality [5]. 

Belgrade, 2012 57



The track geometry limits given in EN 13848-5 differ from the three vehicle acceptance levels QN1, 

QN2 and QN3 used in UIC Code 518 [11] and in EN 14363 – Railway applications – Testing for the 

acceptance of running characteristics of railway vehicles – Testing of running behaviour and stationary 

tests. Quality levels QN1, QN2 and QN3 are connected with testing and approval of railway vehicles 

from the point of view of their dynamic behaviour. More particularly QN3 is quite different from IAL. 

QN3 refers to the value which, if exceeded, leads to the track section being excluded from the analysis 

because the track geometric quality encountered is not representative of usual quality standards. 

Unlike IAL, level QN3 still allows regular train operations. 

3. TECHNICAL REGULATIONS IN THE AREA OF RAILWAY TRACK MAINTENANCE IN THE 

REPUBLIC OF SERBIA 

Evaluation of the geometry condition of the lines of Serbian Railways network is performed according 

to the Instruction 339 on unique criteria for track condition control [15]. All track geometry defects are 

divided into three groups: 

A – values up to which it is not necessary to plan and perform corrective maintenance operations, 

B – defects which require planning of corrective maintenance operations, and 

C – defects which are above exploitation limits and which must be immediately removed because 

they jeopardize the traffic safety. 

Limit values of the track geometry parameters for all three groups are referring to deviation tolerance 

of maximum parameter values from the zero line. They are given as a function of category of line, i.e. 

maximum speed of vehicles running on the line. 

At first glance, the three groups of defects match the quality levels defined in the EN 13848-5. 

However, unlike the European standard, where beside isolated defects, deviations of mean values 

and standard deviations of certain parameters are also being considered, only isolated defects, i.e. 

deviations of maximum parameter values from the zero line are being considered here, as stated 

(Table 2). 

Apart from that, there is a difference in definition of principal track geometric parameters. According to 

EN 13848-1, longitudinal level and alignment present deviation from the “ideal”, i.e. designed rail 

position in the vertical and horizontal plane. According to the Instruction 339 these parameters are 

defined according to the mutual position of the rails, i.e. their relative position in the space [8]. 

Tab.2. Quality levels of the track geometry parameters according to [15] 

Track gauge + + + 

Longitudinal 

level 

Nominal to Zero to peak 

peak value value 

A B C A B C 

+ + + 

Alignment + + + 

Cross level + + + 

Twist + + + 

Evaluation of the condition of the track is performed based on the total length of defects in groups B 

and C over the distance of 1 kilometre. The condition of one kilometre of the line can be very good, 

good, satisfactory or unsatisfactory. The limit value of total length of defects in groups B and C is 

Belgrade, 2012 58



defined. If it’s exceeded, it requires performing works right after the track recording run. 

The Institute for Standardization of Serbia has adopted and published four out of six parts of this group 

of standards [13]. 

Professional work of the Institute in the field of standardization, "Railway Applications" is conducted 

within the Technical Committee P256. Considering the complexity of the field, "Railway Applications", 

the Technical Committee has two sub committees: for civil engineering and for mechanical 

engineering part. The Technical Committee P256 brings together representatives of the University (the 

Faculty of Civil Engineering and the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in Belgrade), the Railway 

Directorate, designers, contractors and industry in the field of railways. This structure corresponds to 

the standardization committee structure in the field of railways, according to the experience of the 

European Union [10]. 

However, practical application of adopted standards EN 13848 on Serbian Railways will be possible 

only after linking them with technical regulations. 

4. CONCLUSION 

Undisturbed and efficient traffic on the European railway network requires harmonized characteristics 

of the infrastructure and rolling stock, as well as the efficient interconnection of information and 

communication systems of different railway administrations and operators. 

The incompatibility of the existing technical regulations in the area of railway infrastructure 

maintenance in the Republic of Serbia with the EU regulations is obvious. Existing Serbian railway 

regulations and logistics concerning track inspection, quality evaluation and correction of track 

geometry are in collision with those of the European Union. Solving this problem, which represents the 

essential barrier for integrations of the Serbian Railways to the European railway network, requires 

adoption of legal and technical frameworks for the application of European standards. 

Although the Railway Act (Official Gazette RS, No.18/2005) coincides with the corresponding 

European Union Directives, its decrees are still not applied in practice in the area of maintenance. 

According to this Act, railway infrastructure must be maintained in a condition which ensures safe and 

unobstructed railway traffic, as well as quality and regular transport. In this purpose, constant 

supervision and occasional inspections must be performed, as well as correction of determined 

defects. Creation of an annual maintenance plan is performed according to the existing technical 

regulations for the area of maintenance, which is adjusted to the application of track recording vehicle 

EM 80L. The mentioned track recording vehicle cannot measure parameters defined according to [1]. 

Quantifications of the track geometry quality based on the locally defined parameters in the Instruction 

339 essentially disable the access and usage of the public railway infrastructure to all interested 

railway operators. 

Technical limitations for the application of the European standards in the area of maintenance 

planning are: lack of database on the reference track geometry on the existing Serbian Railways 

network, the lack of strategy and material means for filling in the base, incompetence in the level of 

expertise of the personnel for work on modern track recording vehicles, lack of knowledge in the area 

of management and maintenance of railway infrastructure, not following Directives, Technical 

Specifications of Interoperability and technical standards in this area. 

Only after solving the given legal and technical limitations, can the Directorate for Railways possibly 

achieve harmonization of technical regulations in the area of maintenance. On the contrary, 

harmonized regulations could not be applicable in practice. 

Belgrade, 2012 59




This work was supported by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Serbia through 

the research projects “Research of technical-technological, staff and organisational capacity of 

Serbian Railways, from the viewpoint of current and future European Union requirements” (No. 36012) 

and “Reconstruction and revitalization of railway infrastructure in accordance with regional 

development” (No. 680-00-140/2012-09/10). 

REFERENCES 

[1] CEN: EN 13848-1:2003+A1:2008 - Railway applications - Track - Track geometry quality – Part 1: 

Characterisation of track geometry 

[2] CEN: EN 13848-2:2006 - Railway applications - Track - Track geometry quality – Part 2: 

Measuring systems - Track recording vehicles 

[3] CEN: EN 13848-3:2009 - Railway applications - Track - Track geometry quality - Part 3: 

Measuring systems - Track construction and maintenance machines 

[4] CEN: EN 13848-4:2011 - Railway applications - Track - Track geometry quality - Part 4: 

Measuring systems - Manual and lightweight devices 

[5] CEN: EN 13848-5:2008+A1:2010 - Railway applications - Track - Track geometry quality - Part 5: 

Geometric quality levels 

[6] ERA - Europäische Eisenbahnagentur: Referat Interoperabilität, Transeuropäisches 

konventionelles Eisenbahnsystem, Technische Spezifikation für die Interoperabilität - Teilsystem 

Infrastruktur, S. 1-106, 2008 

[7] L. Puzavac: Modelling of track geometry deterioration, MSc Thesis, University of Belgrade, 

Faculty of Civil Engineering, Belgrade, Republic of Serbia, 2009 

[8] L. Puzavac, Popovic Z., Lazarevic L.: European standards for track geometry quality, Conference 

Proceedings, Zlatibor, may 2011, pp. 509 – 514 

[9] L. Puzavac, Popovic Z., Lazarevic L., Ivic M., Kosijer M.: The maintenance planning of Serbian 

railway infrastructure in accordance with European standards, 19th International Symposium 

EURO-ŽEL 2011 "Recent Challenges for European Railways", Žilina, 8th-9th June 2011, 

Proceedings, pp.393-400M. Walter: Interoperabilität und technische Normung der 

Eisenbahninfrastruktur in Österreich, ETR, S. 312-315, Mai 2006 

[10] UIC Code 518: Testing and approval of railway vehicles from the point of view of their dynamic 

behaviour – Safety – Track fatigue – Ride quality, 3rd edition, October 2005. 

[11] http://www.cen.eu/cen/Products/EN/Pages/default.aspx (September 2012) 

[12] http://www.iss.rs/tc/national_committee_id=399 (September 2012) 

[13] Z. Popovic: Interoperability and standardization of railway infrastructure of Serbian railways, 

Railway Technical Review, Hamburg, ISSUE 4/2007, Volume 47, pp. 6-9 

[14] Zajednica Jugoslovenskih železnica: Uputstvo (339) o jedinstvenim kriterijumima za kontrolu 

stanja pruga na mreži JŽ (Instruction 339 on unique criteria for track condition control), Belgrade, 

2002 

Belgrade, 2012 60



FINANCIAL ANALYSIS OF RAIL INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS 

Luka Lazarević, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Belgrade, Republic of Serbia 

Zdenka Popović, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Belgrade, Republic of Serbia 

Cesar Queiroz University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Belgrade, Republic of Serbia 

Goran Mladenović, Consultant, Roads and Transport Infrastructure, Former World Bank Highways 

Adviser, Washington, DC USA 

Abstract: 

There are two European rail corridors that pass through Serbia: the Danube Corridor VII and the 

Corridor X. If it is considered that almost 50% of rail freight traffic in Serbia is transit, according to the 

World Bank study, one can conclude that Serbian railways have very favorable position in European 

rail network. This is necessary, but not sufficient precondition for successful economic functioning of 

rail transport. There are a lot of challenges that Serbian railways must address in order to achieve 

good financial performance and operational efficiency. This paper presents the key indicators that 

should be considered in financial analysis, and also their application. Also, this paper presents 

financial models for infrastructure projects developed by the World Bank. 

Key words: railways, financial analysis, financial models, World Bank 


The European Union (EU) defined a common transportation policy in its document entitled White 

Paper "Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area – Towards a competitive and resource efficient 

transport system". This policy defines ten goals for reaching a competitive and resource efficient 

transport system. Four of these ten goals are directed towards the use of rail transport: 

- to shift 30% of road freight over 300 km to rail or waterborne transport by 2030, and more than 50% 

by 2050, 

- to complete European high-speed rail network by 2050, triple the length of the existing high-speed 

rail network by 2030 and maintain a dense railway network in all European Member States, 

- to complete a fully functional and EU-wide multimodal Trans-European Traffic Network (TEN-T) by 

2030, with a high quality and capacity network by 2050 and a corresponding set of information 

services, 

- to connect by 2050 all network airports to the rail network, preferably high-speed, and to ensure that 

all seaports are sufficiently connected to the rail freight and, where possible, inland waterway system 

[1]. 

Therefore, European Comission recognize rail transport as a one of the priorities, and it defines 

primary objective as development of an interoperable railway network and reinforcement of the role of 

rail as an essential component in integrated European transport system. So, modern railways should 

represent most important segment in future multimodal transportation chain [2]. 

Current problem with fulfilling the traffic policy from [1] is unequal development of the infrastructure in 

the eastern and western part of Europe, which needs to be unified. In the Southeast Europe railways 

have low performance, especially in the Western Balkan countries [3]. It implies Serbian railway 

network. 

2. CHALLENGES FOR SERBIAN RAILWAYS 

As it was defined at the Helsinki conference in 1997, two out of ten traffic corridors in the European 

territory pass through Serbia: The Danube waterway Corridor VII and the road-railway Corridor X 

(Figure 1). 

Belgrade, 2012 61



Figure 1. European railway corridors in the Western Balkan [4] 

Due to favorable position in European railway network, Serbian Railway Company was restructured in 

2004. in order to comply with acquis communautaire of the EU. Rail infrastructure was separated from 

rail operations, and open access regimes for the rail infrastructure took place. The most important task 

for infrastructure owner is to improve infrastructure productivity and pricing and to invest selectively [3]. 

For the last couple of years, rail provided about 10% of public passenger transport in Serbia. This 

value was 8.2% in 2011 [5]. Although rail rates in Serbia are about 30% lower than bus fares, bus is 

generally preferred because of its reliability and frequency of service. Also, ticket price was not 

recognized as a decision criterion for the choice of travel mode in the survey [6]. On the other hand, 

rail provided 49.8% [5] of goods transport in Serbia in 2011. 

Regarding the previous, one could conclude that the only challenge for Serbian railways is stimulation 

and increase of passenger transport. But real problem is that Serbian railways were designed to carry 

much more of both, passenger and freight traffic. Figure 2 shows trend of carried p-km, t-km and their 

sum (rail traffic units or rtu) from 1990 to 2011. 

Figure 2. Trend of rail traffic units over the period 1990 to 2011 

Belgrade, 2012 62



Figure 2 shows that in 1990 rail network used to carry almost three times higher traffic volume than 

today. From 2000, t-km was increasing, with abrupt decrease in 2009 due to global recession. Current 

freight traffic is about two times smaller than in 1990. Passenger traffic is in almost constant decrease 

since 2000, so current p-km value is about eight times lower than in 1990. 

The most important challenge for Serbian railways is to achieve higher productivity and therefore to 

reduce operating subsidy from government i.e. to reduce the strain on the National budget. The overall 

challenge is to produce a financially viable rail sector. 

3. WORLD BANK TOOLKIT FOR FINANCIAL ANALYSIS OF THE RAIL SECTOR 

In 2011, the World Bank (WB) published "Railway Reform: Toolkit for Improving Rail Sector 

Performance" [7]. The financial model in the toolkit demonstrates some key assumptions in 

development of financial modeling for railway operations. This toolkit is harmonized with the EU 

“acquis communautaire”, so it provides separated financial analysis of freight, passenger and 

infrastructure operations. Therefore, users of the toolkit can be public and private railway operators, 

government agencies, international organizations or similar. As there are railway operators that cover 

different tasks, the toolkit also provides integrated analysis. The financial model structure included in 

the toolkit, which consists of six modules, is shown in Figure 3. 

Figure 3. Financial model structure in the World Bank Toolkit [7] 

The first module is actually input for the financial model. It includes all necessary assumptions 

regarding economic context, rail network and all revenues and costs. The second module deals with 

the calculations for each entity. 

Next two modules present results of calculations numerically and graphically, respectively, in 

separated and consolidated form. Financial statements and charts show key operational and financial 

results. The fifth module provides summaries of assumptions and outputs and a list of key operating 

and financial ratios. The sixth module provides scenario analysis for sensitivity testing of key variables 

and model calibration [7]. It is possible to do a consolidated scenario analysis, or separated for freight, 

passenger and infrastructure entities. 

The Toolkit can be used for analysis of different scenarios, one of which may be the analysis of 

operating subsidies. Key variables that can be changed in this analysis are: multiplier and growth rate 

for either freight tariff, or passenger fare or track access charge (depending on entity), multiplier and 

growth rate for traffic, staff multiplier and capital expenditure multiplier. Influence of changes in key 

variables is traced through cash flow and operating profit. Figure 4 shows interface for scenario 

analysis of freight. 

Belgrade, 2012 63



Figure 4. Example of interface for scenario analysis in the World Bank Toolkit 

Important note is that the Toolkit is much more suitable for financial analysis in the field of 

management of infrastructure, freight and passenger transport. The model can be used for a new rail 

project only if estimated future parameters are available. 

4. FINANCIAL ANALYSIS OF RAIL INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS 

Every rail infrastructure project must be subjected to financial analysis in order to examine its cost 

effectiveness. Project ratios that are usually considered for project financial feasibility include: financial 

internal rate of return (IRR), return on equity (ROE) and annual debt service cover ratio (ADSCR). 

IRR shows the yield of the project regardless of the financing structure. The minimum required IRR 

depends on country and project characteristics and is usually expected to be 8% or more (commonly 

above 12% in developing or transition economies). Calculation of IRR is itterative and is given with 

Equation (1): 

i 

end of 

period 

first year of construction 

(1 

( OCFBF ) i 

PROJECT . IRR) 

i 

0 

(1) 

where OCFBF is operating cash flow before financing. 

ROE shows yield of the project for the shareholders through the remuneration of their investment with 

dividends. The minimum expected ROE rate is usually 10% or more. ROE can be calculated 

according to Equation (2). 

Net income 

Shareholder equity 

ROE (2) 

ADSCR shows the ability of the investment company to repay the debt. Project estimated viable for 

the lenders when the ADSCR is greater than 1 for every year of the project life. Generally, the 

minimum ADSCR should be greater than 1.2. ADSCR can be calculated according to Equation (3). 

ADSCR 

n 

n 

i 1 

( CAFDS ) 

Debt 

n 

service 

i 

(3) 

Debt service Principal Interest 

(4) 

i 

i 

i 

Belgrade, 2012 64



For the purpose of the highway Public Private Partnership (PPP) projects, World Bank developed 

toolkit for financial simulation. This toolkit includes two financial models: graphical and numerical. The 

graphical model is simplified model that allows users to visualize real time impact of changes in key 

project assumptions. The numerical model is far more detailed and it could be used by the public 

authority for an initial project analysis of possible PPP options at pre-feasibility level, to assess 

possible toll rates and subsidy levels [8]. 

Although developed for the road sector, a review of the above financial models indicated that they can 

also be adapted for other sectors, including railways. In this study several modifications were made to 

the graphical financial model in order to accommodate rail projects. The changes included primarily 

parameters that are used to calculate revenues. The graphical model was chosen because it is 

simpler to use and considers fewer parameters than the numerical model. 

Graphical model discerns five types of project assumptions: source of funds, construction costs, 

operation costs, traffic and tariff, and economic context (as shown in Figure 5). The sources of funds 

include: government’s construction subsidy, investor’s equity and credit. The user inputs the 

percentage of subsidy and equity in the total construction cost, and debt percentage is calculated 

accordingly. The model provides two debt repayment options, one with constant annuity value and 

other with constant principal value. 

Figure 5. Example of main assumptions for financial analysis of rail projects 

using the adapted graphical model 

While unit costs of railway and road construction show a wide variation, the former are usually higher 

than the latter. For example, railway construction costs between 5 million €/km and 20 million €/km, 

and 4-lane road construction costs between 6 million €/km and 8 million €/km, have been reported [9]. 

Railway operation costs are characterized by high fixed costs and relatively low variable costs [3]. 

Maintenance costs for a high speed rail line in many European countries range from 30,000 €/km per 

year (17) to 44,300 €/km and 56,500 €/km which was reported for France and Netherlands, 

respectively [10]. 

The graphical model for highways calculates revenue according to the average number of vehicles per 

day and toll rate, which were replaced with the following demand indicators for railways: rail traffic 

units per year and price per traffic unit, both of which are used for rail revenue calculations. It should 

be noted that traffic growth rate for railways can vary a lot depending on country. For the entire EU, 

rail traffic growth rate was about 1.1% in 2010. 

Belgrade, 2012 65



The adapted model outputs (similarly to the original model) are cash flow graph, debt repayment 

graph and dividend graph. The user can test the sensitivity of the model by changing 14 key project 

assumptions that are shown in Figure 7. For each set of assumptions, the model displays key project 

financial indicators. 

Figure 6. Example of key project assumptions that can be used for sensitivity testing 

The adapted financial model was tested for a rail project with length of 100 km, total construction cost 

of $600 million ($6 million per km), annual operation cost of $6 million, initial traffic of 300 million rtu 

per year, and traffic growth of 2% per year. The initial traffic was estimated according to the typical 

productivity of EU rail traffic. Other assumptions are as shown in Figure 6. The values adopted for 

inflation rate, corporate tax rate, and value added tax (VAT) rate represent the economic context in 

Serbia. 

Since rail system is, in general, loss making and dependent from government operating subsidy, the 

goal in the model testing was to find minimum tariff, so that the project is still considered feasible. It 

was performed analysis by changing initial traffic and tariff in order to keep IRR the same. Results of 

the analyses are shown in Figure 7. The impact of the operation costs was found to be relatively small 

compared to the construction cost and therefore they were kept constant at $6 million per year. 

As shown in Figure 7, the financial feasibility of rail projects is highly dependent on the expected initial 

traffic and construction cost. The acceptable tariff depends on the economic context of the country. 

Table 1 shows, passenger fare and freight tariff, as well as tariff per rtu for different countries. 

Figure 7. Example of minimum required tariffs for a railway project to yield IRR of 8% and 12% 

using the adapted financial model 

Belgrade, 2012 66



Country 

Passenger fare Freight tariff Tariff per rtu 

China 0.043 0.023 

Russia 0.046 0.022 

Czech 0.063 0.071 

Poland 0.065 0.061 

Germany 0.107 0.033 

France 0.121 0.036 

Canada 0.128 0.018 

USA 0.336 0.015 

[€ cent] 

0.033 

0.035 

0.067 

0.063 

0.070 

0.079 

0.073 

0.176 

Table 1. Passenger fare, freight tariff and tariff per rtu for different countries 

The horizontal line in Figure 7 was drawn assuming an acceptable tariff of 10 US$ cents per rail traffic 

unit, which can be considered high regarding values in Table 1. This being the case, any project falling 

above the line would require government subsidies. As an example, for the assumptions made, if the 

construction cost is $6 million/km and the required IRR is 8%, only projects with an initial traffic above 

650 million rtu per year would not require government subsidies. Such threshold increases if an IRR of 

8% is considered satisfactory. In any case, such traffic levels are well above what can be expected on 

the Serbian railways. Consequently, for the success of rail projects, relatively high construction (and/or 

operation) subsidies by governments would be required. 

The analysis described above, using the graphical financial model adapted for railways, was carried 

out using assumptions for a hypothetical rail project. However, the results do illustrate the main 

problems with railway projects. 

5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 

Although rail systems are generally considered as a loss making, the transfer of traffic from road to rail 

is a declared goal of both the European Union and many individual governments. This transfer is 

mainly motivated by increased ecological awareness, so the race for sustainable transport became a 

global phenomenon. Modern European railways operate under the conditions of regulated competition 

and connection with other modes of transportation via development of Trans-European Traffic 

Network. 

Since Serbian railways are part of this network, it is necessary to prepare strategic development plan 

and to prepare implementation of the projects within the network. But, Serbian Railway Company is 

also facing other problems, such as need to increase rail productivity and financial viability. 

This paper presented recently developed World Bank toolkit for financial improvements in rail sector. It 

can be used for detailed analysis of all financial aspects that can face all, infrastructure, freight and 

passenger entity. Also, this toolkit allows prediction of future scenarios. 

This paper examined financial model for new rail projects. The financial analysis is performed on 

modified toolkit for Public Private Partnership in highways, also developed by the World Bank. The 

modified model was then used to run an example of sensitivity analysis of tariffs to factors such as the 

required project internal rate of return, level of government subsidies, construction costs, and initial 

traffic. Results confirm high dependency of rail system from government subsidy and that it should 

only be pursued rail investments on which is expected high traffic density. 

Belgrade, 2012 67



ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

This work was supported by the Ministry of Science and Technological Development of the Republic 

of Serbia through the research projects “Research of technical-technological, staff and organisational 

capacity of Serbian Railways, from the viewpoint of current and future European Union requirements” 

(No. 36012) and “Reconstruction and revitalization of railway infrastructure in accordance with regional 


REFERENCES 

[1] European Commission. White Paper - Roadmap to a single European transport area – 

Towards a competitive and resource efficient transport system. Brussels, 2011. 

[2] Popovic Z., Puzavac L. and Lazarevic L. Improving the accessibility of passenger railways in 

the Republic of Serbia. Rail Technology Review, Vol. 65, Issue 02/2012, Hamburg, Germany, 

2012. 

[3] World Bank, Transport Unit, Infrastructure Department, Europe and Central Asia Region. 

Railway reform in the Western Balkans. 2005. 

[4] Center for Strategic & International studies and Hellenic Centre for European Studies. Relinking 

the Western Balkans - The transportation dimension. Athens, 2010. 

[5] Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. Review of transport of passengers and goods in 

2010 and 2011. Belgrade, 2012. 

[6] Popovic Z., L. Lazarevic, and L. Puzavac. The Potential of Passenger Rail Transportation in 

the Republic of Serbia. CD-ROM. "The First International Conference on Railway Technology: 

Research, Development and Maintenance", Civil-Comp Press, Stirlingshire, UK, Paper 168, 

2012. 

[7] Annex 1: Financial Model - Guidance for Users. World Bank. 2011. 

[8] Financial models. World Bank. 

http://www.ppiaf.org/sites/ppiaf.org/files/documents/toolkits/highwaystoolkit/6/financial_models 

/index.html 

[9] International Navigation Association. Economic aspects of inland waterways. Brussels, 2005. 

[10] Quiroga L.M. Ganzheitliche Optimierung des Instandhaltungsprozesses der Gleisgeometrie. 

PhD thesis, Fakultat für Maschinenbau der Technischen Universitat Carolo-Wilhelmina. 

Braunschweig, 2011. 

Belgrade, 2012 68



RAILWAY TRAFFIC AND THE MODERN TRANSPORT 

TECHNOLOGIES-BASIS FOR DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORT 

SYSTEM OF CORRIDOR X 

Ile Cvetanovski, Faculty of technical sciences- Bitola-traffic department, Bitola, Macedonia 

Vaska Atanasova, Faculty of technical sciences- Bitola-traffic department, Bitola, Macedonia 

Abstract 

Multimodal transport systems have not been developed sufficiently in the Republic of Macedonia. The 

introduction RO-LA of combined transport into the traffic system of the Republic of Macedonia would 

redirect a considerable portion of freight transport from the road to the railway,considering the 

advantages that the railway transportation mode has, when compared with other modes. The roads 

would be free of lorries and trailer – trucks, which would make travelling by passenger cars safer. This 

paper presents RO-LA transport technologies, expected to be achieved in Macedonia. 

Key words: combined transport, RO-LA and MODALOHR transport technologies, 


Traffic from theoretical and practical point of view, is an important factor in the social development of 

one country.Continuous improvement and modernization of the traffic, including adequate education 

and training of all participants, should always be the first place in all countries that seek improvement 

in their social and economic development. 

Multimodal transport using modern transport technologies aims to enable the connection of two or 

more traffic branches in continuous logistic transport chain. With this logistic transport chain the 

comparative advantages of each car one branch to another are highlighted, thereby each car gets it’s 

right place in thecountry transport system. Multimodal transport allows diversion of commodity flows 

from road transport to railway transport. The railway thus becomes an important factor in the 

development of the overall traffic system. 

In accordance with previous findings, using low-floor RO-LA wagons (ROLLENDE LANDSTRASSEN - 

moving time) is the essential need for modernization of the railways. When purchased , these wagons 

and vehicles must be taken into consideration the EU regulations, UIC, TE and RIV directives. 

With the construction of transport corridors and affirmation of modern transport technologies, social 

development and competitiveness of the country in the area of transit traffic is increased. By learning 

about the advantages and disadvantages of modern transport technologies, the selection of the 

optimal combination of vehicles during the implementation of the transport task is provided. 

2. MODERN TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGY- ROLLENDE LANDSTRASSEN 

Transport trucks by rail provides an array of advantages. New RO-LA systems commonly travel in 

night conditions, which enables the use of transport capacity even under conditions of road traffic ban 

for driving at night. One of the significant advantages that transportation is provided by this system is 

the rational use of driver rest period, which enables integration into the legal norms for the rest of the 

drivers, yet the vehicle is in motion. Besides this RO-LA systems reduce travel expenses, such as: 

cost of oil, fuel, tires, etc. Furthermore, users of these systems have the right to return the tax on 

Belgrade, 2012 69



motor vehicles. The advantages provided by this advanced transport technology are important for 

people and for the environment, because using this technology environmental pollution from vehicle 

exhaust is significantly reduced. 

Figure 1. Semi-trailer truck on RO-LA low-wagon http://www.t-e.nu.- 08.08.2011 

3. RO – LA WAGONS IN RAILWAY TRAFFIC 

Eight spindle low wagon is a vehicle that is equipped with two four-axle moving seats and it serves to 

transport trucks, trucks with trailers and semi-trailers, only trailers or semi-trailers and trucks. These 

wagons are designed for transporting EU trucks weighing 45 tons. Wagons are loaded with vehicles 

by a horizontal path at the end of the coupling composition, during the opening of the front bumper of 

the car. Through the set input pad can be loaded trucks with a total width of 2.6 m. and a total height 

of 4.0 m. Wagon insurance is done by setting the V-saucer under the wheels. Due to the asymmetry of 

the load, each of these cars are equipped with automatic brakes, or perform automatic regulation of 

the braking force depending on load. 

Figure 2. Low RO-LA wagon with set input pаd http://www.t-e.nu.- 08.08.2011 

Belgrade, 2012 70



The most important advantages for optimal RO-LA technology are: 

- In Ro - La technology, the risk of obsolescence low-floor cars is avoided, mainly as a result of 

resizing the road trucks, because rail low-floor wagons accept all types of trailers and semi-trailers 

without any difficulty, 

- Ro - La composition can be incorporated into any rail tracks without difficulty, 

- Optimal operation of the integrated information system in multimodal transportation 

- Application of a single peak in the multimodal transport 

- Reducing the cost of fuel, tires, maintenance, etc. in road motor vehicles, 

- Rational allocation of driving time and rest periods for drivers, without affecting the transport 

process, 

- Avoiding toll costs 

- No waiting for standstill - traffic jam 

- Avoid night driving ban. 

4. MODERN TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGY – MODALOHR 

In Europe Modalohr transport technology organized and carried by specialized national companies or 

companies for transport of road vehicles by rail. Modalohr transport technology, is also called mobile 

technology highway. Vehicle drivers during the vehicle transport rest or sleep in appropriate wagons 

for this purpose that are an integral part of the railway track. Key assumptions for the optimal 

functioning of this modern transport technology: 

- Modalohr rail composition has 40% less dead weight, in terms of classical composition wagon – 

trailer 

- Optimal operation of the integrated information system in multimodal transportation 

- Modalohr composition can without difficulty be incorporated into any rail tracks, 

- Application of a single peak in the multimodal transport 

- In Modalohr technology the risk of obsolescence is avoided in the low-floor cars , mainly as a result 

of resizing in the road trucks, because rail low-floor wagons accept all types of trailers and semitrailers 

without difficulty. 

Figure 3. Modalohr railway wagon - www.bombardier.com.- 06.08.2011 

Belgrade, 2012 71



5. MOST IMPORTANT GOALS IN MODALOHR-TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGY 

Modalohr transport terminals have to be built on intersection points of the pan-European corridors. In 

these terminals would be united the functions of road and rail traffic. The basic goals in Modalohr 

transport technology are: 

- Linking road and rail traffic on fast, reliable and rational way, no transshipment of goods from road to 

railway transport capacity and vice versa, 

- Optimization of the effects of the rail and road infrastructure 

- Accelerate the manipulation and transport of goods in the combined road-rail traffic 

- Qualitative and quantitative maximization of technical, technological, organizational and economic 

effects in the production and transport of goods, 

- Maximizing the effects of the work of creative and functional managers. 

These terminals should be managed by the state or the public sector. Prerequisite for the construction 

of such terminals is the location where this terminal is provided,must dispose with access roads, as 

well as anything else that covers the public sector. Construction of such terminals can attract private 

investors. 

Encouragement measures for RO-LA and MODALOHR transport technology Development 

Measures that the state can undertake for the development of these types of modern transport 

technologies, according to the experiences of Western European countries, comprise the following: 

- Reduction of tax when purchasing means of transport for this type of transport technologies 

- Application of appropriate policy in the allocation of truck transport permits 

- Ensuring favorable loans for the purchase of transport vehicles within these modern transport 

technologies, 

- Funding for the construction of the necessary infrastructure and appropriate terminals for this type of 

combined transport. 

6. CONCLUSION 

Taking into account the flexibility of the modern railway transport technologies mentioned above,are 

supposed to perceive the advantages of the introduction of these technologies. RO-LA technology has 

particular advantages in the areas where are no major distribution containers. In the Balkan countries 

shipping container of goods is not on a high level, compared to the countries of the European Union, 

and existing container terminals could be used as terminals for RO-LA and MODALOHR transport 

technologies. Combined transport is a significant factor in reducing traffic jams and saturated traffic 

routes in the countries of the European Union. If you are seeking to join the European Union, then you 

have to accept its norms in all segments, even in the area of traffic transport and transport of goods, 

which has great importance for the overall social and economic development of every country. 

LITERATURE 

[1] Marković, I,: Integral transport and traffic flows, Faculty of technical sciences, Zagreb, 1990. 

[2] Hauger G., Hörl B., „Verkehrsträger im alpinen Raum - Technische Lösungen zur Bewältigung 

der Verkehrsströme“, Wien, 2004. 

[3] http://www.bombardier.com.- 06.08.2011 

[4] http://www.t-e.nu.- 08.08.2011 

Belgrade, 2012 72



MARSHALLING YARDS ALONG THE PANEUROPEAN RAILWAY 

CORRIDORS 

Peter Marton, Faculty of Management Science & Informatics, University of Žilina, Žilina, Slovakia 

Ivan Belošević, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, 

Serbia 

Abstract 

Long-term effort of the European Commission is to enable rail to compete effectively and take a 

significantly greater proportion of medium and long distance freight. European Union needs especially 

the freight corridors that enable to rail freight to optimize energy consumption that are attractive for 

their reliability, limited congestion and low operating and administrative costs. Marshalling yards are 

integral part of pan European corridors for rail freight. 

Key words: railway, marshalling yards, technical specifications and recommendation 


European railway operators offer a wide range of products in frame of freight railway transportation. 

Single wagonload (SWL) belongs to one of basic products offered freight railway transportation. Other 

traditional products are intermodal transport and block (full) trains. SWL accounts for approximately 

50% of Europe’s total rail market [9]. We focus on marshalling yards in this paper. Existence of 

marshalling yards and their services are very important for quality of SWL. 

2. ROLE OF THE MARSHALLING YARDS IN THE RAILWAY NETWORK 

Movement of the railway vehicles can be realized by two ways on the railway infrastructure – as 

a shunting movement or as a train movement. Shunting movements could be understood as 

subsidiary to the train movements. Shunting movements are in passenger transportation used to bring 

wagons to the platform or pick up them from platform. It is similarly by intermodal transport and block 

trains in freight transportation. Shunting movements are used only to relocate wagons from one track 

to another one. Completely different is it by SWL. SWL system is comparable with a „hub and spoke 

system“. It is a network system which consists of customers’ sidings, stations and marshalling yards. 

Single wagons or wagon groups are transported by several trains. First, wagons are added to local 

freight trains (feeder service) in customer sidings or stations to transport it to marshalling yards. Then, 

generally, wagons are transported from one marshalling yard to another one by direct long-distance 

trains. Finally, wagons are distributed by local freight trains from marshalling yards to customer sidings 

or stations in catchment area of marshalling yard. It means that several wagon „transfers“ from one 

train to another one are necessary. Wagon „transfers“ are called as train formation and are realized in 

marshalling yards. Wagons’ sorting is important part of train formation. Marshalling yards are the 

biggest workplaces of railway transportation. They occupy large areas, mostly on edge of large railway 

junctions. Shunting movements prevail train movements in marshalling yards. 

3. MARSHALLING YARDS IN DOCUMENTS OF EUROPEAN UNION AND UNITED NATIONS 

Marshalling yards are used not only for domestic SWL. Some marshalling yards in Europe are 

connected by direct long-distance trains several times per week. Alliance Xrail is the most know 

initiative in international SWL in last years [10]. Importance of marshalling yards for international 

Belgrade, 2012 73



railway transportation is proven by several references in documents of European Union and United 

Nations. 

3.1. Technical Specifications for Interoperability (TSI) 

The TSI are specifications drafted by the European Railway Agency and adopted in a Decision by the 

European Commission, to ensure the interoperability of the trans-European rail system. The first set of 

TSI was adopted in 2002 for the trans-European high speed rail system. TSIs related to freight 

wagons, telematics applications for freight, control-command and signaling, noise emitted by rolling 

stock and traffic operation and management were adopted in late 2004 and mid-2005. The revision of 

the TSI related to freight wagons was started with the aim of finalizing it by early 2011. As an 

intermediate step, amendments of the conventional freight wagon and operation TSIs, facilitating the 

traffic across borders under the so-called „cross-authorization“ of the freight wagons, were adopted in 

2009 [5]. 

Marshalling yards are explicitly mentioned in TSI TAF, TSI WAG and TSI CCS. For example, under 

TSI TAF, for the reporting of the movement of a wagon, specific data must be stored and electronically 

accessible – Wagon Yard Arrival, Wagon Yard Departure [3]. These messages are mentioned in same 

document as relevant for measurement of quality. TSI WAG defines conditions for wagon construction 

concerning passing over vertical transition curves in marshalling yard humps and over braking, 

shunting or stopping devices [2]. The aim of ERMTS European Deployment Plan mentioned in TSI 

CCS is to ensure that locomotive, wagons and other railway vehicles equipped with ERMTS can 

gradually have access to an increasing number of lines, ports, terminals and marshalling yards without 

needing national equipment in addition to ERTMS. List of main European ports, marshalling yards, 

freight terminals and freight transport area is defined by TSI CCS. The ports, marshalling yards, freight 

terminals and freight transport areas listed in this list shall be linked to at least one of the six corridors 

specified in TSI CCS. The date and the conditions of it are specified in this document too [1]. 

3.2. European Agreement of Main International Railway Lines (AGC) 

AGC provides the legal and technical framework for the development of a coherent international rail 

network in Europe. The AGC identifies the rail lines of major international importance, the E-rail 

network and defines the infrastructure parameters to which they should conform. It defines 

infrastructure parameters for two categories of lines: those are already existing and those to be newly 

constructed. The latter are again divided into lines for freight and passenger traffic and others for 

passenger traffic only [11]. This document has undergone several revisions in frame of sessions of 

Inland Transport Committee of United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. Working Party of 

Rail Transport issued Recommendation concerning the system of marshalling yards of major 

European importance by its resolution No. 66 on July 31st 2000 [6]. Concentration of international 

traffic in a limited number of marshalling yards is recommended in this document. Marshalling yards 

should under this recommendation: 

make up freight trains for foreign destinations or receive freight trains from other countries 

be situated on lines within the European railway network or near and with good connections to 

the domestic network, 

correspond to these parameters: 

o yard has two or three subyards (reception and classification/departure or reception, 

classification and departure yard), 

o working length of track in yards is no less than 750 meters, 

o wagon sorting is realized using mechanization and automation equipment in the 

hump, 

o operation is managed using automated control system. 

Belgrade, 2012 74



3.3. Rail Net Europe (RNE) 

RNE was created in January 2004 on the initiative of a number of European railway Infrastructure 

Managers and Allocation Bodies, who wished to establish a common, Europe-wide organization. 

Together, the current 37 members of RNE are promoting a business approach and harmonizing the 

use of rail infrastructure for the benefit of the entire rail industry across Europe [4]. RNE strives to 

simplify, harmonize and optimize international rail processes [8] such as: 

Europe-wide timetabling, 

common marketing & sales approaches, 

co-operation between Infrastructure Managers in field of operations, 

train information exchange in real time across borders, 

after-sales services. 

Eleven Pan-European Corridors are defined in frame of RNE. List of these corridors is in Table 1. 

C01 

C02 

C03 

C04 

C05 

C06 

C07 

C08 

C09 

C10 

C11 

Table 1. RNE Corridors 

Oslo/Turku – Malmö – Padborg/Rostock – Hamburg 

Antwerpen/Rotterdam – Köln – Mannheim – Basel – Genova 

Rotterdam/Antwerpen – Ruhr Area – Warszawa/Katowice 

Hamburg/Bremerhaven – Würzburg – München/Passau – Wien/Salzburg – Verona 

Rotterdam/Antwerpen – Luxembourg/Paris – Lyon/Basel 

Mannheim/Gremberg – Nîmes – Perpignan – Barcelona – Valencia/Paris – Madrid – Lisboa 

Gdynia – Ponętów/Warszawa – Katowice – Wien/Bratislava – Trieste/Koper 

Lyon/Dijon – Torino – Ljubljana/Koper – Budapest 

Wien – Budapest – Bucureşti – Constanţa/Kulata/Svilengrad/Varna/Burgas 

Hamburg – Dresden – Praha – Bratislava – Budapest 

München – Salzburg – Ljubljana – Zagreb – Beograd – Sofia - Istanbul 

Data source: www.rne.eu 

Information flyer is available for each corridor. Flyers include information about distances among 

important terminals (sections), limits of train length, weight and speed on corridor sections and other 

detailed information. Characteristic of terminals are available too. Pictograms show nature of 

terminals, e.g. Bi Modal Terminal, Tri Modal Terminal, and Shunting Yard. 

4. OVERVIEW OF IMPORTANT MARSHALLING YARDS ON RNE CORRIDORS 

We have prepared a table based on information flyers about RNE Corridors (see Table 2). This table 

contains list of important marshalling yards on RNE Corridors. We used characteristic „Shunting Yard“ 

to identify marshalling yard on these corridors. Further we asked Infrastructure Managers for 

cooperation to complete list of shunting yards that are in operation and where hump is used for 

wagons sorting. Some interesting information was founded during compilation of this table: 

most shunting yards due to country area are in Czech Republic – all are equipped by hump, 

most shunting yards overall are in Germany, 

some large states have few shunting yards equipped by hump – e.g. France, Italy. 

Country 

Table 2. List of important marshalling yard on RNE corridors 

Total 

With hump Yard location 

number 

Austria 8 8 

Bruck a.d. Mur, Graz, Hall in Tirol, Linz, 

Salzburg, Villach, Wels, Wien 

Belgium 9 1 Antwerpen 

Croatia 2 1 Zagreb 

Belgrade, 2012 75



Czech 

Republic 

13 13 

Bohumin, Breclav, Brno, Ceska Trebova, 

Decin, Havlickuv Brod, Kolin, Kralupy n/V, 

Nymburk, Ostrava, Pardubice, Praha, Prerov 

Denmark 4 0 - 

France 15 3 Le Bourget, Sibelin, Woippy 

Germany 28 15 

Berlin, Bremen, Bremerhaven, Hamburg, 

Hannover, Kassel, Köln, Leipzig, Mainz, 

Mannheim, München, Nürnberg, 

Oberhausen, Osnabrück, Rostock 

Hungary 4 1 Budapest 

Italy 16 2 Bologna, Cervignano 

Luxemburg 1 1 Bettembourg 

Netherlands 1 1 Rotterdam 

Norway 1 1 Oslo 

Poland 6 6 

Gdansk, Gdynia, Poznan, Warszawa, 

Wroclaw, Zabrzeg Czarnolesie 

Romania 5 5 Brasov, Bucuresti, Craiova, Ploiesti, Simeria 

Serbia 3 1 Beograd 

Slovakia 10 5 

Bratislava, Cierna nad Tisou, Kosice, 

Sturovo, Zilina 

Slovenia 6 1 Ljubljana 

Sweden 3 3 Götteborg, Hallsberg, Malmö 

Switzerland 1 1 Zürich 

Data Sources: RNE, IM, authors 

5. MARSHALLING YARDS ON PAN-EUROPEAN CORRIDOR X 

The Corridor X has been adopted during the third Pan-European Transport Conference held in 

Helsinki in 1997. The strategic objective of the Corridor was to connect Greece with other member 

states (especially Austria) as well as to provide quality transport route from Germany to South-East 

Europe and the Middle East. Also this Corridor provided an opportunity to modernize the 

transportation network and even the revival of the overall investment activities in the countries through 

which it passes. The importance and significance of this transport route was confirmed by including 

mainly part of Corridor X in the RNE network as Corridor 11. 

Total length of the railway corridor is 2 528 km and passes through Salzburg – Villach – 

Rosenbach/Jesenice – Ljubljana – Zidani Most – Dobova/Savski Marof – Zagreb – Tovarnik/Šid – 

Beograd – Niš – Preševo/Tabanovce – Skopje – Gevgelija/Idomeni – Thessaloniki. The main axis has 

four branches: 

Branch A: Graz – Spielfeld/Šentilj – Maribor – Zidani Most, 

Branch B: Budapest – Kelebia – Subotica – Novi Sad –Beograd, 

Branch C: Niš – Dimitrovgrad/Kalotina – Sofia, 

Branch D: Veles – Kremenica/Mesonision– Florina. 

Eight hump yards and seven flat yards execute almost all freight train formation on the Corridor. 

Average catchment area of each marshalling yard is around 170 km. These marshalling yards can be 

divided in groups: bound yards, main yards and satellite yards. 

Bound yards' task is to sort wagon flows for further railway routes that are linked with Corridor X. 

Bound yards on this Corridor are: Salzburg Gnigl and Thessaloniki Dialogi (main axis), Graz (branch 

A), Budapest Ferencváros (branch B), Sofia Poduene (branch C). Main marshalling yards are situated 

Belgrade, 2012 76



on the Corridor's axis and they create direct single or multigroup trains to other main marshalling yards 

on the Corridor. Villach Süd (Austria) and core marshalling yards of former Yugoslav Railway 

(Ljubljana Zalog, Zagreb RK, Beograd Ranžirna, Skopje Trubarevo) present main marshalling yards 

on Corridor X. All these main marshalling yards are designed as hump yards with high capacity for 

wagon classification. Each yard has a hump equipped with two tracks for wagons rolling in a 

classification bowl. It should be emphasized that on the corridor main axis is located and marshalling 

yard Vinkovci. Vinkovci yard is a multiple yard with two separate yards for up and down direction. 

Vinkovci was the busiest marshalling yard of the former Yugoslavia and one of the largest in Central 

and Southeastern Europe. In last decades number of trains for formation in this yard has been 

decreased drastically. For that reason Vinkovci lost it’s place in the region marshalling network and is 

currently out of service. 

Satellite yard works additional distribution and arrangement of wagons for main yard's catchment area. 

On this Corridor five flat yards have the role of satellite yards. 

Figure 12. Marshalling yards on Pan European Corridor X 

Salzburg Gnigl presents a strategic node for Corridor X because it is situated on TEN-T Priority Axis 

17 [7] . This priority railway axis will provide a continuous rail axis for both passengers and freight from 

Paris to Bratislava. Benefit of this connection is in the fact that today over half of the rail-freight traffic, 

on several sections of the Axis, is between Member States, and volumes will grow further following 

enlargement. Also Salzburg is situated on RNE Corridor 4. This node will improve access to and from 

the many conurbations along TEN-T Axis and RNE Corridor to Corridor X. Villach Süd, Graz and 

Ljubljana Zalog, are proposed for terminals on RNE Corridor 7. Villach Süd marshalling yard has the 

highest potential in view of position within the intersection of important railway axes. This yard could 

evolve in a huge hub and a link to international transport systems. Also and other bound yards are 

promoted for nodes on RNE Network. Ferencváros, Poduene and Dialogi are backbone marshalling 

yards on RNE Corridor 9. This Corridor allows connections between the Baltic Sea, the Aegean Sea 

and the Black Sea. 

Belgrade, 2012 77



Name 

Table 3. List of Marshalling Yards on Pan European Corridor X 

Position on 

Role of yard 

Type of yard 

Corridor 

on Corridor 

Salzburg Gnigl Main axis Bound yard Hump yard 

Villach Süd Main axis Main yard Hump yard 

Ljubljana Zalog Main axis Main yard Hump yard 

Graz Branch A Bound yard Flat yard 

Maribor Branch A Satellite yard Flat yard 

Zagreb RK Main axis Main yard Hump yard 

Beograd Ranžirna Main axis Main yard Hump yard 

Budapest Ferencváros Branch B Bound yard Hump yard 

Subotica Branch B Satellite yard Flat yard 

Novi Sad Branch B Satellite yard Flat yard 

Lapovo Main axis Satellite yard Flat yard 

Niš Main axis Satellite yard Flat yard 

Sofia Poduene Branch C Bound yard Hump yard 

Skopje Trubarevo Main axis Main yard Hump yard 

Tessaloniki Dialogi Main axis Bound yard Flat yard 


High costs of shunting and too long wagon circulation in the railway network are clear disadvantages 

of the single wagonload transport. Concerning these disadvantages volume of the wagonload 

transport decreases every year. Nevertheless, customers are still interested in using this kind of the 

freight railway transport. European Commission declared interest of re-design of this service. It is 

necessary to make the train formation more efficient because it has an impact on a possibility to 

perform the single wagonload transport in the future. 


This paper is realized and supported in a frame of Serbian-Slovak science and technology cooperation 

within the research project “Reconstruction and revitalization of railway infrastructure in 

accordance with regional development” (No. 680-00-140/2012-09/10 in Serbia and No. SK-SRB-0050- 

11 in Slovakia). 

Belgrade, 2012 78



REFERENCES 

[1] Commission Decision concerning the technical specification of interoperability relating to the 

control-command and signalling subsystems of the trans-European rail system, Official 

Journal of the European Union – L 51/1, 23. 2. 2012. 

[2] Commission Decision concerning the technical specification of interoperability relating to the 

subsystem ‚rolling stock – freight wagons‘ of the trans-European convential rail system, 

Official Journal of the European Union – L 344/1, 8. 12. 2006. 

[3] Commission Regulation (EC) No 62/2006 concerning the technical specification for 

interoperability relating to the telematic applications for freight subsystem of the trans- 

European conventional rail system, Official Journal of the European Union – L 13/1, 18. 1. 

2006. 

[4] Corridor Rotterdam – Genoa. Corridor A. Online in Internet. 

[Cited 2012-07-29] 

[5] Drafting and revising TSIs. European Railway Agency. Online in Internet 

[Cited 2012-08-23] 

[6] Recommendation concerning the system of marshalling yards of major European 

importance, TRANS/SC.2/165/Rev.2. Working Party on Rail Transport. Inland Transport 

Committee. Economic and Social Council. Economic Commission for Europe. United 

Nations. Online in Internet 

[Cited 

2012-07-15] 

[7] Priority Projects 2010 A Detailed Analysis, DG MOVE and TEN-T EA, European 

Commission, Brussels, December 2010. 

[8] RailNetEurope. RNE. Online in Internet. [Cited 2012-08- 

12] 

[9] Single wagon load [online]. International Union of Railways UIC. Online in Internet 

[Cited 2012-08-22] 

[10] The transparent quality network – Xrail. Xrail. Online in Internet [Cited 

2012-08-22] 

[11] Transport Infrastructure Development. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe 

UNECE. Online in Internet 

[Cited 2012-08-23] 

Belgrade, 2012 79



THE CURRENT STATUS OF PREPARATION AND REALIZATION OF 

TRANS-EUROPEAN RAILWAY LINES PASSING THROUGH THE 

TERRITORY OF THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC 

Prof. Eng. Libor Ižvolt, Ph.D. Department of Railway Engineering and Track Management, Faculty of 

Civil Engineering, University of Žilina Univerzitná, Žilina, Slovakia 

Abstract 

This paper presents the current status and overview of ongoing and planned modernization of railway 

infrastructure in Slovakia in relation to the trans-European corridors passing through the territory of the 

Slovak Republic. Following the technical requirements resulting from the international agreements 

AGC and AGTC and the interoperability requirements; the current and future trends in design of 

modernization of the main rail corridors for the operation of train sets at the speed of 160 km.h -1 and 

for the train sets with tilting units up to 200 km.h -1 are characterized there. 


The political goal of the common transport policy of the European Union is to ensure the territorial and 

economical cohesion of European regions. The unsatisfactory accessibility to any area in the 

European territory is a serious obstacle that limits the development of regions, the influx of foreign 

and domestic capital and the workforce mobility. Due to this the transport policy of the E.U, presented 

by the White Paper, and the subsequent legislative activities focus on the support of railway transport 

and the increase of its competitiveness against other means of transport. This is understandable as 

railway transport is one of the safest and most environment-friendly transport systems. Reinforcing the 

safety of railway transport alongside with the railway interoperability are the pillars of the forming 

European integrated railway area. 

The modernisation of railway infrastructure in the area of SR aligns with and relates to the E.U. 

transport policy, attempting to benefit from its relatively favourable geographical position and includes 

its main rail tracks into the defined European railway corridors. The European project of Trans- 

European transport corridors was started in 1991 in a Prague conference. In the 2. Pan-European 

transportation conference in March 1994 in Crete 9 corridors were defined. They represent the main 

transport axes among the E.U and the states of Central and Eastern Europe. The proceedings of this 

conference were revised and sup-plemented in the 3. Conference in Helsinki in 1997. That is why 

these corridors are sometimes referred to as „Crete corridors“ or „Helsinki corridors“ regardless of their 

real location. Thanks to ceasing the conflict among the states of the former Yugoslavia the tenth and 

subsequently the eleventh corridors were designed. The eleventh corridor stretches from Romania 

through Serbia and Montenegro to Italy. This network of corridors connects Europe from the Atlantic to 

the Urals and from Scandinavia to the Mediterranean, while the main reason for its existence is 

improving the transport infrastructure internationally. In 2004, due to the decision of EP and EC 

884/2004/ES, the number of corridors increased to 30, while their realization is assumed by 2020. 

These corridors are different from the Trans-European transport network. The Trans-European 

transport network was the E.U. project that stated all the main routes in the European union but at 

present there are some proposal of connecting these two systems. This is also supported by the fact 

that the majority of participating countries are the E.U. members now. 

The TEN-T network comprises: 

75200 km of roads 

78000 km of railway tracks 

330 airports 

270 sea ports 

210 river ports 

and is shown in Fig. 1. 

The Slovak railway network is a part of several important European corridors (corridors AGC, AGTC, 

TEN-T), and these are (Fig.2): 

Belgrade, 2012 80



Corridor No. IV – Dresden - Praha - Bratislava/Wien - Budapest - Arad (+ branches) (including the 

track Komárno - Nové Zámky, as a part of the freight corridor E), 

Corridor No. V – Venezia - Trieste/Koper - Ljublana - Budapest - Čop - Ľvov; with the branch Va, 

passing through the Slovak territory with the section Bratislava - Žilina - Košice - Čierna nad Tisou – 

Čop as a corridor Va, 

Corridor No.VI – Gdańsk - Warszawa - Katowice - Zwardoń/Čadca - Žilina (branches Bielsko Biała - 

Ostrava - Břeclav), 

TEN-T No. 17 – Paris - Strassbourg - Stuttgart - Wien - Bratislava, (ŽSR part ÖBB 

Kittsee/Bratislava-Petržalka - node Bratislava, ÖBB Marcheg/ŽSR Devínska Nová Ves), 

TEN-T No. 23 – Gdańsk - Warszawa - Brno/Bratislava (Zwardoń PKP/ŽSR Skalité - Čadca - Žilina - 

Nové Mesto nad Váhom), Corridor E - Dresden - Prague - Wien/Bratislava - Budapest. 

Fig. 1 Trans-European corridors TEN-T [4] 

Fig. 2 Corridors passing through the area of the Slovak republic [7] 

Belgrade, 2012 81



2. REQUIREMENTS FOR MODERNISATION OF RAILWAY LINES IN SR 

In the area of the Slovak republic, that has been the E.U. member since 1.5.2004, the preparation of 

its outdated railway network modernisation started in the beginning of 1990s (practically immediatelly 

after the establishment of the Slovak republic in 1993). The priority of the Slovak republic is to meet 

the obligations concerning the TEN-T network development and the defined E.U. priority projects. 

From the point of view of railway infrastructure it is the interest of the Slovak republic to modernise the 

tracks included in the pan-European corridors no. IV, Va and VI that are the parts of the trans- 

European network TEN-T as fast as possible and with the highest investment priority. Due to this 

reason, it is a priority to realize the so called priority projects of European importance – priority project 

No. 17, railway axis Paris - Strassbourg - Stuttgart - Wien - Bratislava and the priority project No. 23, 

railway axis Gdańsk - Warszawa - Brno/Bratislava (Zwardoń PKP/ŽSR Skalité - Čadca - Žilina - Nové 

Mesto nad Váhom). 

The aim of the modernisation of railway lines in the Slovak territory is not only to reach their required 

technical level, characteristic for the European railways of the 21.century but also to enable a better 

accessibility to the trans-European transport network and the transport networks of the neighbouring 

states. However, the comfort, stricter requirements for the geometric position of rails, planned 

reconstructions of station buildings, construction of platforms of sufficient length with a barrier-free 

access, employment of modern train sets, etc. and operational safety (removal of level crossings, 

modernisation of safety equipment) have to be enhanced as well. Moreover, it is expected that the 

modernisation of railway infrastructure will bring a reduction of operating costs for ŽSR (Railway of 

Slovak republic) safety equipment that manages the traffic does not require so many staff to operate it 

and the modern technology significantly decreases the maintenance costs. The proposal of railway 

line modernisation has to respect the technical requirements in accordance with the international 

agreements AGC and AGTC and after realisation of this modernisation these lines have to meet the 

requirements for ensuring the interoperability of the European Rail Traffic Management System in 

order to provide the mobility of train sets and efficient use of the single European space. 

The modernisation of ŽSR railway lines is realized according to [2] and includes: 

complex reconstruction of railway substructure and superstructure including all the bridges and 

culverts, 

incorporation of platforms on all the railway stations and stops on the modernised line sections; the 

platforms of the railway stations are always placed in a way that the platform edge is at the first 

passing rail, so the platform edge is located at the height of 550 mm above the rail surface. They 

are in the stations where the express trains of the length of 400 m may stop and at stops where the 

passenger trains of the length 250 m may stop. The construction of level access to platforms is also 

planned. 

increase of the turnout layout penetrability by installing the slim turnouts; at the turnout layouts of 

a modernised station there is always at least one „fast“ rail crossover located between the main 

rails, while the turnouts in the rail crossovers and the connected turnouts for the branch rails in the 

common turnout layout are designed for the same speed in the diverging branch, at least 80 km.h -1 , 

completely new safety equipment and communication equipment, reconstruction of power supply 

stations, switching stations and TV, 

in order to increase the safety of railway operation the rail crossings are being replaced with grade 

separated crossings, 

in the places where the noise levels do not meet the given limits, the noise walls are being built. 

As a result of increasing the speeds to 160 km.h -1 (200 km.h -1 ), high standards are set to the 

geometric position of rails (direction and height ratios, track layout) of the modernised lines. The 

present rail lines do not often meet these requirements and the routes are often led on new track beds 

and only in partial sections they follow the original track axis. The crossings with roads are solved 

almost exclusively by grade separated crossings (some exceptions can be found in the sections 

designed for speeds lower than 160 km.h -1 ). In many cases it is necessary to relocate the existing 

roads or watercourses. Considering the geographical conditions of Slovakia, tunnel routing and the 

construction of new tunnels is not unusual. The latest tunnel of ŽSR lines was built in 1966. 

The modernisation of corridor tracks also involves complex reconstruction of catenaries – the change 

of power supply system from DC (3 kV) to AC (25 kV). The concerned heavy current distributions and 

Belgrade, 2012 82



electric lighting are also being reconstructed, electric turnout heating is being installed. Naturally, the 

modernised lines are also equipped with modern telecommunication technology – new telecommunication 

systems for data transmission and digitization of all the railway communication network. 

An important feature of modernised ŽSR lines are noise related measures. To eliminate the negative 

effects of noise on people and the line surrounding, the noise maps are already constructed in the 

stage of project preparation. In case of unsatisfactory noise levels of equivalent noise level ΔL Ae antinoise 

measures are proposed, most frequently noise walls (PHS). 

3. OVERVIEW OF COMPLETED STRUCTURES OF ŽSR RAILWAY INFRASTRUCTURE 

MODERNISATION 

The modernisation of ŽSR corridors is not a short-time project and requires a very good project 

preparation and particularly, considerable amount of funding. Despite the fact that the modernisation 

plan of railway infrastructure was based on the documents approved by several Slovak governments, 

especially due to constantly changing priorities in the area of Slovak transport policy, long-term lack of 

funds for railway infrastructure as well current global economic crisis; it is difficult to estimate the 

relevancy of individual deadlines and the exact time horizon of modernisation completion in the Slovak 

territory. When we assess the present state of the ŽSR railway modernisation, it is necessary to point 

out that that the progress of railway infrastructure modernisation shows a considerable time lag. This 

can be demonstrated by the fact that the initial plan of works at the ŽSR corridor line modernisation 

stated the work completion in 2010. Meanwhile, the modernisation plan has had to be updated and 

adapted several times due to various, primarily financial reasons. 

Until the end of 2011 in the Slovak territory, 92 km of railway lines on the corridor Va (Bratislava-Rača 

– Nové Mesto nad Váhom), 18,9 km on the corridor no.VI (Žilina - Krásno nad Kysucou) were 

modernised, including all the stations and stops on these lines. The platformization in the railway 

stations Poprad and Prešov and the revitalization of the marshalling yard Žilina-Teplička were also 

completed. 

The first structure of the railway infrastructure modernisation in the ŽSR network was the 

modernisation of the double rail line Bratislava-Rača – Trnava, located on the corridor Va, that was 

realized from 2006 to 2007. The preparation and project works started in 1994. The beginnings were 

relatively difficult as it was the first structure and the designers and the investor needed to gain a lot of 

experience. The most discussed issues were the line speed, (the change from 140 km.h -1 to 160 

km.h -1 ), the number of variants, axial distances not only in stations but also e.g. on bridges, the 

employment of electronic safety equipment (ESE), as well as the way of commissioning of the 

structure. The structure consisted of 3 interstational sections, namely: 

Bratislava-Rača – Šenkvice (19.460 km), completed in 2006, 

Šenkvice – Cífer (11.280 km),completed in 2007 and 

Cífer – Trnava ( 9.910 km), completed in 2007. 

Five railway stations (here on after referred to as RS) - Svätý Jur, Pezinok, Šenkvice, Cífer, Trnava 

and 2 railway stops (Báhoň, Pezinok) were modernised. Furthermore, 3 new railway bridges, 1 road 

bridge were built, 2 railway bridge objects and 1 road bridge were reconstructed on this section. There 

was also built a passenger underpass. Ten crossings with different safety levels were rebuilt to grade 

separated crossings. 

The most important structure was so called railway flyover Šenkvice – Fig. 3. The Šenkvice relocation 

that included this flyover is located on the line section RS Pezinok – RS Šenkvice. The concerned line 

section is led on the track relocation that is largely formed by rail embankment, up to 8 m high, and the 

Belgrade, 2012 83



substantial part of relocation is formed by railway flyover that is, 753 m long. The bridge structure from 

pre-stressed concrete, 753 m long, is a unique structure on Slovak railway lines. 

To summarize the time interval of this construction – the beginning of project preparation was in 1994, 

the completion in 2007. From the present point of view 14 years is a too long period to be considered 

acceptable for an investor, especially in case of 50 km- long section. But these were the beginnings of 

modernisation…. . 

Fig. 3 Relocation Šenkvice 

The modernisation of the line Trnava – Nové Mesto nad Váhom in the section RS Trnava – RS 

Piešťany started in 2004 and was completed in 2008. It was divided into track sections: 

Trnava – Piešťany (32.950 km) and 

Piešťany – Nové Mesto nad Váhom (19.980 km). 

The modernisation of the track section Trnava – Piešťany consisted of the reconstruction of RS 

Leopoldov and RS Veľké Kostoľany, 3 railway stops (Brestovany, Madunice, Drahovce) and 4 interstational 

sections. The modernisation works also included construction of 5 new railway bridges, 

reconstruction of 7 existing railway bridges, construction of 5 road bridge objects, 8 underpasses, 

1 luggage tunnel and a railway footbridge. The most complicated part of the construction was the 

reconstruction of RS Leopoldov, that is an important railway node in the region (Fig. 4). 

Fig. 4 Modernised RS Leopoldov [5] 

The modernisation of the track section Piešťany – Nové Mesto nad Váhom was divided into 5 parts, 

two of them were RS Piešťany and RS Nové Mesto nad Váhom (Fig. 5) and the other 2 were 

interstational sections. The modernisation comprised the construction and renovation of the railway 

Belgrade, 2012 84



stops Horná Streda, Brunovce and Považany, realization of 2 new railway bridges over roads, 

reconstruction of 2 existing railway bridges and 6 road flyovers including the bridge over river Dubová, 

creation of 6 new railway underpasses for passengers and public in the railway stops and stations as 

well as 2 underpasses as luggage tunnels. 

Fig. 5 Modernised RS Nové Mesto nad Váhom in the direction from Bratislava [5] 

In 2007 the construction of platforms at RS Prešov and RS Poprad-Tatry was completed and from 

2008 to 2011 a part of the corridor no. VI in the section Žilina – Krásno nad Kysucou (11.326 km) was 

modernised. This line was divided into 4 sections, 2 of them were the railway stations Kysucké Nové 

Mesto and Krásno nad Kysucou and 2 interstational sections on the line, railway stops Brodno, 

Rudina, Ochodnica and Dunajov. The rebuilding and reconstruction included 9 bridge objects, 2 road 

objects and 1 new railway bridge, underpasses for passengers in the railway stations and 2 footbridges. 

Within the modernisation 12 crossings altogether were reconstructed (in the sections where 

the designed speed is < 160 km.h -1 ). 

A present, in relation to the Program of Modernisation and Development of Railway Infrastructure for 

2011 to 2014, that was approved by the Slovak government in 10/2010, the preparation or realization 

of several structures within the modernisation of Slovak railway infrastructure is in progress. On the 

basis of this plan, in 2011 - 2014 another 56.800 km of lines will be built and in 2015 another 30.200 

km. The steps of the modernisation of the corridor no. Va, no. VI and TEN-T 17, including the financial 

costs for their realization are given by Fig. 6. 

Fig. 6 Plan of modernisation of the corridors no. Va and no.VI [1] 

The track section of the corridor no. Va between RS Nové Mesto nad Váhom and RS Púchov is 

supposed to be completed by 2014. The construction is divided into 6 stages: 

Nové Mesto nad Váhom - Zlatovce – 1.and 2. stage, 

Zlatovce - Trenčianska Teplá – 3. stage, 

Trenčianska Teplá - Beluša – 4 and 5. stage, 

Beluša - Púchov – 6.stage. 

The section Nové Mesto nad Váhom - Zlatovce will undergo the modernisation of 17.475 km of railway 

line. The construction works started on 29.9.2009 and the work completion is planned for May 2013. 

Belgrade, 2012 85



The works are divided into 2 stages. The first stage is formed by the section Nové Mesto nad Váhom - 

Trenčianske Bohuslavice, that consists of the modernisation of the RS Trenčianske Bohuslavice, 

where on the turnout layout of Žilina direction the first crossover from turnouts of 1:26,5-2500 on ŽSR 

lines is fitted, and there is also a dual rail tunnel under Turecký vrch mountain and the construction of 

first ever section with the solid track on ŽSR lines- in the tunnel and on its glacis. Within the 

modernisation, 1 new railway bridge, 1 new road bridge, and 1 281m of noise walls will be built. 

4 existing railway bridge objects will be reconstructed. 

The plans for construction of the tunnel Turecký vrch, which overall length in the axis is 1775 m, 

started 45 years ago. The excavated part of the tunnel is 1 740 m long, the remaining 35 m (25 m on 

the southern and 10 m on the northern pillar) are realized in the open building pit and later on 

imbanked in a way that the terrain over the tunnel would return to its original level as much 

as possible. The direction ratios of the track in the tunnel are designed for the speed 200 km.h -1 and 

are formed by 2 opposing arches of the radius 2 000 m with a straight interline that is 573 m long. 

The designed track gradient in the tunnel is roof-shaped with the gradients +4.887 ‰ and -3.500 ‰, 

with regard to the tunnel drainage. In all the length (including the portal sections) there is a uniform 

cross-section of the dual rail tunnel with the light radius of the tunnel tube 6.10 and with the axial 

distance of the rails 4.20 m. In the overall tunnel length on both sides the rescue niches are located in 

the mutual distances of 20 m. Due to the decrease of the mining works area and also due to durability 

and fixed position of the rail or its minimal maintenance in operation, the solid track of type RHEDA 

2000 was chosen as a railway superstructure. It is also placed in the parts of the track in front of the 

both portals (Fig 7). Out of the overall length 2 280.145 m, besides the tunnel (1 775 m), 34.770 m of 

the solid track on is placed on bridges, 425.000 m on earthwork and 45.175 m is formed by the 

transition area. The indisputable advantage of this structure is the permanent geometric rail position 

and the durability, that is stated by the producers as minimally 60 years. Especially in the tunnels, 

where every track closure activity is rather problematic, these properties are invaluable. 

Fig. 7 The tunnel Turecký vrch (the northern porta)l under construction with the view 

of the solid railroad RHEDA 2000 being built 

The second stage consists of the modernisation of the railway stations Trenčianske Bohuslavice and 

Melčice, of 2 interstational sections Trenčianske Bohuslavice – Melčice and Melčice – Zlatovce and 

railway stop Kostolná-Záriečie (Fig. 8). Within the modernisation 1 new railway bridge, 5 new road 

bridges, 3 underpasses in the railway stations for the passengers and 3 underpasses for public as well 

as 1 281 m of noise walls will be built. 6 existing railway bridge objects will be reconstructed. 

. 

Fig. 8 Railway stop Kostolná-Záriečie 

The section Zlatovce – Trenčianska Teplá (3. stage) involves modernisation of 11.952 km of railway 

track. In the respective section 2 railway stations are located, namely Zlatovce and Trenčín. After 

modernisation they will merge into RS Trenčín with the districts Trenčín and Zlatovce. The 

interstational section between Zlatovce and Trenčin is formed by the new ferroconcrete railway bridge 

over the river Váh, 360 m long, that was designed to reach the required speed 140 km.h -1 . Within this 

Belgrade, 2012 86



modernisation of railway stop Opatová nad Váhom, 9 new underpasses for passengers, 1 new 

luggage tunnel, 4 new road bridges, 8 new railway bridges and 7 452 m of noise walls will be built. 

2 railway bridges will be reconstructed. The representation of the track routing in the vicinity of RS 

Trenčín and the visualization of the most important structures realized in this track section, are 

demonstrated by Fig. 9. 

Fig. 9 Roting of the modernised section in the vicinity of the future railway station Trenčín, 

visualisation of the bridge object over the river Váh and the future railway station Trenčín 

The section Trenčianska Teplá – Beluša (4. and 5. stage) involves the modernisation of 20.409 km of 

railway line, including the railway stations Trenčianska Teplá, Dubnica, Ilava and Ladce. Within the 

modernisation 6 new road bridges will be built and the same number of them will be reconstructed. 

4 new railway bridges will be built as well as 7 underpasses in the railway stations for the passengers 

and public and there are designed 6 349 m of noise walls. 10 existing railway bridge objects will be 

reconstructed. 

The section Beluša – Púchov (6. stage) involves the modernisation of 7.000 km of railway line, 

including RS Beluša, RS Púchov and the railway stop Dolné Kočkovce. Within the modernisation 

4 new railway bridges, 6 new road bridges, 4 underpasses in the railway stations for the passengers 

and public will be built and 7 existing railway bridge objects reconstructed. There are also proposed 

3 857 m of noise walls along the modernised track. 

The modernisation of the railway line in the section Púchov – Žilina is divided into 2 stages. The 

section Púchov – Považská Teplá (1. stage) involves the modernisation of 15.800 km of railway line, 

including RS Považská Bystrica, reconstruction of the railway stop Nosice and the conversion of RS 

Považská Teplá to the railway stop. The section Považská Teplá – Žilina (2. stage) involves the 

modernisation of 22.700 km of railway line, including RS Bytča and RS Dolný Hričov and the railway 

stops Plevník-Drieňové, Predmier and Horný Hričov. With regard to rather demanding direction ratios 

in the stretch Púchov – Považská Bystrica, the change of track routing is necessary – Fig. 10. In this 

track section it will be necessary to span the Nosice canal and the bed of river Váh, to construct a 

traverse behind spa Nimnica through the tunnel as well as a subsequent overpass of the rail track 

over Nosice dam to the original route. In this section the construction of two tunnels of the overall 

length 2,360 km is supposed. The completion of construction works is assumed for 06.2015. 

Belgrade, 2012 87



Fig. 10 Modernisation design of the section Púchov – Považská Teplá 

The modernisation of the VI.corridor in the section Čadca state border – Čadca – Krásno nad Kysucou 

(the station itself does not fall into the modernisation plan) is at present in the stage of project 

preparation and with its length 17.100 km it connects to the already modernised section Žilina – 

Krásno nad Kysucou, that was completed in 2011. The project preparation includes the preparation of 

implementation of ETCS L2 system in the section Žilina – Čadca state border and GSM-R system in 

the section Bratislava – Žilina – Čadca state border. 

Other sections of the Va.corridor are also being prepared as well as some other modernisation 

investments into railway infrastructure in the area of Slovakia. The issue of many expert discussions is 

the section of the corridor no. Va Žilina – Košice, that is basically led through a very demanding 

geomorphology and with regard to the present track parameters it only enables the maximum track 

speed of 80 – 100 km.h -1 . The experts have different opinions on the designed track speed to which 

this important track section is going to be modernised. After the TEN-T corridor revision, this section is 

not the E.U. priority. The increase of the track speed to 160 km.h -1 causes that the track designed in 

this way largely gets off its original earthwork, it requires construction of extensive bridge and tunnel 

structures, that significantly increases the investment costs for its modernisation. Concerning the 

section of the corridor line Va Žilina – Košice, at present only the project documentation 

„Modernisation of the line Liptovský Mikuláš – Košice“ is being prepared. The works were divided 

into 4 following sections: 

Liptovský Mikuláš – Poprad (59.100 km, while approx. 67 % off its original axis), 

Poprad – Krompachy (54.363 km, while approx. 62 % of the route off its original axis), 

Krompachy – Kysak (45.441 km, or 28,961 km, while 62 % off its original axis) and 

Kysak – Košice (15.262 km, while 36 % off its original axis). 

Concerning the corridor no. IV, that is a common project with the Czech republic, we can state that 

due to the lack of finances this project named „Modernisation of the line of IV. corridor State border 

SR/CR – Kúty“, including the new border bridge over the river Moravia, 6.900 km long, is at present 

not even in the stage of project documentation preparation. 

„Electrification of the line Marchegg – Devínska Nová Ves“, which is the priority project of TEN-T no. 

17, is another important investment that should contribute to the modernisation of the railway 

infrastructure in the Slovak territory. It is supposed to electrify 3.600 km of railway line until the state 

border with Austria. This project is related to the project „Interconnection of the TEN-T railway 

corridors and inclusion of M. R. Štefánik Airport to the railway network in Bratislava“. The realization 

of this project could complete the existing transport network of the transport infrastructure of the 

Slovak capital city in the near future. It is also supposed to integrate the Slovak capital into European 

railway network after the construction of high speed arterial railway Paris-Strassbourg-Wien- 

Bratislava/Budapest. 

4. CONCLUSION 

Regarding its geographical position, the Slovak republic plays an important role in ensuring the 

mobility of the E.U. citizens. Providing efficient and reliable services of railway infrastructure by ŽSR 

depends on the existence of a powerful and interoperable railway network. However, it is possible to 

Belgrade, 2012 88



use this network only if its main parts that are the corridor Trans-European lines will be modernised at 

the same time. 

The primary and the most important effect of modernisation of the corridor lines passing through the 

area of the Slovak republic will be the improvement of the transport accessiblity of Slovak regions and 

the improvement of the connection of the Slovak railway infrastructure to the European railway 

network. In this way the developmental perspectives from the point of view of economy and tourism 

will be boosted and the interest of foreign investors and free movement of labour and goods within the 

European economic area will be enhanced. Thus the Slovak economic growth as well as overall E.U. 

competitiveness will be strengthened. The modernisation of the railway corridors means reaching the 

standards defined by the AGC and AGTC agreements, reaching the railway track speeds up to 

160 (200) km.h -1 , achieving interoperability, improving the barrier-free access for travellers and 

reaching the operational safety. This will result in increasing the competitiveness of railway transport 

and its share of overall transport and transport performance not only in the Slovak territory but within 

all the European community. 

This contribution is the result of the project of Slovak-Serbian cooperation named „Reconstruction and 

Revitalization of railway infrastructure in accordance with regional development“ (SK-SRB-0050-11) 

supported by Slovak Research and Development Agency (APVV). 

Literature 

[1] Maruniak, D, Šišolák, P.: Stratégia ŽSR. Moderná infraštruktúra. Prezentácia na Sympózium pri 

príležitosti 10. výročia vzniku Spoločnosti PSKD, Double Tree by Hilton Hotel Bratislava, 6.1.2011 

[2] Predpis Ž11 Všeobecné zásady a technické požiadavky na modernizované trate ŽSR rozchodu 

1435 mm. GR ŽSR, 02/2001 

[3] Ižvolt, L., Gocálová, Z., Šestáková, J.: Súčasný stav a plány modernizácie železničnej 

infraštruktúry na území Slovenskej republiky. Sborník přednášek Železniční dopravní cesta 2012. 

Děčín 29.02.-01.03.2012, ISBN 978-80-260-1282-5 

[4] http://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paneur%C3%B3pske_dopravn%C3%A9_koridory 

[5] http//www.doprastav.sk. Doprastav – Modernizácia železničných tratí 2010. Odbor mediálnej 

komunikácie, 5/2010 

[6] http://www.vlaky.net/zeleznice/spravy/002329-Koncepcia-technickeho-riesenia-tunela-Tureckyvrch/. 

Nižňan, J., Podolec, O.: Koncepcia technického riešenia tunela Turecký vrch 

[7] http://www.zsr.sk 

Belgrade, 2012 89



CHANGES OF FLOWS IN ECONOMY SUPPLY CHAINS OF BIH: 

INFLUENCES ON INVESTMENT PRIORITIES ON CORRIDORS X AND 

VII 

dr Ratko Đuričić, Saobraćajni fakultet Doboj, Republika Srpska 

dr Branislav Bošković, Direkcija za železnice, Beograd, Srbija 

Abstract: 

The construction of the corridor Vc itself is not enough to enable the integration of Bosnia and 

Herzegovina in the European transport network and it will not give the expected results. The concept 

of integration of transport flows of BiH in international supply chains, which are nowadays being 

developed by freight forwarders and transport companies, brings changes to initial plans of flows 

established while defining the corridors. The paper presents a discussion on those changes and their 

consequences concerning the priorities for investment in infrastructure projects on corridors X and VII. 

Moreover, it defines potential multimodal supply chains for the economy of BiH which rely on Pan- 

European corridors Vc, X and VII. 

Key words: corridors, supply chains, multimodal transport 

PROMJENA TOKOVA U LANCIMA SNABDIJEVANJA PRIVREDE BiH: UTICAJI NA PRIORITETE 

INVESTIRANJA NA KORIDORIMA X i VII 

Rezime: 

Razmišljanje da će se samo izgradnjom koridora Vc Bosna i Hercegovina integrisati u transportnu 

mrežu Evrope nije dovoljno i neće dati očekivane efekte. Koncept integracije transportnih tokova BiH u 

međunarodne lance snabdijevanja koje danas razvijaju špediteri i transportne kompanije donosi 

promjene u odnosu na prvobitne planove tokova kada su definisani koridori. U radu se diskutuje o tim 

promjenama i njihovim posledicama na prioritete u investiranju infrastrukturnih projekata koridora X i 

VII. Takođe, definisani su potencijalni multimodalni lanci snabdijevanja za privredu BiH koji se 

oslanjaju na Panevropske koridore Vc, X i VII. 

Ključne riječi: koridori, lanci snabdijevanja, multimodalni transport 

1. UVOD 

Tradicionalne granske ponude na transportnom tržištu (samo željeznički transport, samo drumski 

transport, samo riječni transport) više ne daju odgovore na savremene zahtjeve korisnika a naročito 

na dužim relacijama. Osim toga, ne stimulišu se od strane EU jer nisu u skladu sa Evropskom 

transportnom politikom pošto ne mogu u tom smislu povećati udio željezničkog i riječnog transporta 

kao nosioce održivog razvoja i transporta na transportnoj mreži Evrope. 

Tokovi robe na otvorenom tržištu i transportni zahtjevi korisnika i njihovih špeditera se mjenjaju tokom 

vremena. Danas se više potenciraju karakteristike usluga kao što su garancija poštovanja rokova, 

neprekidna raspoloživost transportnih sredstava, standardan kvalitet usluge, postojanje odgovarajuće 

opreme za kontejnere, stalno raspoložive informacije o robi i njihovoj lokaciji u transportnom procesu, 

itd. Usluga treba da obuhvati odgovornost za prevoz na cijelom putu a referentni kvalitet usluge treba 

mjeriti u odnosu na kamionski transport, barem kada je Evropa u pitanju. 

Belgrade, 2012 90



Na osnovu podataka iz dosadašnjih transportnih studija i informacija o aktuelnim tokovima robe za 

privredu Bosne i Hercegovine (BiH) u ovome radu je difinisano nekoliko (potencijalnih) multimodalnih 

pravaca koji se oslanjaju na koridore VII, X i Vc. S obzirom da u industriji multimodalnog transporta 

postoji tendencija koncentrisanja na transportne tokove (posebno kontejnerski transport) na glavnim 

pravcima koji povezuju glavne centre, definisanje potencijalnih lanaca je obuhvatio veliki dio 

postojećih i budućih transportnih tokova ITU-a u BiH. Na slici 1 su prikazani glavni intermodalni centri i 

glavne riječne i morske luke u regiji, kao i riječne luke u BiH koje su dio jednog ili više definisanih 

lanaca snabdijevanja. 

U nastavku rada će se posmatrati nastale promjene u tokovima robe za i iz BiH i posledice koje iste 

mogu imati na prioritete u investiranju na definisanim koridorima a posebno koridora X. 

Wien 

W 

Trst Koper Rijeka 

Zagreb 

Bratisla 

va 

Banja Luka 

Budimpešta 

va 

Vukovar 

Šamac 

Brčko 

Tuzla 

Sarajevo 

Beograd 

Konstanza 

Ploče 

Bar 

Slika1. Glavni intermodalni centri od značaja za BiH 

2. DEFINISANJE MULTIMODALNIH KORIDORA ZA BiH I PROMJENE KOJE DONOSE 

Uspostavljanjem transportnih koridora integrišu se transportne mreže država u jedinstvenu mrežu 

Evropske transportne infrastrukture, poboljšavaju se veze između zemalja, regiona i kontinenata, 

eliminišu uska grla i podiže nivo kvaliteta prevoza. 

Multimodalni koridori se mogu posmatrati i kao skup suštinski paralelnih transportnih kapaciteta koji 

nude alternative pri izboru mjesta. 8 Drugim riječima, koridori međusobno postaju konkurentni na 

jedinstvenoj mreži gdje se takmiče operatori sa svojim transportnim modelima. Transportni koridori se 

ponekada upoređuju sa glavnim arterijama (npr. aorta) ljudskog kardiovaskularnog sistema preko kojih 

se krv prenosi do znatno manjih arteriola (“sporedne i povezujuće” linije sistema) i do kapilara (“mjesta 

pretovara” sistema), gdje se događaju sve važne promjene u sistemu cirkulacije. 

Koncept transporta “od vrata do vrata” sve više prelazi u koncept nabavnih lanaca za koje je zadužen 

jedan ponuđač usluge koji je svo vrijeme transporta od vrata do vrata pravno odgovoran. Transport 

robe se povjerava preduzećima koja pružaju sve neophodne logističke usluge, takozvanim 

multimodalnim transportnim operatorima (MTO). 

8 DB International GmbH, Vienna Consult: Studija intermodalnog transporta u Bosni i Hercegovini, 

Berlin-Viena, 2006 

Belgrade, 2012 91



Na slici 2 su prikazani koridori u regionu koji se koriste u lancima snabdijevanja privrede BiH tako da 

su i koridori X i VII dio nabavnih lanaca. Postavlja se pitanje kakvi transportni lanci se na njima danas 

uspostavljaju i da li to zahtijeva preispitivanje prioriteta u investiranju infrastrukturnih projekata na istim 

koridorima. 

Wien 

W 

Bratisla 

va 

Budimpešta 

va 

Vukovar 

Konstanza 

Trst Koper 

Zagreb Šamac 

Brčko Beograd 

Rijeka 

Tuzla 

Banja Luka Sarajevo 

Ploče 

Bar 

Slika 2. Multimodalni koridori robnih tokova za/iz BiH 

2.1. Multimodalni lanac na relaciji Beč - BiH 

Beč je dio veoma značajnog industrijskog trougla Beč-Bratislava-Györ sa modernom lukom na 

Dunavu velikih kapaciteta. On je danas polazna tačka većine međunarodnih transportnih tokova za 

BiH (slika 3). Kako ti tokovi dolaze do BiH Tri su multimodalna lanca koja se danas uspostavljaju od 

ovog grada prema BiH. Jedan se oslanja na koridor X a druga dva na Dunav odnosno koridor VII. 

Bratisla 

va 

Wien 

W 

Budimpešta 

va 

Vukovar 

Zagreb 

Šamac 

Brčko 

Beograd 

Banja Luka 

Tuzla 

Sarajevo 

Ploče 

Slika 3. Multimodalni lanci na relaciji Beč-BiH 

Belgrade, 2012 92



Prvi pravca se formira na pravcu Beč-Beograd-BiH. Nosilac transporta ovog lanca je Dunav 

(koridor VII) na pravcu Beč-Beograd. Transport se dalje može odvijati koristeći 2 pravca ka 

BiH: rijekom Savom ili železničkim/drumskim sredstvima. U prvom slučaju transport se odvija 

sredstvima riječnog saobraćaja od Beča do Beograda, a zatim se nastavlja rijekom Savom do 

luka u BiH. Veza sa koridorom Vc se ostvaruje preko luke Šamac. Iz ove luke ili luke Brčko se 

drumskim i željezničkim sredstvima roba transportuje do odredišnih destinacija. U drugom 

slučaju roba se transportuje Dunavom do luke Beograd a zatim koridorom X (željeznicom ili 

drumom u zavisnosti od količine robe i konkurentnosti ova dva vida transporta u odnosu na 

određenu robu) do transportne mreže BiH i krajnje destinacije. 

Drugi pravac se formira na relaciji Beč-Vukovar-BiH. Ovaj lanac se takođe u početnoj fazi 

oslanja na transport robe rijekom Dunav ali do Vukovara 9 a zatim željezničkim ili drumskim 

transportom do destinacija u BiH. Luka Vukovar je najbliža dunavska luka BiH. Danas je jedna 

od najvećih dunavskih luka kada je u pitanju komercijalni obalni pretovar. Oko 80% 

pretovarenog tereta u vukovarskoj luci ide u/iz BiH. Luka je sa BiH povezana željeznicom 

preko Vinkovaca (15 km od Vukovara). Osposobljena i za kontejnerski saobraćaj. U ovom 

momentu je još rano ali treba spomenuti planove izgradnje dunavsko-savskog kanala 

(Vukovar-Šamac) i regulaciju rijeke Save kojim bi se konkurentnost ovog lanca višestruko 

uvećala. Ukoliko se izgradnja kanala realizuje, sadašnji lokalitet luke bi bio napušten uz 

izgradnju nove luke u zaleđu. 

Treći pravac, Beč-Zagreb-BiH, se oslanja na koridor X i drumski odnosno železnički transport. 

Nosilac transporta treba da bude željeznica. Veza sa transportnom mrežom BiH se može 

realizovati preko Šamca (koridor Vc) ili preko Novog i željezničke pruge Novi-Doboj. Ovaj 

pravac potencira željeznički saobraćaj dok drumski treba da ima ulogu distribucije od najbližeg 

pretovarnog terminala do krajnjeg korisnika. 

2.2. Multimodalni lanac na relaciji Konstanca-BiH 

Alternativni transportni lanac snabdijevanja privrede BiH, Konstanca-Beograd-BiH, u ovom trenutku 

nema realnu konkurentnost spomenutim multimodalnim lancima niti se trenutno na ovom pravcu 

realizuju transporti za BiH. Međutim, ovaj pravac može dobiti na značaju sa razvojem Podunavskog 

regiona kao jednog od najvećih projekata u Evropi. Nosilac lanca treba da bude riječni transport i 

rijeka Dunav a zatim Sava do već spomenutih luka u Brčkom i Šamcu. 

Vukovar 

Konstanza 

Šamac 

Brčko Beograd 

Banja Luka 

Tuzla 

Sarajevo 

9 Na Dunavu postoji još nekoliko luka na ovom potezu koje bi se mogle koristiti kao alternativne 

Beogradu i Vukovaru kao što su luke Osijek i Novi Sad. No, u ovom momentu se ne vidi njihova 

konkurentnost iz više razloga. 

Belgrade, 2012 93



Slika 4. Multimodalni lanac Konstanca-BiH 

Luka Konastanca je luka sa privatnim terminalskim operatorima. Glavna karakteristika luke je da je ne 

samo evropski već i bliskoistočni (arapski) kapital ulagan u nju. Radi se o savremenoj luci sa velikim 

kapacitetima i perspektivom. Nedavno je stavljen u funkciju i novi kontejnerski terminal u južnom dijelu 

ove luke, koji je projektovan tako da može da primi Post-Panamax kontejnerske brodove, i da ima 

godišnji kapacitet od 325.000 TEU u prvoj fazi, i do 1.000.000 TEU u finalnoj fazi. Luka Konstanca 

povezana je sa željezničko/drumskim koridorom IV sa ostalim dijelovima Evrope. 

3. KONKURENTNOST I PREDNOSTI DEFINISANIH LANACA 

Definisani transportni lanci treba u budućnosti, uz podršku transportne politike EU zasnovane na 

očuvanju životne sredine i održivog razvoja, da budu modeli transporta robe za/iz BiH. Realizacijom 

ovih lanaca bi se, uz tokove drugih država i njihovih privreda, koncentrisali tokovi robe za BiH što u 

krajnjem vodi povećanju kvaliteta i smanjenju troškova transporta. Glavni dijelovi lanaca, i nosioci 

transporta, su riječni i željeznički transport odnosno infrastruktura. Koristili bi se, dakle, energetski 

efikasniji a ekološki prihvatljiviji vidovi transporta za veći dio transportnog puta robe. 

Ove prednosti transportnih lanaca, gdje su nosioci rijeka ili/i željeznica, mogu doći do izražaja samo 

ako iste dominiraju u odnosu na mane multimodalnog transporta i lanaca kao što su povećanje 

pretovarnih procesa i troškova, rizika usled toga, dužeg vremena transporta, povećanog broja 

učesnika u transportnom lancu itd. Međutim, osnovna pretpostavka za uspješnost multimodalnih 

lanaca je koncentracija tokova na uspostavljenoj mreži terminala, logističkih centara, centara za 

konsolidaciju i drugih vrsta terminala koji mogu ponuditi usluge sakupljanja i isporuke robe u 

kombinaciji sa uslugama popravke i održavanja sredstava koja učestvuju u transportu. 

Rast međunarodne robne razmjene povratno ima efekat uvećanja privrednog rasta, ali i do porasta 

logističkih troškova te je neophodno primjenjivati nove strategije transporta gdje ovako definisani lanci 

snabdijevanja sa svim svojim alternativnim pravcima dolaze do izražaja. Koncept upravljanja lancima 

snabdijevanja, modernih terminala, efikasnih transportnih sredstava, informacionih sistema za 

planiranje, upravljanje prevozom i skladištenje mora da bude integrisan u zajednički cilj učesnika u 

transportu: luka, riječne plovidbe, željeznice, logističkih provajdera i druma. 

Danas, međutim, još uvijek ne postoje pretpostavke za efikasan multimodalni transport. Prije svega, 

potrebno je lance snabdijevanja podržati odgovarajućim zakonodavstvom a zatim i deregulacijom 

kojom će se ukinuti sve barijere vezane za multimodalnost i interoperabilnost. 

Integracija mreže plovnih puteva moguća je ako se modernizuju nautičko-tehnički uslovi, pogotovo oni 

koji se odnose na dubinu gaza i vrijeme plovnosti. Vodni transport je veliki, za sada neiskorišteni, 

potencijal koji koristi prirodnu mrežu puteva. Poznato je da je Dunav kao značajna resurs Evropske 

saobraćajne infrastrukture (trans-evropska transportna mreža (TEN-T)) iskorišćen sa 10% 

sveukupnog svog kapaciteta. 

Rijeka Sava predstavljala je veoma važan unutrašnji plovni put u regionu a plovidba je bila razvijena 

do 1990. godine. Komercijalni plovni put se protezao na skoro 600 kilometara i povezivao je Beograd i 

Sisak (na oko 50 km od Zagreba). Od ušća Save do Brčkog koje se nalazi na rkm 225, plovnost je po 

AGN-u bila klase IV, a od Brčkog do Siska klase III. Generalno posmatrano, plovni putevi klase IV i 

iznad se smatraju za puteve međunarodnog značaja. Danas je plovnost rijeke znatno smanjena i to do 

mjere da praktično i ne postoji (izuzev na nekoliko lokalnih dionica). Neophodno je ponovo stvoriti 

uslove povratka na staro stanje plovnosti u skladu sa standardima plovidbe i zaštite okoline. 

Belgrade, 2012 94



Potrebno je rekonstruisati luke Brčko i Šamac u smislu čišćenja korita, ugradnje sistema signalizacije i 

obavještavanja itd. Pristup luci Šamac je nedovoljan i iznosi oko 180 dana godišnje pri gazu od 180 

cm i opterećenju od 1000 tona. Luka je dobro povezana sa mrežom lokalnih i glavnih puteva i 

željeznicom, a u luci se nalaze i interni kolosijeci. Sve to je čini podesnom za potencijalno pružanje 

visoko kvalitetnih trimodalnih usluga budućim korisnicima, ali opšte stanje postrojenja zahtijeva 

značajna ulaganja. Luka takođe nudi mogućnost za carinjenje robe pristigle rijekom ili kopnom. 

Oprema za pretovar je na veoma niskom nivou i znatno ograničava kapacitete i kvalitet pretovarnih 

procesa. Potrebna su znatna ulaganja. 

Luka Brčko je udaljena 220 km od Dunava. Pristup luci Brčko je dostupan 266 dana godišnje za 

potisnice gaza 180 cm i opterećenja oko 1000 tona. Glavni kvalitet ove luke je u njenim trimodalnim 

potencijalima, carinskom terminalu i skoro idealnom položaju u slivnom području teške industrije u 

BiH. Luka raspolaže solidnim željezničkim vezama a putevima je dobro povezana sa koridorima X i 

Vc. Opremljenost luke je na niskom nivou i potrebna su značajnija ulaganja. 

4. UMJESTO ZAKLJUČKA: ŠTA DALJE 

Sa trendom liberalizacije tržišta u svijetu transportni operatori ili kompanije koje pružaju logističke 

usluge treba da prošire svoje aktivnosti van okvira običnog fizičkog transporta roba, tako da 

konkurencija nije između postojećih vidova transporta već između lanaca snabdijevanja. Klasični 

standardi saradnje između transportnih operatora preko međunarodnih tarifa, redovnih konferencija i 

slično ne može više osigurati operatorima opstanak na transportnom tržištu. Upravo ovako definisani 

multimodalni koridori treba da budu investiciono podržani kako bi se poboljšao željeznički i riječni 

transport na glavnim koridorima. U tome je prioritet formiranje logističkih centara koji bi bili dostupni 

svim vrstama transportnih sredstava (drumski, željeznički, riječni). 

U eri globalizacije i povećanja propusne moći državnih granica za robu, ljude i kapital gotovo do nivoa 

njihovog brisanja promjene tokova istih su neprekidne. Od vremena formiranja koridora transportni 

tokovi su značajno promijenili pa je potrebno izvršiti sagledavanje nivoa promjena sa trendovima. U 

radu su apostrofirane promjene strukture privrede BiH i posledice u smislu promjene tokova robe i 

njenih zahtjeva kao i mogući multimodalni lanci snabdijevanja sa aspekta koridora X i VII ukazujući na 

njihov mogući uticaj na planove prioriteta u finansiranju infrastrukture na ovim koridorima. 

LITERATURA 

[1] Alling P., Wolfe E., Brow S.: Supply-Chain Tehnology, 

www.xterprise.com/releases/2004/bstearns_tech_rfid_0104.pdf, 2004. 

[2] DB International GmbH, Vienna Consult: Studija intermodalnog transporta u Bosni i Hercegovini, 

Berlin-Viena, 2006. 

[3] DB International GmbH, Vienna Consult; Studija TER-kompatibilnosti željezničkog Koridora Vc u 

Bosni i Hercego, Berlin-Viena, 2006. 

[4] DB International GmbH, Vienna Consult; Studija potražnje i tržišta za transport riječnom 

plovidbom, Berlin-Viena, 2006. 

[5] Lieb R., Lieb K,; Execuitive Summary And Regional Comparerisons 2010 3PL CEO Surveys, 

Penske Logistics, 2010. 

[6] http://www.panalpina.com/www/global/en/home.html, posjećeno 20.08.2012. u 18:09h. 

[7] http://www.metrogrup.de. posjećeno 24.08.2012. u 15:23h. 

[8] http://www.eyefortransport.com/europe3pl, posjećeno 24.08.2012. u 22:00. 

Belgrade, 2012 95



OPPORTUNITIES OF THE REPUBLIC OF SLOVENIA AND THE 

REGION IN THE FRAMEWORK OF THE EUROPEAN RAILWAY 

NETWORK 

mag. Franc Zemljič, Prometni institut Ljubljana d.o.o, Ljubljana, Slovenia 

Damijan Žagavec, Slovenske železnice d.o.o., Ljubljana, Slovenia 

Klemen Ponikvar, Prometni institut Ljubljana d.o.o, Ljubljana, Slovenia 

Abstract: 

The geostrategic geographical position of Slovenia, the integration in the European land transport 

network and the exit to the open sea with a well-developed port, present advantages for the 

opportunities of railways, in the frame of the European network, that need to be exploited. 

The article describes some of the most important railway connections through the Republic of 

Slovenia: »E« railway lines, Paneuropean corridors, priority projects, ETCS corridor project, RNE 

corridors, TEN-T network. Introduced is a common display of different railway connections (lines, 

corridors, priority projects) in Europe. 

According to the awaited entrance of the Republic of Croatia to the European Union and expected 

expansion of the EU to the Balkans, there are some foundations for the incorporation of the whole X th 

Corridor into the TEN-T network. 

The opportunities of the X th Corridor, that originate from the unification and harmonization of the 

transport system activities and from the possibilities to use European funds, were also analyzed. 

Key words: transport, railway traffic, corridors, advantages, priority projects, corridor X. 

PRILOŽNOSTI REPUBLIKE SLOVENIJE IN NJENE ŠIRŠE REGIJE V OKVIRU EVROPSKE 

ŽELEZNIŠKE MREŽE 

Povzetek: 

Geostrateška-geografska lega Slovenije, vpetost v evropsko kopensko transportno mrežo in izhod na 

odprto morje z razvitim pristaniščem, predstavljajo le prednosti za priložnosti železnic v okviru 

evropske mreže, ki jih je potrebno izkoristiti. 

V članku so opisane pomembnejše železniške povezave, ki potekajo skozi Republiko Slovenijo: „E“ 

proge, panevropski koridorji, prednostni projekti, ETCS koridor-projekt, RNE koridorji, TEN-T omrežje. 

Podan je skupen prikaz različnih železniških povezav (proge, koridorji, prednosti projekti) v Evropi. 

Glede na predviden vstop Republike Hrvaške v Evropsko unijo in pričakovano širjenje le-te na 

področje Balkana obstajajo osnove za vključitev koridorja X v celoti v TEN–T omrežje. 

Analizirane so priložnosti koridorja X, ki izhajajo iz poenotenja in harmonizacije delovanja prometnih 

sistemov in možnosti črpanja evropskih sredstev. 

Ključne besede: promet, železniški promet, koridorji, prednosti projekti, koridor X 

Belgrade, 2012 96




For a successful performance of transport services, in the frame of rail transport, are together with the 

geostrategic position of the country, its integration in the European land transport network and its exit 

to the open sea, also important other factors, that are described in this article.. 

Europe is intertwined with many corridors or rail links, which compete for the major share of 

transported goods and also passengers. Each of the corridors has its own potential that can be utilized 

only with the relevant infrastructure, commercial and “legal” measures. Activities for the revival of the 

corridor must be carefully planned and must have the support of majority of the countries, through 

which the corridor runs. 

2. THE SITUATION IN SLOVENIA 

The geostrategic geographical position of Slovenia, the integration in the European land transport 

network and the exit to the open sea with a well-developed port, present advantages for the 

opportunities of railways, in the frame of the European network, that should be exploit. The Republic of 

Slovenia is situated on the crossroad of the X th and V th Paneuropean Corridor. In accordance with this 

fact there are many important rail lines running through Slovenia, that are described later in this article. 

The following figure shows the important railway network, including the »E lines« and the course of the 

V th and the X th Paneuropean Corridor, through the Republic of Slovenia. 

Figure 1: The course of the V th and the X th Paneuropean Corridor through the Republic of Slovenia. 

From the figure above it is evident, that the majority of “E lines” in the Republic of Slovenia run through 

the V th and X th Paneuropean Corridor. 

The Republic of Slovenia is situated on the crossroad of regions, in particular, the regions of Central 

Europe and the Balkan region, which is shown on the figure below. 

Belgrade, 2012 97



Figure 2: Gravitation areas of Slovenian Railways 

Area A – Region of Central Europe 

No regulatory or technical barriers for 

operations 

The business area of one of the biggest 

competitors of SŽ (RCA) 

Area B- Balkan region 

Local carriers are protected, because 

countries are not yet a part of the EU and 

the liberalised market 

In the history very important X th corridor, 

that looses the quantity of transport after 

the breakup of former Yugoslavia and after 

the formation of new borders 

Because of the common history SŽ have 

good ties and knowledge about the 

infrastructure of the former common state. 

SŽ actively develop new services of transport of cargo with added value. Therefore SŽ introduced the 

logistical service Yana, in 2010, which is intended for the transport of goods from France and Slovenia 

to Bulgaria, and the logistical service Zahony, intended for the transport of goods from France, Italy 

and Slovenia to Ukraine and Russia. 

Figure 3: The transport route of the logistics service Yana 

YANA: with the logistic platform Rail Port in Sofia, Bulgaria, connects Lyon (FRA) – Bologna (ITA) – 

Milano (ITA) – Verona (ITA) – Padova (ITA) – Sežana (SLO). The product offers a complete logistics 

in classic and combined mode of transport: additional services at the terminal (e. g. handling, storage, 

customs) and the distribution of packages to Bulgaria, to transit countries across the Black Sea 

(Georgia, Azerbaijan), to Turkey and Greece. 

2.1 Advantages and oportunities of the Republic of Slovenia considering the performance of 

railway transport 

Advantages of the Republic of Slovenia are: 

- geographical position 

- the integration in the European land transport network 

- the exit to the open sea with a well-developed port, 

Belgrade, 2012 98



- a high share of revenues of freight transport operators on the European market 

- transportation tradition 

Opportunities of the Republic of Slovenia to improve railway transportation that should be exploit: 

- unification and harmonization of transport systems operations, 

- development of new transport technologies 

- a further specialization of the industrial production (to increase freight transport) 

- moving the production of less complex products into East Asia; Northern Adriatic gains on 

influence 

- unification of existing infrastructure operations; Slovenian service providers would provide 

comprehensive services and not partial logistics services 

- further stabilization of the Balkans and the integration of Turkey in the European union will 

enable the expansion of transport flows, especially transit on railways 

- the development of modern, rapid rail lines on corridors, running through Slovenia 

- - increasing of the use of capacity at international airports in Slovenia, capacities of individual 

objects within the infrastructure units and intermodal systems (airport-railway-road) 

- the use of European funds. 

2.2 Financing 

The European Commission proposes 31,7 billion Euros, of which 10 billion Euros of the cohesion 

funds, which are available only to those countries that are eligible to the cohesion funds. Among them 

is also Slovenia. Regardless to the fact, on how much European money and from which headings, the 

member states will agree upon; their governments will have to provide their own share from the 

national budget, for each project using European money. 

The Republic of Slovenia would need: 

- approximately 3 billion EUR between the years 2014 and 2020 

- approximately 9 billion EUR by 2030. 

3. THE EUROPEAN RAILWAY NETWORK 

This section of the article describes the following important railway connections/corridors, running 

across Europe: 

- Transeuropean and Paneuropean network of lines – PANEUROPEAN CORRIDORS 

- Priority Projects 

- ERMTS Corridors 

- International railway corridors for competitive freight transport 

- RNE Corridors 

- TEN-T Network 

3.1 Transeuropean and Paneuropean network of lines 

The Transeuropean network of lines was defined at the Paneuropean conferences (Prague 1991, 

Crete 1994, Helsinki 1997), with the aim to improve and modernize transport links of the existing EU 

member states and member states that joined the EU in 2004. 

Belgrade, 2012 99



The Transeuropean and Paneuropean network consist of 10 major routes, which are shown in the 

figure below. 

Figure 4: Traneuropean and Paneuropean network of lines 

The main purpose of Transeuropean corridors is connecting geographical regions of Europe. 

3.2 Prednostni projekti (Priority Projects) 

Under the term priority projects we understand a set of projects for the development of railway 

infrastructure that are defined in the following documents: 

- Decision No 1692/96 of 23 July 1996, (including 14 priority projects, excluding Slovenia) 

- Decision No 1692/96/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 July 1996 on 

Community guidelines for the development of the trans-European transport network 

- Decision No 884/2004/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 (the 

scope of priority projects extends from 14 to 30 and also includes Slovenia) 

- Decision No 661/2010/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 July 2010, 

Predicted, all together, are 30 priority projects. 

For the progress of Slovenia the sixth priority project titled Railway line: Lyon – Trieste – Divača/Koper 

– Divača – Ljubljana – Budapest – Ukrainian border is of highest importance. Parts of this rail line 

coincide with the V th Paneuropean corridor. 

3.3 ERTMS koridorji (ERTMS Corridors) 

ERTMS Corridors are regulated through: 

Belgrade, 2012 100



- Commission Decision of 28 March 2006 concerning the technical specification for 

interoperability relating to the control-command and signalling subsystem of the trans- 

European conventional rail system (notified under document number C(2006) 964) 

- Commission decision of 25.1.2012 on the technical specification for interoperability relating to 

the control-command and signalling subsystems of the trans-European rail system C(2012) 

172) 

The ERTMS Network is shown on the figure below. 

Figure 5: European Deployment Plan for ERTMS 

The main aim of ERTMS Corridors is to assure interoperability of the European railway network. 

The ERTMS Corridor, running through Slovenia coincides with the V th Paneuropean corridor. 

3.4 International railway corridors for competitive freight transport 

International railway corridors for competitive freight transport are defined in the Regulation (EU) No 

913/2010 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 September 2010. 

In the named documentation, 9 corridors for competitive freight transport in Europe, are predicted. 

2 corridors run through the Republic of Slovenia: 

- The 5 th corridor: Gdynia-Katowice-Ostrava/Žilina-Bratislava/Wien/Klagenfurt-Udine- 

Venezia/Trieste/Bologna/Ravena Graz-Maribor-Ljubljana-Koper/Trieste (the deadline to 

establish the corridor is 10. November 2015), 




- The 6 th corridor: Almeria-Valencia/Madrid-Zaragoza/Barcelona-Marseille-Lyon-Torino-Milano- 

Verona-Padova/Venezia-Trieste/Koper-Ljubljana-Hodoš-Budapest-Zahony (Hungary- 

Ukrainian border) (The deadline to establish the corridor is 10. November 2013). 

Both corridors, listed above, correspond the course of the V th Paneuropean corridor. 

The main aim of the corridors, for a competitive railway transport, is the expansion, renovation or 

progress in railway infrastructure and equipment and introducing interoperability systems to the 

European railway network. 

3.5 RNE Corridors 

European railway Infrastructure Managers and Allocation Bodies established RailNetEurope (RNE) in 

June 2004. RNE defined 11 Corridors. The legal basis for defining RNE Corridors: 

- Council Directive 91/440/EEC of July 1991 on the development of the Community’s railways. 

- Directive 2001/14/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 February 2001 on 

the allocation of railway infrastructure capacity and the levying of charges for the use of 

railway infrastructure and safety certification 

- Resolutions of Infrastructure manager 

Figure 6: The RNE Corridor network 




For the Republic of Slovenia there are three RNE Corridors that are of highest importance, namely: 

- 07: Gdynia - Ponetów/Warszawa - Katowice - Wien/Bratislava - Trieste/Koper 

- 08: Lyon/Dijon - Torino - Ljubljana/Koper – Budapest 

- 11: München - Salzburg - Ljubljana - Zagreb - Beograd - Sofia – Istanbul 

The objectives of RNE Corridors are: 

- the harmonization of the procedure for the creation of timetables and allocation of railways 

- to ensure the liberalization of the market 

- the use of information technology tools 

- manufacture of joint coordinated programmes of networks 

- -organization of the legal proceedings, CER, UIC, UNIFE 

3.6 The TEN-T network 

The TEN-T network is composed of 2 timely separate projects. The first project is aimed at the central 

or core network, which will be completed by 2030. The construction of this network will facilitate the 

use of an approach that is based on ten existing corridors, which will provide the basis for a 

coordinated development of infrastructure within the TEN-T network. The second project is an 

extensive power network, which will be completed by 2050 and will provide complete coverage of the 

European Union and access to all regions. 

The new network will assure safer transport, the elimination of bottlenecks and smoother and faster 

traveling. Therefore, the European Union will help with financing the central network in the next 

financial perspective 2014-2020, since the original costs were approximately 250 billion Euros. The 

European union will support the performance of the network with several financial instruments, inter 

alia, with funds from the Cohesion Fund, the European Regional Development Fund and loans from 

the European Investment Bank and credit guarantees. 

Slovenia is, in the proposal for a regulation of guidelines for the development of the TEN-T network, 

included in the so-called Mediterranean corridor, which route runs from Algeciras through Madrid, 

Barcelona, Lyon, and Turin to Milan. The corridor crosses the Slovenian border in Koper and 

continues through Ljubljana and Maribor to Budapest and to the Ukrainian border. The Mediterranean 

corridor almost completely corresponds the route of the current V th Paneuropean corridor and for now, 

Slovenia is included in this corridor, but since there are plans for infrastructure modernization, is the 

actual inclusion of Slovenia questionable. Hereby I have in mind the rail line between Trieste and 

Divača, second track Koper – Divača and the rail line between Ljubljana and Ljubljana Jože Pučnik 

Airport. 

4. THE X TH PANEUROPEAN CORRIDOR AND ALTERNATIVE ROUTES 

The X th Paneuropean Corridor runs through Salzburg – Jesenice – Ljubljana – Dobova – Zagreb – 

Beograd – Skopje – Thessaloniki/Solun. Its route was placed in the network of transport corridor as in 

1997, as a result of wars in the southeastern Balkan. 




Figure 7: The X th Paneuropean Corridor 

The X th Paneuropean corridor includes the following routes: 

a) Graz – Maribor – Zidani Most 

b) Budapest – Novi Sad – Beograd 

c) Niš – Sofija 

d) Veles – Bitola – Florina through Egnatie 

4.1 Alternative routes of the X th Paneuropean Corridor 

For each corridor, also for the X th corridor, there exist alternative routes, to which the transport flows, 

which were originally intended for the main corridor, can be redirected. 

After gaining its independence the Republic of Slovenia noticed a significant decrease in the amount 

of transport, for more than 80%; especially on the route Ljubljana – Jesenice. Some cargo was 

redirected from the X th Corridor to the V th Paneuropean Corridor. 

The alternatives to the route of the X th Corridor are shown on the following figure. 




Figure 8: Balkan X th corridor and its potential alternatives 

From the figure above it is clear that the X th Corridor has 2 competitive routes. In the conclusion of this 

article the main findings of the X th Paneuroepan Corridor and competitive routes are listed. 

5. CONCLUSION 

The X th Paneuropean Corridor, which is running through Salzburg-Jesenice-Ljubljana-Dobova-Zagreb- 

Tovarnik-Beograd-Skopje-Thessaloniki/Solun: 

- is for approximately 100km shorter than the competitive corridor 

- has shorten the traveling time for approximately 12% 

- attracts approximately 12% more goods transport, in case of modernization even 50% more 

goods 

- uses approximately 12% less energy and reduces the CO 2 emissions for approximately 12%. 

Through the stabilization of the political situation in the Balkans and by entering of the eastern part of 

the Balkans into the European Community the railway market will be liberalized also in this part of 

Europe. This will enable easier performance of interoperability, which is a precondition for ensuring 

competitiveness of the X th Corridor. 

6. LITERATURE 

[1] Analiza možnosti in potreb razvoja javne železniške infrastrukture v Republiki Sloveniji; končno 

poročilo; Prometni institut Ljubljana d.o.o., APPIA d.o.o., Univerza v Ljubljani - Fakulteta za 

pomorstvo in promet in Univerza v Mariboru - Fakulteta za logistiko; Ljubljana, marec 2011 




A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF CORRIDOR 10 WITH CORRIDOR 4 

Suzana Graovac, Kirilo Savic Institute, Belgrade, Serbia 

dr Miroljub Jevtić, Kirilo Savic Institute, Belgrade, Serbia 

Milan Živanović, Kirilo Savic Institute, Belgrade, Serbia 

Abstract: 

In this study addresses two pan-European corridors, Corridor X and IV. Their importance is reflected in 

the quality and attractiveness of the roads that connect people and markets in Central Europe to 

Southeast Europe and Asia. Corridor IV, which passes through Bulgaria and Romania, but has the 

advantage of Europe gave him the status of the trans-European road and the degree is more 

important than the Corridor X, which is a transnational corridor. The entry of Bulgaria and Romania 

into the European Union, the main road traffic flows have started to bypass our country, although the 

Corridor X quickest and best route that connects the Middle East and Western Europe. Drivers have 

moved on Corridor IV, which connects Hungary with Romania and Bulgaria. Stopped at the border 

because of customs procedures has made it unattractive Corridor X, but is way better and shorter, 

with well-equipped gas stations and stops. 

Keywords: pan-european transport corridors, corridor X, corridor IV 

KOMPARATIVNA ANALIZA KORIDORA X SA KORIDOROM IV 

Rezime: 

U okviru ovog rada analiziraju se dva pan-evropska koridora, Koridor X i IV. Njihova značajnost se 

ogleda u poboljšanju atraktivnosti i kvalitetu saobraćajnica koje povezuju ljude i tržišta iz Centralne 

Evrope sa jugoistočnom Evropom i Azijskim kontinentom. Koridor IV, koji prolazi kroz Bugarsku i 

Rumuniju, već je u prednosti jer mu je Evropa dala status transevropskog puta i za stepen je važniji od 

Koridora X, koji je transnacionalni koridor. Ulaskom Bugarske i Rumunije u Evropsku uniju, glavni 

drumski saobraćajni tokovi su počeli da zaobilaze našu zemlju, iako je Koridor X najbrži i najbolji 

pravac koji povezuje Bliski istok i Zapadnu Evropu. Vozači su se preselili na Koridor IV, koji povezuje 

Mađarsku sa Rumunijom i Bugarskom. Zadržavanje na graničnim prelazima zbog carinske procedure 

učinilo je neprivlačnim Koridor X, iako je put bolji i kraći, sa dobro opremljenim benzinskim pumpama i 

stajalištima. 

Ključne reči: panevropski transportni koridori, koridor X, koridor IV 

1. UVOD 

Panevropski saobraćajni koridori su saobraćajni koridori koji povezuju zemlje Centralne Evrope, sa 

zemljama Istočne i Jugoistočne Evrope. Pošto je Turska primarni izvor i odredište tranzitno 

međunarodnih intermodalnih usluga, jasno je da se ogroman procenat trenutnog obima transporta vrši 

na koridoru IV i X, vezama sa zapadnom Evropom. Sa Sofijom kao primarnim poreklom i destinacijom 

dalji značajni obim izvodi se na koridoru IV, veza sa Solunom. 

Evropski projekat Panevropskih saobraćajnih koridora otpočet je 1991. na konferenciji u Pragu, usled 

potrebe za integrisanjem postojeće Transevropske transportne mreže (TEN-T) sa transportnim 

mrežama zemalja van tadašnje Evropske Unije. Na drugoj Panevropskoj konferenciji o saobraćaju 

održanoj u martu 1994. godine na Kritu, definisano je tada devet koridora, kao glavne saobraćajne 

trase između ondašnje Evropske Unije i država u njenom okruženju - u centralnoj, istočnoj i 

jugoistočnoj Evropi, sa idejom njihovog prioritetnog finansiranja tokom sledećih 10-15 godina. 




Zaključci ove konferencije precizirani su i dopunjeni na trećoj konferenciju u Helsinkiju, u mrežu 

Panevropskih koridora dodat i deseti koridor (Panevropski Koridor X), koji prolazi kroz većinu bivših 

jugoslovenskih republika. 

Devet koridora su železnički i drumski, a deseti (Koridor VII - "Dunavski koridor") je vodeni koridor – 

tok Dunava. 

Njihova značajnost se ogleda u poboljšanju atraktivnosti i kvalitetu saobraćajnica koje povezuju ljude i 

tržišta iz Centralne Evrope sa jugoistočnom Evropom i Azijskim kontinentom. 

2. OPŠTE KARAKTERISTIKE KORIDORA X 

Koridor X je jedan od pan-evropskih saobraćajnih koridora. Ova multimodalna transportna veza ide od 

severozapada ka jugoistoku i obuhvata: 

2300 km puta, 

2528 km pruge, 

12 aerodroma i 

4 rečne i morske luke 

Sastoji se od glavnog kraka koji se prostire od Salzburga do Soluna: Salzburg (Austrija) - Ljubljana 

(Slovenija) - Zagreb (Hrvatska) - Beograd (Srbija) - Niš (Srbija) - Skoplje (Makedonija) - Veles 

(Makedonija) - Solun (Grčka), a pored njega postoje još i 4 kraka: 

Krak A: Grac (Austrija) - Maribor (Slovenija) - Zagreb (Hrvatska) 

Krak B: Budimpešta (Mađarska) - Novi Sad (Srbija) - Beograd (Srbija) 

Krak C: Niš (Srbija) - Dimitrovgrad (Srbija) - Sofija (Bugarska) - Istanbul (Turska) - preko 

Koridora IV 

Krak D: Veles (Makedonija) - Prilep (Makedonija) - Bitolj (Makedonija) - Florina (Grčka) - 

Igumenica (Grčka) 

Koridor X je značajan i za Evropu strateški važan putni, železnički i vodni pravac zbog veoma velikih 

ušteda u troškovima transportna. 

2.1 Tehničke karakteristike Koridora X 

Zemlje kroz koje prolazi 

Vidovi prevoza 

Približna dužina Koridora 

Glavni krak 

Austrija, Slovenija, Hrvatska ,Srbija, Makedonija, Grčka 

železnički, drumski, vazdušni, vodni 

železnička pruga 

2,528 km 

put 

2,300 km 

broj aerodroma 12 

broj morskih i rečnih luka 4 

Salzburg - Ljubljana - Zagreb - Beograd - Niš (Srbija) - Skoplje - 

Veles - Solun 

Salzburg - Filah - Rozenbah / Jesenice - Ljubljana - 

Zidani Most - Dobova / Savski Marof - Zagreb - 

železnica 

Tovarnik - Beograd - Niš - Preševo / Tabanovce - 

Skoplje - Veles - Gevgelija / Idomeni - Solun 

Salzburg - Filah - Karavanke - Ljubljana - Višnja Gora / 

Obrežje - Zagreb - Lipovac / Tovarnik - Beograd - Niš - 

drum 

Sopot / Tabanovce - Skoplje - Gradsko - Bogorodica / 

Idomeni - Solun 




Krak iz Graca (Krak A) 

Krak iz Budimpešte (Krak B) 

Krak za Sofiju (Krak C) 

Krak za Florinu (Krak D) 

železnica 

drum 

železnica 

drum 

železnica 

drum 

železnica 

drum 

Grac - Spielfeld / Šentilj - Maribor - Zidani Most 

Grac - Spielfeld / Šentilj - Gruškovje - Zagreb 

Budimpešta - Kelebija - Subotica - Novi Sad - Beograd 

Budimpešta - Kečkemet - Segedin - Reske - Subotica - 

Novi Sad - Beograd 

Niš - Dimitrovgrad / Kalotina - Sofija 

Niš - Dimitrovgrad / Kalotina - Sofija 

Veles - Kremenica / Mesonision - Florina 

Gradsko - Medžitlija / Mesonision - Florina 

Na Grafikonu 1. i 2. dati su troškovi za infrastrukturne investicije duž železničkog i drumskog Koridora 

X. Troškovi su procenjeni korišćenjem rezultata TINA završnog izveštaja, rezultata Izveštaja o 

"Statusu Pan-evropskih saobraćajnih koridora i transportnih oblasti" i informacije iz Evropske komisije 

(ISPA - predlozi projekata prihvaćenih od strane Upravnog odbora, TACIS - projekat iz nacionalnog 

programa i iz CBC-programa). 

Grafikon 1. Troškovi za infrastrukturne investicije duž železničkog Koridora X 

Grafikon 2. Troškovi za infrastrukturne investicije duž drumskog Koridora X 




U sledećoj tabeli su date procene investicija potrebne za rehabilitaciju problematičnih drumskih 

deonica. 

Tabela 1. Procene investicija za rehabilitaciju problematičnih drumskih deonica [4] 

Zemlja Dužina (km) Troškovi (milion €) 

Bugarska 49 160 

Hrvatska 48,8 150 

Mađarska 60 180 

Makedonija (bez Kraka D) 51,5 135,5 

Slovenija 114,3 370 

Srbija 445,6 1295 

Ukupno 769,2 2290,5 

Delovi železničkog Koridora X kroz Srbiju se razlikuju u delovima glavne ose, delova Krakova B i C. 

Ukupnu dužina koridora je 867 km. Postojeća pruga je 88% elektrificirana i dvokolosečna u dužini od 

251 km. 

Deo glavnog Koridora X je Tovarnik (hrvatsko-srpska granica) - Šid - Beograd - Niš - Preševo (srpskomakedonska 

granica), od 613 km dužine, sa 100% elektrificirane i 40,3% dvokolosečne pruge od 

njene ukupne dužine. 

Deo Kraka B je Subotica (mađarsko/srpska granica) - Novi Sad - Beograd, od 150 km dužine, sa 

100% elektrificirane i 97,6% jednokolosečne pruge od njene ukupne dužine. 

Deo Kraka C je Niš - Dimitrovgrad (bugarsko/srpska granica), 104 km dužine, sa dizel vučom na 

jedokolosečnoj pruzi po celoj dužini. 

Bugarski delovi Koridora X su delovi kraka C sa ukupnom dužinom 57 km. Postojeća pruga je 74,1% 

elektrificirana i 86% jednokolosečna od ukupne dužine. Gradovi koje povezuje železnički koridor su: 

Kalotina (bugarsko/srpska granica) - Dragoman - Sofija. Generalno, stanje železničke infrastrukture u 

Bugarskoj se smatra siromašnom sa srednjim nivoom održavanja. Dužina drumskog Kraka C je 83 

km. Postojeća infrastruktura se sastoji od autoputeva (39,6%) i glavnih puteva (60,4%). Sledeće 

gradovi su povezani: Kalotina (bugarsko/srpska granica) - Dragoman - Sofija. 

3. OPŠTE KARAKTERISTIKE KORIDORA IV 

Multi-modalni Pan-evropski transportni Koridor IV povezuje Nemačku, Češku, Austriju, Slovačku, 

Mađarsku, Rumuniju, Bugarsku, Grčku i Tursku, sa više od: 

4.340 km železničke pruge, 

3.640 km puta, 

10 aerodroma i 

8 rečnih i morskih luka. 

Koridor IV je multi-modalna severozapadno - jugoistočna transportna veza koja ide od Drezdena / 

Nirnberg (Nemačka), preko Praga (Češka), Beča (Austrija) / Bratislave (Slovačka), Budimpešte 

(Mađarska) za Rumuniju. U Rumuniji koridor se deli na dve grane. Severni krak ide od Arada preko 

Bukurešta do Konstance na Crnom moru, a južni krak od Arada, preko Krajove do Sofije (Bugarska) i 

opet se deli, sa jednom granom prema Solunu (Grčka) i drugom prema Istanbulu (Turska). 




Delove koridora kroz Bugarsku: 

Sofija – Granica Pumunije 

Sofija – Plovdiv – Dimitrovgrad – Svilengrad – Granica Turske 

Sofija – Radomir – Dupnica – Granica Grčke 

Železnički koridor od Bugarsko/Rumunske granice (Vidin) do Mezdra - Sofija ima dužinu od 264 km. 

Brzina kojom se vozovi kreću po ovom delu iznosi 60-80 km/h. U Sofiji linija se deli na dve grane, 

jedna ide u Istanbul a druga za Solun. 

Veza sa Turskom preko Plovdiva, Dimitrovgrada i Svilengrada do granice na Kaptain Andreevo ima 

dužinu od 320 km. Po projektu ovaj deo pruge treba da se poboljšana i elektrifikacije 142 kilometara 

jednokolosečne pruge Plovdiva - Krumovo - Dimitrovgrad - Svilengrad - Grčko/Turska granica od 160 

km/h i 22,5 tona osovinskog opterećenja. 

Veza sa Grčkom iz Sofije preko Radomira, Dupnitza do granice na Kulati ima dužinu od 210 km. Linija 

će biti rekonstruisana i elektrificirana. 

3.1 Tehničke karakteristike Koridora IV 

Zemlje kroz koje prolazi 

Vidovi prevoza 

Približna dužina 

Koridora 

Glavni krak 

Krak iz Nirnberga 

Austrija, Bugarska, Češka, Nemačka, Grčka, Mađarska, Rumunija, 

Slovačka, Turska 

železnički, drumski, vazdušni, vodni 

železnička pruga 

put 

broj aerodroma 10 

broj morskih i rečnih luka 8 

4.340 km 

3.640 km 

Drezden - Prag - Bratislava / Beč - Budimpešta – Arad 

železnica 

drum 

Železnice 

Drum 

Drezden - Bad Schandau / Decin - Prag - Ceska 

Trebova - Brno - Breclav / Kuti - Bratislava - 

Rajka / Hegieshalom – Đer 

Breclav / Hohenau - Beč 

Bratislava – Beč 

Beč - Nickelsdorf / Hegieshalom - Đer - 

Budimpešta (druga trasa: Bratislava - Sturovo / 

Szob - Budimpešta) - Solnok - Lokoshaza / 

Curtici – Arad 

Drezden - Zinnvald / Cinovec - Prag - Brno - 

Lanžhot / Brodske - Bratislava - Čunovo / Rajka - 

Hegieshalom - Đer 

Brno - Mikulov / Drasenhofen - Beč 

Bratislava - Beč 

Beč - Nickelsdorf / Hegieshalom - Đer - 

Budimpešta - Kečkemet - Segedin - Nagilak / 

Nadlac - Temišvar 

Nirnberg - Schirnding / Heb - Plzen - Prag 

Nirnberg - Vaidhaus / Rozvadov - Plzen - Prag 

Belgrade, 2012 110



Krak za Konstancu 

Krak za Istanbul 

Krak za Solun 

Železničke 

Drum 

Železnica 

Drum 

Železnica 

Drum 

Arad - Alba Iulia - Brašov - Ploiesti - Bukurešt - 

Konstanca 

Temišvar - Sibiu - Pitešti - Bukurešt - Konstanca 

Arad - Temišvar - Krajova - Kalafat / Vidin - Sofija - 

Plovdiv - Svilengrad / Kap. Andreevo - Jedrene - 

Istanbul 

Temišvar - Krajova - Kalafat / Vidin - Sofija - Plovdiv 

- Svilengrad / Kap. Andreevo - Jedrene - Istanbul 

Sofija - Kulata / Promahonas - Solun 

Sofija - Kulata / Promahonas – Solun 

Značaj Koridora IV je jasno vidljiv i u investicionom smislu. To je najskuplji koridor sa predviđenim 

iznosom investicija oko 16,8 milijardi evra. 

Za Bugarsku ove cifre su sledeće: 

801 km železničke linije, 

714 km puta, 

2 aerodroma i 

2 kombinovana transportna terminala 

sa predviđenim iznosom investicija od oko 2056,4 miliona evra. 

Troškovi za infrastrukturne investicije duž železničkog i drumskog Koridora IV su procenjeni 

korišćenjem rezultata TINA završnog izveštaja, rezultata Izveštaja o "Statusu Pan-evropskih 

saobraćajnih koridora i transportnih oblasti" i informacije iz Evropske komisije (ISPA - predlozi 

projekata prihvaćenih od strane Upravnog odbora, TACIS - projekat iz nacionalnog programa i iz 

CBC-programa). 

Na Grafikonu 3. su dati troškovi za infrastrukturne investicije duž železničkog Koridora IV. 

Grafikon 3. Troškovi za infrastrukturne investicije duž železničkog Koridora IV 

Belgrade, 2012 111



Projekat za izgradnju drugog mosta preko Dunava između Bugarske i Rumunije duž trase 

Panevropskog transportnog Koridora IV u Vidin-Kalafat je značajan planirani transportni događaj. 

Dužina putnog koridora od Bugarsko / Rumunska granice (Vidin) do Sofije je 235 km. To je put sa dve 

trake, čija je rehabilitacija završena 2005. godine. Dužina deonice od Sofije do Bugarsko / Rumunske 

granice (Kapitan Andreevo) je 278 km. Krak do bugarske / grčki granice se deli u Sofiji i ima dužinu od 

201 km. 

Na Grafikonu 2. su dati troškovi za infrastrukturne investicije duž drumskog Koridora IV. 

Grafikon 4. Troškovi za infrastrukturne investicije duž drumskog Koridora IV 

4. KORIDOR X U ODNOSU NA KORIDOR IV 

Značajnost Pan-evropskih Koridora IV i X se ogleda u poboljšanju atraktivnosti i kvalitetu 

saobraćajnica koje povezuju ljude i tržišta iz Centralne Evrope sa jugoistočnom Evropom i Azijskim 

kontinentom. 

Nacionalnim auto-putem od Ruse preko Velikog Trnova i Svilengrada ka Istanbulu, Bugarska znatno 

popravlja sliku svoje putne mreže. Tako da čak dva putna pravca kroz ovu susednu zemlju navode 

vozače ka najvećem gradu u Turskoj. Jedan od njih je već ozbiljna konkurencija našem Koridoru X. To 

je Koridor IV, koji Nemačku preko Mađarske, Rumunije i Bugarske jednim krakom povezuje sa 

Istanbulom drugim sa Solunom. Kada se uz još jedan auto-put doda i činjenica da su ovi pravci 

"oslobođeni" carinskih i graničnih procedura, Srbija bi mogla da ima ozbiljan problem. 

Iako je Koridor X najbrži i najbolji pravac koji povezuje Bliski istok i Zapadnu Evropu, prevoznici nas 

zaobilaze. Ulaskom Bugarske i Rumunije u Evropsku uniju, vozači koji iz Turske kreću na zapad 

prolaze samo jednu graničnu proveru, dok na Koridoru 10 ima čak šest graničnih kontrola, koje su 

komplikovane i dugo traju. Troškovi tranzita, koji su znatno veći nego na Koridoru X, za prevoznike su 

dodatan problem. 

Belgrade, 2012 112



Koridor IV, koji prolazi kroz Bugarsku i Rumuniju, već je u prednosti jer mu je Evropa dala status 

transevropskog puta i za stepen je važniji od Koridora X, koji je transnacionalni koridor. 

Ulaskom Bugarske i Rumunije u Evropsku uniju, glavni drumski saobraćajni tokovi su počeli da 

zaobilaze našu zemlju. Vozači su se preselili na Koridor IV, koji povezuje Mađarsku sa Rumunijom i 

Bugarskom. Zadržavanje na graničnim prelazima zbog carinske procedure učinilo je neprivlačnim 

Koridor X, iako je put bolji i kraći, sa dobro opremljenim benzinskim pumpama i stajalištima. 

Granični prelazi su „vrata“ za Koridor X. Kapaciteti i procedure moraju maksimalno da se prilagode što 

većoj prohodnosti, jer u protivnom planirano investiranje u Koridor X gubi svaki smisao. Mora da se 

urade za svaki granični prelaz projekti povećanja prohodnosti vozila, roba i putnika. Svi granični 

prelazi koji se nalaze na Koridoru X podležu pravilima Evropske unije. Oni spadaju u tzv. grupu “A”, 

koja podrazumeva posebna pravila koja se odnose na policiju, carinu i inspekciju. Osim što se 

podrazumeva da su vlasništvo države, ovi prelazi treba da ispune i određene visoke normative u 

pogledu ulazno-izlaznih saobraćajnih traka, putanja za putnička i teretna vozila, kamionski terminal, 

parkinge i prilazne rampe, sanitarne čvorove i restorane, lokaciju i objekte za policiju i carinu, prostor 

za špeditere, itd. Kada se analiziraju granični prelazi, neophodno je analizirati vizni režim koji 

Republika Srbija ima prema susednim i ostalim državama u okruženju, kao i politiku koje te države 

imaju prema Republici Srbiji (skoro da smo jedina zemlja u Evropi za koju je potrebna viza). Jedan od 

osnovnih uzroka što danas na Koridoru X imamo četiri puta manji saobraćaj od realno mogućeg je 

vizni režim. 

Koridor X, međunarodni autoput koji povezuje Zapadnu Evropu sa Bliskim istokom i koji u dužini od 

800 kilometara prolazi kroz Srbiju u opasnosti je da padne u saobraćajni zapećak. Naime, iako 

predstavlja najkraću drumsku vezu od Austrije do Turske, otkada su Bugarska i Rumunija ušle u 

Evropsku uniju, na Koridoru X je zabeležen pad prometa od čak 20%. Glavni razlog je to što sada 

vozači koji iz Turske kreću na zapad, imaju samo jednu graničnu proveru na prelazu u Bugarsku, u 

kojoj su već u EU i odakle Koridorom IV, preko Rumunije, imaju slobodan prolaz do krajnje destinacije. 

S druge strane, ako odaberu Koridor X, iz Bugarske će na granici sa Srbijom imati drugu proveru, pa 

na granici sa Hrvatskom treću i tek tada ponovo ulaze u EU u Sloveniji (Tabela 2.) 

Tabela 2. Broj graničnih prelaza na koridorima [7] 

Ruta Preko Koridor Broj graničnih prelaza 

EU-EU 

EU-ne EU + 

ne EU-EU 

ne EU- 

ne EU 

Ukupno 

Austrija – 

Turska 

HU-RO-BG IV 3 1 0 3 + 1 = 4 

HU-SRB-BG Xb 1 3 0 1 + 3 = 4 

SLO-HR-SRB-BG X 1 3 1 1 + 4 = 5 

HU-RO-BG IV 4 0 0 4 

Austrija – 

Grčka 

HU-SRB-BG Xb 2 2 0 2 + 2 = 4 

SLO-HR-SRB-BG X 2 2 1 2 + 3 = 5 

SLO-HR-SRB-MK X 1 2 2 1 + 4 = 5 

Belgrade, 2012 113



Glavna prepreka za Koridor IV do sada je bio nedostatak mosta na Dunavu na granici Bugarske i 

Rumunije, kod mesta Vidin. Međutim, ta prepreka je eliminisana krajem septembra 2012. godine. 

Prevozniku koji putuje za Grčku isplati se da zaobiđe kvalitetniju infrastrukturu i kraći pravac preko 

Srbije i Makedonije, pa da preko Bugarske stigne na odredište. Skraćenjem vremena provedenog na 

granici, on pokriva trošak nešto dužeg puta. 

Koridor 10 gubi trku i zbog skupe putarine. Uprkos povoljnom geografskom položaju Srbije i prilično 

razvijenoj mreži saobraćajnica, ona nije dovoljno iskorišćena. Železnica, recimo, zauzima samo 7% 

ukupnog udela u transportu. Tek obnovom pruga i ostale infrastrukture ona može da privuče više 

robe. Plovni put, naš veliki resurs, zbog nedostatka informacionih tehnologija i starih plovila, takođe je 

zanemaren, a njegov udeo u transportu je zanemarljiv – samo 1%. 

Statistika je već zabeležila minus na našim drumovima. Broj teretnih vozila u tranzitu kroz Srbiju prošle 

godine je u odnosu na prethodnu smanjen za 22%, a prevezeno je i za 21,3 % manje robe. Zbog 

ekonomske krize tokom prošle godine preko graničnih prelaza Srbije izašlo je 21% manje teretnih 

vozila, kojima je izvezeno za 25,3% manje tona robe. Iz zemlje je ukupno izašlo 325.791 drumskih 

teretnih vozila, kojima je izvezeno 4,25 miliona tona robe. Broj teretnih vozila kojima je roba uvezena 

na područje Srbije manji je za 20,5 odsto. Statistika kaže i da vozila sa bugarskom i turskom 

registracijom čine 59,7 odsto svih šlepera u tranzitu kroz Srbiju. 

Na Slici 1. su prikazani teretni vozovi duž Koridora X od Austrije, preko Slovenije i duž Koridora IV iz 

Austrije preko Mađarske [7]. 

Slika 1. Teretni vozovi duž Koridora X od (→) A → SLO (→) i duž Koridora IV iz (→) A → HU (→) 

Direktni teretni vozovi iz Nemačke do Turske trenutno saobraćaju samo duž Koridora IV i Xb. 

5. MERE ZA POVEĆANJE ALTERNATIVE KORIDORA X U ODNOSU NA KORIDOR IV 

Optimalne granične procedure zasnovane na najkraće mogućim zaustavljanjem su ključni uslov za 

konkurentnost Koridora X. 

Neke od mera za smanjenje zaustavlja na granicama su: 

Belgrade, 2012 114



Optimizacija graničnih procedura; 

Intenzivirano korišćenje IT-softverska rešenja; 

Tehnička i konstrukciona modernizacija; 

Obezbeđivanje lokomotiva na vreme; 

Potpisivanje sporazuma poverenja; 

Poboljšan pristup kada je u pitanju nestali tovar; 

Trans-nacionalno raspoređivanje lokomotiva; 

Carine i granične kontrole u toku saobraćanja voza (prevoz putnika). 

Granični prelazi su mesta gde se troši puno vremena na postojeće procedure. Ogromne uštede 

vremena se mogu postići dobrom organizacijom i tehnologijom rada, a dodatno smanjenje vremena 

ostvaruje se pararelnim radom službi dve države 

Nedostaci Koridora IV u dužim putevima vožnje za 240 km prema Turskoj i 340 km prema Grčkoj, 

mogu se otkloniti kvalitetom infrastrukture i skraćenjem vremena putovanja, na čemu Rumunija i 

Bugarska vode aktivnosti (160 km/h). 

6. ZAKLJUČAK 

Dva železnička koridora, Koridor IV i Koridor X, bore se za primat i još nije izvesno koji će brže 

napredovati. Ako se dovoljan broj vozila "prelije" na Koridor IV, Srbija će izgubiti ne samo zaradu od 

teretnog transporta, već i novac iz fondova Evropske unije, koji će se usmeriti na važniji pravac. 

Za obe su potrebne masivne investicije, kako bi teret sigurno i brzo dospeo sa severa Evrope na 

jugoistok do Grčke i Turske, i obratno. Naša prednost u odnosu na koridore istočnih suseda je znatno 

kraća trasa i ipak bolja saobraćajnica. 

Koridor X će zadržati svoje prirodne tradicionalne prednosti u odnosu na Koridor IV samo ako 

modernizacijom infrastrukture značajno skrati vreme putovanja i podigne nivo usluge. 







Literatura 

[1] ETF Publication, DIOMIS - Bulgaria Evolution of intermodal rail/road traffic in Central and Eastern 

European Countries by 2020, 2009., ISBN 978-2-7461-1797-6 

[2] Project CODE-TEN, Corridor X, Februar 1999. 

[3] Pan-European Corridor X: State of Play and Perspectives, Member of the Technical Secretariat 

of the Steering Committee for Pan-European Corridor X, Thessaloniki, 2009. 

[4] Tina Vienna Transport Strategie, “Status of the pan-european transport corridors and transport 

areas”, Paris, 2003. 

[5] www.mi.gov.rs 

[6] www.mt.government.bg 

[7] www.koridor10.rs 

[8] www.kx-plus.com 

Belgrade, 2012 115



ANALYSIS STATE OF THE RAILWAY LINE ON CORRIDOR 10 , 

WHICH PASS THROUGH SERBIA, IN TERMS OF THE MAXIMUM 

TECHNICAL SPEED 

Milan Živanović, Kirilo Savic Institute, Belgrade, Serbia 

dr Miroljub Jevtić, Kirilo Savic Institute, Belgrade, Serbia 

Suzana Graovac, Kirilo Savic Institute, Belgrade, Serbia 

Tomislav Jovanović, Kirilo Savic Institute, Belgrade, Serbia 

Abstract: 

Corridor 10 is one of the major routes for the region of South-East Europe, and as such it is necessary 

to have an adequate infrastructure, so as to ensure a quality transportation. Technical review of the 

velocity Corridor 10 in Serbia, it is possible to get an adequate picture of the state of infrastructure. 

This paper shows the disparities that exist on the lines of Corridor 10, which pass through Serbia, and 

is left for further analysis of the detailed analysis of the solving of the problem. 

Key words: Corridor X, railways, technical speed 

ANALZA STANJA PRUGE NA KORIDORU 10 KROZ SRBIJU SA ASPEKTA TEHNČKE BRZINE 

Rezime: 

Koridor 10 je jedan od značajnijih pravaca za region jugoistočne Evrope i kao takav je neophodan da 

poseduje odgovarajuću infrastrukturu, kako bi se obezbedio uredan i kvalitetan prevoz. Pregledom 

tehničkih brzina na Koridoru 10 kroz Srbiju moguće je dobiti adekvatnu sliku stanja železničke 

infrastrukture. Ovim radom su prikazane neravnomernosti koje postoje na prugama Koridora 10, koje 

prolaze kroz Srbiju, dok je za dalju analizu ostavljena detaljnija analiza o rešavanju datog problema. 

Ključne reči: Koridor 10, železnica, tehnička brzina 

1. UVOD 

Železnički saobraćaj u Srbiji se sastoji od nekoliko magistralnih pravaca i manjih lokalnih pruga koje ih 

povezuju. Najznačajniji deo železničke infrastructure u Srbiji predstavljaju deonice Koridora 10. Pored 

njih tu je još nekoliko značajnih pravaca kao što je pruga ka Crnoj Gori, ka Rumuniji i regionalna 

pruga, preko Kraljeva, koja povezuje Koridor 10 sa prugom ka Crnoj Gori. 

Ovim radom je pokazana opšta analiza stanja pruge, tj. problem neravnomernih maksimalnih 

dozvoljenih brzina koja ovde postoje. Ovaj rad je zamišljen kao osnova za dalje analize postojeće 

železničke infrastrukture u Srbiji, na osnovu kojih bi se došlo do preporuka za dalji razvoj iste. Pojam 

maksimalnih dozvoljenih brzina bi predstavljao tehničke brzine koje je moguće ostvariti na osnovu 

stanja pruge, ali ovo predstavlja samo jedan od elemenata koji je moguće analizirati. Ostali aspekti 

kvaliteta su namenjeni za dalja istraživanja. 

Belgrade, 2012 116



2. KARAKTERISTIKE KORIDORA 10 KROZ SRBIJU 

Koridor 10 je jedan od panevropskih saobraćajnih koridora. Prostire se od Austrije do Grčke. 

Obuhvata kako železnički, dužine 2528 km, tako i drumski koridor, 2300 km. 

Slika 1 – Panevropski koridori 

Slika 2 – Koridor X (drumski i železnički) 

Koridor 10 se sastoji od glavnog kraka koji se prostire od Salzburga do Soluna: 

Salzburg (A) - Ljubljana (SLO) - Zagreb (HR) - Beograd (SRB) - Niš (SRB) - Skoplje (MK) - Veles 

(MK) - Solun (GR) 

a pored njega postoje još i 4 kraka: 

* Krak A: Grac (A) - Maribor (SLO) - Zagreb (HR) 

* Krak B: Budimpešta (SRB) - Novi Sad (SRB) - Beograd (SRB) 

* Krak C: Niš (SRB) - Dimitrovgrad (SRB) - Sofija (BG) - Istambul (TR) - preko koridora 4 

* Krak D: Veles (MK) - Prilep (MK) - Bitolj (MK) - Florina (GR) - Igumenica (GR) 

Slika 3 – Šematski prikaz Koridora 10 kroz Srbiju 

Ukupna planirana dužina železničke pruge na Koridoru 10, koja prolazi kroz Srbiju iznosi 871,3 km. To 

je deonica pruge Šid – Beograd – Niš – Preševo. Pored ovog pravca tu su još delovi (kraci) koridora 

10 i to su deonice (Budimpešta) Subotica – Beograd kao i krak Niš – Dimitrovgrad (Sofija) koji se dalje 

nastavlja na Koridor 4. 

Belgrade, 2012 117



3. ANALIZA STANJA 

Korišćenjem dijagrama put-brzina prikazano je postojeće stanje železničke infrastrukture na Koridoru 

10 kroz Srbiju sa aspekta tehničke brzine. Kako bismo pojednostavili prikaz rezultata, Koridor 10 smo 

podelili na deonice koje su posmatrane u oba pravca. Deonice su sledeće: 

1. Šid – Beograd 

2. Beograd – Niš 

3. Subotica –Beograd 

4. Niš – Preševo 

5. Dimitrovgrad – Niš 

Deonica Šid – Beograd 

140 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

140 

120 


80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

Slika 4 –Dijagram brzine na deonici 

Beograd - Šid 


Šid - Beograd 

Na Slici 4 se može se videti dijagram promene brzine na deonici od stanice N.Beograd do Šida. 

Maksimalna dozvoljena brzina od N.Beograda do Zemuna iznosi 60 km/h, da bi zatim bila povećana 

na 70 km/h na deonici od 4,0 km. Na sledeće dve deonice, čija je dužina ukupno 13,6 km maksimalna 

dozvoljena brzina iznosi 100 km/h. Naredna deonica u dužini od 23,8 km ima maksimalnu dozvoljenu 

brzinu od 120 km/h sve do službenog mesta Putinci, kada je usled stanja pruge neophodno brzinu 

smanjiti na propisanih maksimalnih 30 km/h. Dužina deonice na kojoj je maksimalna brzina 30 km/h 

iznosi 8,0 km. Nakon toga je brzinu moguće podići za 20 km/h, tako da je maksimalna dozvoljena 

brzina 50 km/h, sa izuzetkom deonice od službenog mesta Voganj do Sremske Mitrovice čija je dužina 

8,3 km, a na kojoj je maksimalna dozvoljena brzina 70 km/h. Ukupna džina deonice od 50 km/h iznosi 

54,2 km, što predstavlja skoro polovinu deonice od Beograda do Šida. Na ovom dijagramu se mogu 

primetiti nagle razlike u brzini, što može imati različite posledice prilikom eksploatacije pruge, a samim 

tim i na efikasno i kvalitetno korišćenje ovog resursa. 

Na Slici 5 možemo videti da najveći deo pruge od Šida do Beograda, tačnije deonica od Šida do 

Batajnice dužine 87,6 km, ima maksimalnu dozvoljenu brzinu od 120 km/h. Nakon toga brzina opada 

na 100 km/h na naredne dve deonice čija je ukupna dužina 13,6 km , da bi se nakon toga spustila na 

70 km/h na dužini od 4,0 km i na kraju na 60 km/h do stanice N.Beograd. Za razliku od iste deonice u 

suprotnom pravcu, ovde postoje neke nejednakosti u brzini, ali one neće značajno uticati na efikasno i 

kvalitetno korišćenje ove deonice pruge. 

Belgrade, 2012 118



Deonica Beograd – Niš (preko Mladenovca) 

120 


80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

Slika 6 –Dijagram brzine na deonici Beograd – Niš (preko Mladenovca) 

Kao što se može videti na Slici 6 maksimalne dozvoljene brzine na deonici Beograd – Niš se kreću od 

65 do 100 km/h. Prvih 36,4 km , do Ralje, brzina je konstantna i iznosi 70 km/h. Nakon toga 

maksimalna dozvoljena brzina je podignuta na 100 km/h i to u dužini od 134,8 km sa izuzetkom 

deonice pruge oko službenog mesta Ćuprija most gde je u dužini od 2 km brzina spuštena na 80 

km/h. Narednih 10,2 km brzina je ograničena na 65 km/h. Deonicom od službenog mesta Braljina do 

službenog mesta Đunis, čija je dužina 5,8 km, brzina je ograničena na maksimalnih 85 km/h. Kao što 

se i na grafiku može videti nakon toga u narednih 40 km maksimalna brzina je ograničena na 100 

km/h. 

120 


80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

Slika 7 –Dijagram brzine na deonici Niš – Beograd (preko Mladenovca) 

Ova deonica, kao što se može i videti na Slici 7 je poprilično ujednačena. Iako joj je maksimalna 

brzina ograničena na 80 km/h na najvećem delu postoje izuzeci. Od Niša do Ralje, čija je ukupna 

dužina oko 200 km brzina iznosi gore navedenih 80 km/h, sa izuzetkom dve spojene deonice od 

Braljine do Stalaća, gde je brzina spuštena na 65 km/h. 

Narednih 28,5 km brzina je ograničena na 70 km/h. U ovom trenutku ulazimo u beogradski čvor, što 

značajno usporava saobraćaj, odnosno brzina biva spuštena na 60 km/h i niže. 

Belgrade, 2012 119



Deonica Beograd – Niš (preko Male Krsne) 

120 


80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

Slika 8 –Dijagram brzine na deonici Beograd – Niš (preko Male Krsne) 

Za razliku od prethodne deonice od Beograda do Niša, ova je značajno neravnomernija u pogledu 

dozvoljenih maksimalnih brzina. Kao što se može i videti prvih 3,5 km brzina je ograničena na 60 

km/h, zatim je u narednih 2 km skok na 80 km/h, da bi se narednih 7 km opet bila dozvoljena 

maksimalna brzina od 60 km/h. Zatim od Jajinaca pa do Male Ivanče maksimalna dozvoljena brzina 

iznosi 65 km/h. U narednih 3,4 km maksimalna dozvoljena brzina je podignuta na 80 km/h. Od 

službenog mesta Mali Požarevac do Stalaća brzina se ograničava na 100 km/h, sa izuzecima 

deonice od Male Krsne do Lozovika i deonice 2 km oko Ćuprije gde je brzina ograničena na 80 km/h. 

Deonicom od službenog mesta Braljina do službenog mesta Đunis, čija je dužina 5,8 km, brzina je 

ograničena na maksimalnih 85 km/h. Kao što se i na grafiku može videti nakon toga u narednih 40 km 

maksimalna brzina je ograničena na 100 km/h. 

120 


80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

Slika 9 –Dijagram brzine na deonici Niš – Beograd (preko Male Krsne) 

Za razliku od suprotnog smera na istoj pruzi, ovde je maksimalna dozvoljena brzina ujednačenija, ali 

je i niža i ona iznosi 80km/h i to na deonici od Niša do Male Ivanče, sa izuzetkomdeonice od 10,2 km 

između Braljine i Stalaća gde je spuštena na 65 km/h. Nakon toga u dužini od 27,6 km brzina je 

ograničena na 65 km/h, dok brzina u beogradskom čvoru varira između 60 i 70 km/h. 

Belgrade, 2012 120



Deonica Subotica – Beograd 

140 

120 


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0 

140 

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80 

60 

40 

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Slika 10 –Dijagram brzine na deonici 

Beograd - Subotica 


Subotica - Beograd 

Na slikama 10 i 11 može se videti da su simetrični. Stoga će biti analizirana samo Slika 10, a sve 

primećeno na njoj važiće i za deonicu u suprotnom smeru. Kao što se može videti, neravnomernosi 

maksimalne dozvoljene brzine su relativno velike. One se nalaze u opsegu od 40 km/h pa do 120 

km/h. A sve to na deonici dugoj 171,5 km. Prva 4,0 km na deonici do Zemuna maksimalna brzina je 

ograničena na 60 km/h. Od Zemuna do Nove Pazove na dužini od 17,6 km brzina je ograničena na 

70 km/h. Svega 7,7 km maksimalna dozvoljena brzina iznosi 120 km/h, da bi nakon toga narednih 7,9 

km bila ograničena na 100 km/h. Od Inđije do Beške maksimalna brzina iznosi 80 km/h, a u narednih 

9,3 km je spuštena za još 10 km/h. Od Sremskih Karlovaca pa narednih 41,5 km maksimalna 

dozvoljena brzina iznosi 85 km/h, da bi u službhenom mestu Zmajevo bila spuštena na 60 km/h i ta 

brzina je maksimalna u dužini od 13,2 km. Nakon toga je 11,4 km maksimalna dozvoljena brzina 80 

km/h, ali usled lošeg stanja pruge nakon toga brzina se ograničava na brzinu koja nije veća od 50 

km/h u narednih 48,5 km. 

Deonica Niš – Preševo 

120 


80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

120 


80 

60 

40 

20 

0 


Niš - Preševo 


Preševo - Niš 

Belgrade, 2012 121



Kao što je bio slučaj i na prethodnoj deonici i ovde su brzine iste za određene deonice pruge u oba 

pravca. Pa smo iz tog razloga obradili samo smer Niš - Preševo, a shodnbo prethodno navedenom to 

važi i za suprotan smer. 

Prvi deo deonice u dužini od 32,5 km je ograničen maksimalnom brzinom od 100 km/h. Nakon toga je 

na dužini od 13,9 km brzina ograničena na 50 km/h, da bi nakon toga, u dužini od 38,3 km, do 

Vladičinog Hana brzina bila ograničena na 65 km/h. Zatim na odvojenim deonicama od 13,9 km, od 

8,0 km i od 11,7 km brzina ograničena na 75 km/h, dok se između njih nalaze deonice ove pruge 

dužine 17,7km i 8,0 km, čija je brzina ograničena na 50 km/h. Ove poslednje oscilacije značajno utiču 

na smanjenje kvaliteta pruge i nivoa usluge. 

Deonica Dimtrovgrad – Niš 

120 


80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

120 


80 

60 

40 

20 

0 


Dimitrovgrad - Niš 


Niš - Dimitrovgrad 

U železničkom čvoru Niš možemo videti da je brzina niža nego na ostalim delovima pruge. Tu je 

brzina 30 km/h u dužini od oko 1 km. Nakon toga maksimalna ograničena brzina je konstantna 

narednih 71 km i iznosi 50 km/h. Od Pirota do državne granice brzina je značajno povećana i iznosi 

100 km/h. Dužina deonice kojom vozovi mogu da idu ovom brzinom iznosi 24,5 km. Ovo je ujedno i 

najsporija deonica pruge na Koridoru 10 kroz Srbiju. 

4. SUMIRANJE REZULTATA 

Na osnovu prethodno analiziranih podataka dobijeni 

su određeni rezultati. Prosečna maksimalna 

dozvoljena brzina na prugama Koridora 10 iznosi 

78,9 km/h. 

Međutim, veći je problem što ta brzina oscilira u 

zavisnosi od smera i deonice. 


90 

80 

70 

94.66 

83.14 

71.46 71.18 

Brzina 

[km/h] 

63.96 

60 

Slika 16 – Grafik prosečnih maksimalnih 

brzina po deonicama na Koridoru 10 

50 

Deonica 

Beograd - 

Šid 

Deonica 

Beograd - 

Niš 

Deonica 

Beograd - 

Subotica 

Deonica Deonica 

Međurovo - Dimitrovgrad 

Preševo - Niš 

Belgrade, 2012 122



Kako bismo što bolje prikazali rezultate dobijene u ovom radu, na Slici 17 se može videti grafička 

raspodela prosečnih maksimalnih dozvoljenih brzina na prugama Koridora 10. 

Slika 17 – Graf raspodela 

prosečnih maksimalnih 

dozvoljenih brzina na 

Koridoru 10 kroz Srbiju 

izražen u km/h 

U ovom radu se vidi da su jedino deonice od Šida do Beograda (smer od Šida ka Beogradu 115,7 

km/h) i od Beograda do Niša (smer od Beograda ka Nišu – 91,1 km/h) iznad proseka (78.9 km/h), dok 

su ostale deonice u svim pravcima za 10-20% ispod proseka. Deonica na kojoj je maksimalna 

dozvoljena brzina najmanja je i ujedno jedina deonica pruge koja nije elektrificirana, odnosno to je 

deonica od Niša do Dimitrovgrada u oba smera (prosečna maksimalna brzina je oko 64 km/h) 

5. ZAKLJUČAK 

U ovom radu je moguće videti da su oscilacije velike, ne samo na deonicama već i između njih. Ovo 

za posledicu može imati veoma komplikovaniju izradu reda vožnje, što za posledicu ima neadekvatno 

upravljanje vučnih i vučenih sredstava. Samim tim ni železnica ne može biti efikasna, a takođe ni 

konkurentna na tržištu. Ovo predstavlja problem jer je neravnomernost velika, što dovodi do zaključka 

da ni stanje pruge nije na odgovarajućem nivou, koji propisuje UIC, za panevropske koridore. 







REFERENCE 

[1] M. Živanović, S. Vukmirović, S. Graovac , VREME PUTOVANJA I STRUKTURA VREMENA 

PUTOVANJA TRANZITNIH VOZOVA KROZ SRBIJU NA TRASAMA KORIDORA 10, Naučnostručna 

konferencije »KORIDOR 10-održivi put integracija«, (57 – 74), Beograd 2010. 

[2] dr Stevo Eror „Organizacija i tehnologija železničkog saobraćaja ” II izdanje, Beograd, 2003. 

[3] M.Čičak, S.Vesković „Organizacija železničkog saobraćaja II ” , Beograd, 2003. 

[4] JP Železnice Srbije - Red vožnje, Beograd, 2008 

[5] http://www.zeleznicesrbije.com 

[6] http://www.mi.gov.rs/zeleznica.htm 

Belgrade, 2012 123



THE IMPORTANCE OF THE CORRIDOR 10 OF ECONOMIC 

DEVELOPMENT OF SERBIAN 

Marija Petrović, Kirilo Savic Institute, Belgrade, Serbia 

dr Predrag Petrović, Kirilo Savic Institute, Belgrade, Serbia 

Summary 

Corridor 10 by linking eight countries, connecting the most developed and largest centers in Serbia, 

with the arms of Budapest, Zagreb, Sofia, Istanbul and Thessaloniki, and is an important area for 

economic development, tourism, transport and other activities that are very important for sustainable 

the development. Therefore, in terms of importance, it is necessary to a speedy completion of all road 

branches, and the rehabilitation and modernization of rail transport, the aim of developing multi-modal 

transport connectivity with the river traffic on the Danube and Sava rivers. The establishment features 

Corridor 10, made to approach, especially Turkey and other Middle Eastern countries, as well as 

access to the Aegean and Black Sea, Corridor 7. An even greater importance of Corridor 10, will be 

crossing with Corridor 4, through Romania and Bulgaria, Corridor 5, through Bosnia and Herzegovina 

and future motorway Corridor-11, Belgrade southern Adriatic. 

This paper presents a brief overview of the state construction of Corridor 10 construction plans and 

other motorways in Serbia and display actual and planned investment in the economic zone of the 

Corridor 10. 

Keywords: Corridor 10, Economy, Investment, Transport, Infrastructure 

ZNAČAJ KORIDORA 10 NA PRIVREDNI RAZVOJ SRBIJE 

Rezime 

Koridor 10 pored povezivanja osam država, povezuje i najrazvijenije i najveće centre u Srbiji, sa 

kracima prema Budimpešti, Zagrebu, Sofiji, Instanbulu i Solunu i predstavlja značajnu zonu za razvoj 

privrede, turizma, saobraćaja i drugih delatnosti koje su veoma značajne za održivi razvoj. Zbog toga, 

sa aspekta značaja, neophodan je što brži završetak svih putnih krakova, kao i rehabilitacija i 

modernizacija železničkog saobraćaja, sve u cilju razvoja multimodalnog transporta povezivanjem sa 

rečnim saobraćajem na Dunavu i Savi. Uspostavljanjem funkcije koridora 10, ostvario bi se prilaz, pre 

svega Turskoj, i drugim zemljama Bliskog istoka, kao i izlaz na Egejsko i Crno more, Koridorom 7. Još 

veći značaj Koridora 10, biće ukrštanjem sa Koridorom 4, kroz Rumuniju i Bugarsku, Koridorom 5, 

kroz Bosnu i Hercegovinu i budućim autoputem-Koridorom 11, Beograd južni Jadran. 

U ovom radu je dat kraći prikaz stanja izgradnje Koridora 10 i planova izgradnje drugih autoputeva u 

Srbiji i prikaz ostvarenih i planiranih privrednih investicija u zoni Koridora 10. 

Ključne reči: Koridor 10, privreda, investicije, saobraćaj, infrastructura 

Belgrade, 2012 124



1. UVOD 

Kao što je pomenuto, Koridor 10 povezuje osam država i najrazvijenije i najveće centre u Srbiji- 

Subotica, Novi Sad, Beograd, Niš, Pirot, Leskovac i Vranje. Geografski položaj Koridora 10, gravitira i 

vodotokovima i obradivim površinama u centralnom i južnom delu Srbije, a posebno u Vojvodini, 

pogodnim za poljoprivrednu proizvodnju. Vekovno naseljavanje stanovništva u tim zonama, stvorilo je 

najgušću demografsku sliku u Srbiji, kao što se može videti na slici 1, kao i nekoliko karakterističnih 

demografsko-geografskih podataka koji se odnose na Srbiju.[1,6] 

Broj stanovnika Srbije (2002.)- 7.498.001. 

Broj stanovnika Srbije (2011.)- 7.120.666 

Broj umrlih/1000 stanovnika – 14,2 

Broj rođenih/1000 na stanovnika - 9,0 

Manje stanovnika/godišnje-37.030 

2011/2002=0,949 (377.335 stanovnika 

manje) 

Površina Srbije- 88.361 km 2 

Broj stanovnika na1000km 2 - 80,58 

Površina Kosova i Metohije-10.939 km 2 

(12,4%) 

Poljoprivredno zemljište- 5.051.000 ha 

Obradivo poljoprivredno zemljište – 

4.216.000ha 

Pod rekama (0,13%) - 11.486 ha 

Pod autoputem (0,027%) – 2.410 ha 

Dužina većih reka:Dunav-588 km; Drina-220 

km; Timok -202 km; Sava -206 km; Ibar -272 

km; Tisa-168 km, Zapadna, Južna, Velika 

Morava:308+295+185=788km 

Slika 1. Demografski razmeštaj stanovništva na teritoriji Srbije, 

sa osvrtom na zonu Koridora 10.[6] 

Nezaposlenost u Srbiji je u poslednje četiri godine rekordno porasla, kao nikada u vekovnoj, modernoj 

istoriji. Objašnjenje, da je svetska ekonomska kriza uzrok za sve, samo su delimičan alibi, čak za 

Srbiju nikakav, jer je ona delovala i na druge zemlje, a Srbija je zbog decenijske loše 

privredne,tranzicione, vlasničke transformacije, loše strategije i drugih mnogobrojnih faktora i loših 

procena, dospela među prve tri zemlje u Evropi po stopi nezaposlenosti. Ako se ostvare predviđanja 

međunarodnog monetarnog fonda, Srbija će u poređenju sa 102 zemlje do 2016., biti među pet 

zemalja u svetu s najvećom stopom nezaposlenosti, posle Makedonije, Bosne i Hercegovine, 

Južnoafričke Republike i Grčke.[1] 

Vlast ukazuje da se mora reagovati buđžetskim sredstvima u regionu, gde je nezaposlenost izražena, 

a u drugoj se ukazuje na potrebu potsticaja radi bržeg zapošljavanja u zanatskim radnjama i malim i 

srednjim preduzećima.Ne postoji dilema da li je izvoz privrede Srbije najefikasniji, možda i jedini način 

za borbu protiv ekonomsko-finansijske krize i težnje za stabilnošću valute. Tim ciljevima, treba da se 

identifikuju komparativne delatnosti i realna tržišta i da sepodsticajnim merama Vlade usmereka 

privrednom razvoju. Takav pristup bi znatno podigao nivo izvoza i smanjio spoljnotrgovinski deficit, 

Belgrade, 2012 125



bez obzira što to nije univerzalni recept, jer svaka ekonomija ima svoje specifičnosti u pogledu 

privredne strukture, nivoa spoljne i unutrašnje zaduženosti, opšte likvidnosti, nezaposlenosti, socijalne 

sigurnosti, efikasnosti državne administracije i sudstva i dr. 

Na žalost, danas je u Srbiji, svaka četvrta osoba bez posla, a zna se da nema uspešnog održivog 

razvoja bez stabilne profitabilne privrede i otvaranja novih radnih mesta. Otklanjanje nezaposlenosti 

novim investicijama i tehnološkim savremenim kapacitetima čiji će proizvodi naći kupce na inostranom 

tržištu, je uslov, svih uslova, za stabilnost u svakom smislu: ekonomskom, političkom, socijalnom ... 

Sociolozi tvrde da su ljudi bez posla, osobe bez budućnosti, ako je tako, šta je onda budućnost Srbije. 

2. STANJE IZGRADNJE KORIDORA 10 I PLANOVI ZA KORIDOR11 

I pоrеd brојnih teškoća, data je politička podrška završetku Koridora 10 i izgradnji Koridora 11, kao 

veoma bitnim strateškim razvojnim kracima kојi pоvеzuјu Srbiјu sаЕvrоpоm i оkо kојih sеоdviја i 

оdviјаćе sе u budućnosti,nајintеnzivniјi privredni i drugi rаzvој. Uоpštе gоvоrеći 

infrаstrukturајеоcеnjеnа kаојеdаn оd оsnоvnih instrumеnаtа zаоstvаrivаnjејеdnоg оd pеt оsnоvnih 

cilјеvа rаzvојаЕvrоpе, kојa sеоdnоsi nа prоstоrnu intеgrаciјu Srbiје sаеvrоpskim оkružеnjеm, аli i 

drugоg kојi sеоdnоsi nајаčаnjе tеritоriјаlnе kоnkurеntnоsti i kоhеziје Rеpublikе. Pаnеvrоpski Kоridоr 

10, kојi оbuhvаtа žеlеzničku i putnu mrеžu, duž kоgа sе plаnirа izgrаdnjа gаsоvоdnе infrаstrukturе, 

mrеžеоptičkih kаblоvа, uz multifunkciоnаlnih ulоgа rеkа Save, Dunava (Koridor7),Tise, Drine, Vеlikе i 

ЈužnеМоrаvе, Timoka i dr., prеstаvlјајеdnu оd rаzvојnih šаnsi zа privrеdu Srbiје. 

Kоridоr 10, kојi pоvеzuјеоsаm, а sа krаcimајоš nеkоlikо, držаvа, krоz Srbiјu sе prоtеžе dužinоm оd 

874 km (37% ukupne dužinekоridоrа). Uzimajući u obzir, po završetku kompltetnog autoputa na 

koridoru 10 koji će se prostirati kroz Srbiju, sa uobičajnom širinom od 27,5m, autoput će okvirno (pod 

asfaltom) zauzimati površinu oko 2.410 ha (0,027% ukupne površine Srbije), a uzimajući u obzir 

zaštitnu zelenu zonu (u okviru zaštitne ograde) i rastojanje između traka autoputa, ukupna površina, 

po proceni bi bila oko 5.000 ha. Treba imati u vidu da se ne radi o potpuno novoj površini zemljišta 

(poljoprivredno zemljište, pašnjaci, šume i dr.), s obzirom da je na trasi Koridora 10, već postojala 

mreža magistralnih puteva, na kojima su u većem obimu izgrađene pojedine trase autoputa. 

Kоridоr pоrеd trаnspоrtnе, imа i еnеrgеtsku i privrеdnu funkciјu оd izuzеtnоg znаčаја zа Srbiјu, 

privlаčеći stаnоvništvо i privrеdnеаktivnоsti. Ovа kоncеntrаciја trаnspоrtа, еnеrgiје (gаs), lјudi i 

еkоnоmiје,оtvаrаоzbilјnо pitаnjе zаštitе i urеđenjа prоstоrа oko koridora, ali nikako ne podrazumeva 

zapostavljanje razvoja i drugih regiona u Srbiji. 

Šematski prikaz stanja, pojedinih faza izgradnje i planova budućih autoputeva u sklopu Koridora 10 i 

11, prikazan je na slikama 2 i 3, a u tabeli 1, stanje na deonicama, koje su u toku izgradnje. 

Međutim, Srbija ne može da se pohvali dinamikom izgradnje deonica na Koridoru 10, jer u periodu 

2001.-2012., urađeno je samo 36,5km autoputa punog profila i 260km., poluautoputa, dok je u 

Hrvatskoj u istom periodu izrađeno 581,4km autoputa punog profila, zašta je utrošeno oko 3 milijarde 

evra. Inače u Srbiji je 498km autoputeva i 136km poluautoputeva pod naplatom putarine, dok je u 

Hrvatskoj pod naplatom 1250,7 km, autoputeva i poluautoputeva.[3] 

Gustinom mreže autoputeva od 4,8 km/1000 km 2 , Srbija se može uporediti sa gustinommreže u 

državama poput Bugarske, Češke, Slovačke ili Mađarske.Gustina železničke mreže u Srbiji od 49,2 

km/1000 km 2 , može seuporediti sa prosekom članica Evropske unije, kao i sa gustinom u Francuskoj. 

Što je daleko povoljnije u odnosu na mrežu autoputeva. 

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Na slici 3, prikazana je detaljnija karta „Koridora Srbije“, na kojoj se vidi presek stanja izvršenih i 

planiranih aktivnosti na izgradnji punog i poluprofila autoputeva, kao i drugih objekata koji su 

neminovni pri izgradnji ovako kapitalnih objekata (tuneli, mostovi, viadukti i sl.). Takođe, dati su rokovi 

završetka pojedinih deonica i način finansiranja izgradnje: „Autoput E75: Sever“; „Autoput E-763- 

Sektor 1:Beograd-Ljig;Sektor 2:Ljig –Požega;„Autoput E-70 i E-75: Obilaznica oko 

Beograda;„AutoputE-75: Niš-granica sa Makedonijom; „Autoput E-80: Niš-Dimitrovgrad“. 

Uzimajući u obzir činjenicu kašnjenja izgradnje Koridora 10 kroz Srbiju, razmatra se mogućnost 

naplate penala za kašnjenje na deonicama koje su u toku: Pirot-Sukovo, Sukovo –Dimitrovgrad, kao i 

na predviđenim mostovima. Radovi na obilaznici oko Dimitrovgrada su započeti 14. aprila 2010. i 

trebalisu da se završe za 720dana. Deonica koja je započeta 24. novembra 2010., od Pirota do 

Dimitrovgrada trebala je da se završi za 540 dana. U Srbiji se uvek nađu razlozi neispunjavanja 

postavljenih i ugovorenih obaveza, pa u ovom slučaju navodi se jedan od razloga, eksproprijacija 

zemljišta zbog problema sa lokalnim stanovništvom kojenije bilo zadovoljno ponuđenim rešenjem od 

strane države, a drugi uzrok je arheološko otkriće rimskog puta Vija militaris. 

U sklopu obilaznice oko Dimitrovgrada nalaze se dva tunela (PržojnaPadinai Progon), koji su 

ugovoreni sa grčkom firmom „Ternom“ 

Slika 2.Stanje i planovi izgradnje Koridora 10 i 11 u Srbiji 

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Tabela 1. Stanje deonica na Koridoru 10, čija je izgradnja u toku. 

Deonice Dužina (km) Godina 

Istočni krak K10, E80 

Prosek-Crvena reka 22,5 2012. 

Crvena reka-Čiflik 12,7 2012. 

Pirot(istok)-Dimitrovgrad 14,3 2011/2012. 

Obilaznica oko Dimitrovgrada 7 2010/2012. 

Tuneli Progon i Pržojna padina 1,7 

Severni krak K10-“ Y krak” 

GP Kelebija-Subotica 22,3 2012. 

Južni krak K10, E75 

Grabovnica- Grdelica 5,6 2012. 

Vladičin Han-D.Neradovac 26,3 2012. 

D.Neradovac-Srpska kuća 8 2011/2012. 

Autoput E763 Beograd–Južni 

Jadran 

Ub-Lajkovac 12,5 2010/2012. 

Ljig-Preljina 40,36 2012. 

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Slika 3.Detaljniji presek stanja i planovi izgradnje pojedinih deonica na Koridorima 10 i 11 

Republike Srbije. 

2.1. Okvirni pregled troškova izgradnje autoputeva u Srbiji 

Prema informacijama zvaničnih institucija Republike Srbije u tabeli 2, dat je pregled troškova izgradnje 

autoputeva na Koridoru 10. 

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Tabela 2. Troškovi izgranje pojedinih deonica autoputeva u Srbiji 

Godina Deonica Dužina(km) Ukupni troškovi 

(mil. evra) 

Troškovi po km 

(evra/km) 

2004. Beška-Novi Sad 19,2 11,743 611.000 

2009 Novi Sad-Horgoš 110 100 1.100.000 

2009 Levosoje-Makedonska granica 20,55 17,7 809.523 

2011 Donji Neradovac-Srpska kuća 7,95 21,850 2.700.000 

2011. Grabovica-Grdelica 5,6 23,8 4.200.000 

2012. Obilaznica oko Beograda 10 65 6.500.000 

3. DOSADAŠNJI PRILIV INVESTICIJA U PRIVREDNI RAZVOJ SRBIJE 

Prema nekim podacima, za investiranje u gradove koji gravitiraju Koridoru 10 ili su u njegovoj 

neposrednoj blizini, je uloženo oko 2,2 milijarde evra, što je odprilike šestina ukupnih ulaganja u Srbiji. 

Zahvaljujući ovim investicijama gradovi uz Koridor 10, postali su mesta u kojima je standard nešto veći 

nego u mestima koja se nalaze zapadno i istočno od koridora, a u čijim pogonima je otvoreno više od 

20.000 novih radnih mesta. Očigledno da investitori biraju mesta uz koridor jer im to smanjuje troškove 

i vreme transporta, a to stanovništvu ovih gradovasvakako odgovara, jer je polako počeo da im raste 

standard i u nekoj meri i lokalna uprava je počela da ulaže u druge vidove privrede i infrastrukturu. 

Podaci koji su dostupni javnosti po pitanju investiranja u Srbiji, a time i u zonama Koridora 10, su 

veoma različiti, a često i kontradiktorni. Jedan vid dostupnosti podataka investiranih u Srbiju, od strane 

12 evropskih zemalja sa najvećim investicijama, za period 2005-2010., prikazan je u tabeli 3, a u tabeli 

4, ukupan nivo investicija u Srbiji u periodu 2002.-2011. [1] 

Tabela 3. Strane investicije (12 zemalja Evrope) u Srbiji u periodu 2005-2010. (000 €) 

Zemlja 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Ukupno 

Austrija 168.864 409.815 848.627 330.567 234.149 145.850 2.137.872 

Norveška 24 1.296.061 2.326 4.025 -526 1.567 1.303.477 

Grčka 183.137 672.010 237.108 33.338 46.724 24.450 1.196.766 

Nemačka 154.868 645.370 50.516 59.572 40.101 32,921 983.348 

Italija 14.759 49.087 111.504 333.665 167.386 42.296 718.697 

Holandija 80.387 -176.560 -24.199 336.711 172.267 200.100 588.707 

Slovenija 149.854 154.529 64.033 70.659 34.290 80.859 554.224 

Rusija 11.722 12.713 1.700 7.903 419.751 6.993 460.782 

Luksemburg 88.331 4.839 185.226 48.576 6.002 6.739 339.713 

Švajcarska 45.922 4.223 70.458 82.319 62.883 50.643 308.001 

Mađarska 24.613 179.260 22.901 21.891 17.787 15.488 281.941 

Francuska 34.816 79.087 61.458 53.810 7.150 17.089 253.410 

Ukupno: 9.126.938 € 

10.933.311 $ 

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Tabela 4.Ukupan nivo investicija u Srbiji (2002.-2011.) 

God. 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011+ 

$(mil.) 326,4 1.071,4 796,4 1.440,7 4.286,3 2.004,2 2.362,5 1.771,3 1.510 1.746,2 

4. INVESTICIJE U GRADOVIMA KOJI GRAVITIRAJU KORIDORU 10 

4.1. Pogodnosti investiranja u Srbiji i zoni Koridora 10 

Razvojem i izgradnjom sabraćajne infrastrukture, uključujući i obilaznicu oko Beograda, sa novim 

budućim mostom na Dunavu, omogućiće se brži napredak privrede i formiranje nove industrijske 

zone, u kojoj se očekuje veliki broj investicija. Opravdanost ulaganja u Srbiji i u zoni Koridora 10, može 

se sagledati kroz geografsku povoljnost i podsticajne mere koje daje Vlada Srbije. Neke od tih mera 

su: 

Povoljan geo-strateški položaj i blizina, kako istočnih, tako i zapadnih zemalja jugoistočne 

Evrope, 

Dobra pogodnost formiranja industrijske zone za „greenfield” investicije, 

Dostupnost kvalitetnih ljudskih resursa sa konkurentnom cenom rada, 

Tradicija i bogato iskustvo u industrijskoj proizvodnji, 

Razvijena poljoprivredno-prehrambena i prerađivačka delatnost, 

Postojanje rečnih luka, javnih skladišta, carine i sl., 

Registrovane kvalitetne industrijske lokacije i objekti za “brownfield” investicije, 

Pojednostavljeni propisi o spoljnoj trgovini i stranim ulaganjima, 

Niska stopa poreza na dobit preduzeća, 

Pojednostavljeni propisi o spoljnoj trgovini i stranim ulaganjima, 

Skraćena procedura za osnivanje preduzeća - 15 dana, 

Dodatne poreske olakšice u Srbiji, 

Za investicije preko 7,5 miliona USD i na 100 dodatno zapošljenih radnika, preduzeća ne 

plaćaju porez na dobit u periodu od 10 godina, 

Omogćava poreski kredit od 40%, od investicione vrednosti, za investicije u osnovna 

sredstva, 

Oslobađanje od poreza na dobit,na prihode od koncesije u periodu od 5 godina. 

Oslobađaju se od poreza na dobit oni investitori, koji ulažu u profesionalno osposobljavanje, 

rehabilitaciju i zapošljavanje invalida. [1] 

4.2. Investicije i planovi privrednog razvoja u zoni Koridora 10. 

U Beogradu, Inđiji, Subotici Novom Sadu, Svilajncu, Jagodini, Nišu, Leskovcu i drugim gradovima u 

zoni Koridora 10, standard stanovništva je viši, nego u mnogim drugim mestima u Srbiji. Od ukupno 

nekih 17 milijardi dolara stranih investicija u ovim mestima je plasirana skoro šestina. Strani kapital, se 

odlučuju na taj korak pre svega kako bi smanjili troškove transporta, a poslovima koje pokreću, uposlili 

lokalno stanovništvo, povećali tražnju u tim mestima i podstakli ekonomski rast. Toj logici, znatno su 

doprinele podsticajne mere države Srbije, u vidu sufinansiranja svakog radnog mesta, povlastica 

davanja zemljišnig poseda, oslobađanja na određeno vreme za zaposlene plaćanja poreza i doprinosa 

i mnoge druge. U izgradnji tih pogona, značajni doprinos su dala naša preduzeća, koja su svojom 

mehanizacijom, opremom, korišćenjem domaćih građevinskih materijala i relativno jeftinom radnom 

snagom, učestvovala u izgradnji infrastrukture industrijskih kompleksa. 

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Opštine koje gravitiraju Koridoru 10, mogu da očekuju izvestan rast proizvodnje, u odnosu na druge, a 

njih je oko 80%, kod kojih će bruto domaći proizvod prema očekivanjima da se smanjuje. U buđžetu 

Srbije, odvojeno je 22 milijarde dinara za kapitalne investicije, a samo u buđžetu grada Beograda je 

predviđeno preko 30 milijardi dinara za takve investicije, što u osnovi sagledava neravnomerni razvoj 

celokupne teritorije Srbije, a potvrđuju se iskazi, baš tih lokalnih uprava da je na snazi tzv. 

beogradizacija. Beograd, Novi Sad i koridorski deo Vojvodine su već odvojeni od ostatka Srbije, a 

razlike se samo još više produbljuju. Beograd učestvuje sa 22% u ukupnom stanovništvu Srbije, a 

80% sa ukupnim kapitalom Srbije, što je u 2011., iznosilo oko 100 milijardi dinara. Beograd je za 

investicije, zaključno sa 2011., od strane Ministarstva ekonomije i SIEPA dobio u vidu subvencija 46 

miliona evra, za 10 kompanija koje se nalaze na teritoriji grada. 

Kako su tekle neke značajnije investicije, uz otvaranje novih radnih mesta u drugim gradovima koji 

gravitiraju Koridoru 10, prikazane su na slici 4. 

U Inđiji je do sada bilo prilično investicija, a u ovom trenutku ima sedam velikih, koje se pozitivno 

odražavaju i na standard stanovništva. Ukupan nivo stranih investicija u ovom gradu od 2002. prelazi 

pola miliona evra, u više od 40 grinfild investicija. Prema podacima zvaničnika za njih je 2011. bila 

bolja od 2008. i 2009. Sam koridor, pored drugih povlastica koje daje, utiče na opredeljenje ulagača u 

ovaj grad, čak i do 20%.Infrastruktura je veoma važna, ne manje je važna i ozbilja administracija koja 

može da ponudi čitav uslužni paket, da smanji administraciju, korupciju, da brine o investitoru i 

podsticajnim merama, povoljne cene zemljišta. 

Najveća privredna investicija u zoni Koridora 10, je ulaganje i formiranje nove fabrike FIAT u 

Kragujevcu. Planirano je ukupno ulaganje od 1.600 milionaevra sa otvaranjem 2.500 novih radnih 

mesta. Ono što je zanimljivo (24.10.2012., Dnevni list Politika objavljuje članak pod nazivom „Srpski 

proizvođači daleko od Fijata“ ). U takstu stoji da se u zemlji tranutno pravi 67% delova za novi model 

„500L“, ali samo jedna domaća firma, kragujevačka„Promotor IRVA“, ispunjava sve uslove za 

direktnu saradnju sa italijanskim proizvođačem automobila. Ta firma će proizvoditi za prvu ugradnju 

dizalice i inbus ključ koji će biti u rezervnom alatu. Očekuje se dobijanje certifikata firme „Goma lajn“ 

za proizvodnju gumenih creva. 

Prema FAS (Fabrika automobila Srbija) u ovom trenutku u Srbiji je registrovano 11 multi-nacionalnih 

kompanija koje će proizvoditi delove za FIAT. To su: „Manjeti Mareli“, „Đžonson kontrol“, PCMA, 

HTL,“ Siđit“, „Promo Manjeti“, „Mekaplast“, Drakselmajer“, „Bešiz“, A.D. Plastik, „Elmet“. U 

tim fabrikama danas se izrađuju: izduvni sistemi, sistemioslanjanja, obloge za vrata, instrument table i 

centralne konzole, kompletna sedišta, nosači motora, plastične posude, delovi od bitumena i gume, 

elektronski sistemi, kablovski setovi i druga oprema. 

Pred uslovza saradnju sa FAS-om, je posedovanje standarda ISO 9001 i ISO 2000 i dostignuti 

međunarodni sistem kvaliteta ISO TS 16 949. 

Belgrade, 2012 132



Slika 4. Investicije i broj novih radnih mesta u gradovima koji gravitiraju Koridoru 10. 

Početkom ove godine u Inđiji je postavljen kamen temeljac za izgradnju fabrike cirkularnih pumpi 

„Grundfos Srbija“, koja sa još 80 svojih fabrika, drži 50% svetskog tržišta industrijskih pumpi. Nova 

fabrika gradiće se u severno-zapadnoj industrijskoj zoni na placu od 15ha koja može zaposliti 

350+150 radnika. Prostiraće se na površini od oko 25.000 m 2 ,a biće uloženo 50,6 miliona evra i 

zapošljavaće u prvoj fazi koja se očekuje krajem ove godine oko 350 radnika, a kasnije uz mogućnost, 

u zavisnosti od obima proizvodnje i potrebe tržišta još do 150 radnika. Cirkulacione pumpe koje bi se 

proizvodile u ovom pogonu biće namenjene tržištu Rusije i Mađarske, kao i drugim zemljama.[7] 

Indijska „Embasi grup“, započela je ove godine izgradnju IT-centra. U prvoj fazi ovog projekta posao 

će dobiti oko 2.500 radnika i biće završena do kraja sledeće godine. 

Belgijska kompanija „Elektrovinds“, je uložila 21 milion dolara za gradnju fabrike „Energo zelena“, 

za preradu klaničnog otpada. Fabrika će godišnje prerađivati 150.000tona animalnog otpada, a 

zapošljavaće oko 100 radnika. 

Belgrade, 2012 133



Drugi pogon koji bi trebalo da počne da se gradi je nemački „String metal“, koji će proizvoditi deo 

komponenti za Simensove tramvaje, a po planu je zaposlenje oko 100 radnika. 

Niš je jedan od gradova koji je 2011., možda i najviše profitirao zbog blizine Koridora 10, u njemu su 

otvorene fabrike „JURA“, i JURA Šinvon“ u kojima radi 2.300 ljudi. Italijanski modni gigant 

„Beneton“, kupio je „Nitex“i planira da zaposli 2.700 ljudi. Očekuje se realizacija i projekta sa 

„Dajtekom“, Sažemom“,zatim izgradnja akvaparka vrednog 100 miliona evra i stambeno-poslovnog 

prostora u kasarni „Bubanjski heroji“. Otvaranjem tih pogona, stvorena je potreba za uvođenjem 

nove linije gradskog prevoza do radne zone Donje Međurovo, koju koristi veliki broj radnika. Deo 

ostvarenih prihoda sliva se u gradski buđžet uz ispunjavanje zahteva po pitanju poreza i doprinosa. 

U gradskoj stambenoj agenciji očekuje se dolazak novih investitora i značajnije uposli niška 

građevinska operativa, pa se predviđa da će samo za izgradnju stambeno-poslovnog kompleksa u 

kasarni „Bubanjski heroji“ biti uposleno oko 1000 građevinskih radnika.Dolazak novih investitora, 

šansa je za preduzetnike iz drugih privrednih grana da prošire proizvodne delatnosti. Naprimer, u 

niškoj pekari „Branković“ povećana je proizvodnja peciva nakon otvaranja novih fabrika za oko 15%. 

Slovenačke kompanije za proizvodnju auto delova „Grah automotiv“, su u Batočini, otvorili novu 

dodatnu proizvodnu halu sa opremom visoke tehnologije, površine 4.500m 2 , uz posedovanje 

postojeće od 2.500m 2 . Do kraja godine zaposliće 400 radnika, a kao podsticaj zapošljavanju, ova 

kompanija je od srpske Vlade dobila 1,6 miliona evra, kroz program podrške direktnim investicijama. 

Inače, investicija slovenačke firme iznosi 11,2 miliona evra, a najveći deo proizvodnje, izvozi 

uglavnom u države EU, za poznate proizvođače, među kojima su i “Audi”, “Mercedes” i “Ford”. 

U Leskovcu je nemačka kompanija za proizvodnju čarapa „Falke“, započela izgradnju fabrike u 

novembru 2010., ali se sa završetkom i zapošljavanjem novih radnika ozbiljno kasni. 

U Subotici je samo u poslednje tri godine otvoreno 3.200 radnih mesta, a očekuje se do kraja godine 

još najmanje 600.Na ovaj način broj nezaposlenih ljudi smanjen je za trećinu. U rekordnom roku 

obezbeđene su velike površine građevinskog zemljišta, pre svega u industrijskoj zoni u malom 

Bajmoku,a sva neophodna dokumentacija za gradnju pogona dobija se u najkraćem mogućem roku. 

Ono što nadležni u Subotici navode kao veoma bitan faktor, pored činjenice da je za trećinu smanjen 

broj nezaposlenih i da je kvalitet života na višem nivou nego ranije, jeste i to što svi investitori spadaju 

u tzv. „Belu industriju„, gde nema bojazni od zagađenja. 

Austrijska kompanija unikatnog nakita„Svarovski“ podići će novu fabriku u Subotici, ulažući 21 milion 

evra i zaposliće oko 550 radnika. 

Svilajnac je privukao četiri jaka investitora, među kojima su najpoznatiji austrijski „POOR“, japanski 

„Panasonik“, nemački „Reum“. 

Panasonik je, posle razmatranja više lokacija u Srbiji, odlučio da svoju prvu proizvodnju smesti u 

Svilajnac, gde trenutno posluje u iznajmljenim halama, proizvodi elemente LED rasvete i zapošljava 

oko 50 radnika, ali uskoro znatno proširuje proizvodnju.Za dva meseca ovde će biti instalirana 

najnovija tehnološka linija, a do kraja godine posao će dobiti još 100 radnika. Svilajnac je uspeo da 

privuče investitore, nakon obezbeđenja vrlo povoljnih beneficija, kao što je besplatno zemljište na 99 

godina, oslobađanje od lokalne takse u roku od tri godine i maksimalno skraćen rok za izdavanje 

dozvola za početak gradnje, koji je smanjen na samo mesec dana. 

Zapošljeno je dosta mladih ljudi, a očekuje se dolazak novih investitora i novih kompanija iz Austrije, 

što je šansa za nova radna mesta. Grad je izmenio svoj izgled, bolji su putevi, mostovi, ulice sređen je 

gradski trg,obnavlja se centar za kulturu i dr. 

Južnokorejska kompanija „MECEN IPC“, počeće u martu 2012., svoj prvi posao u Srbiji u okviru 

preduzeća „Mecen Evropa tex“, koje će u Novoj Pazovi proizvoditi izolacione materijale visokog 

Belgrade, 2012 134



kvaliteta za domaće i strano tržište. Fabrika izolacionog materijala pod nazivom „IZOMET“, je plod 

zajedničkog ulaganja partnera iz Seula i domaće firme u Novim Banovcima, čime se i praktično 

ostvaruje projekat vredan ukupno 4 milionaevra. Zahvaljujući Ministarstvu ekonomije i Agenciji za 

strana ulaganja i promociju izvoza Srbije (SIEPA), koji su taj projekat subvencionirali sa 4.000 evra po 

zaposlenom, a posao će u naredne dve godine u toj fabrici dobiti 60 radnika. [7] 

Engleska kompanija „Albon“, gradiće u Rumi fabriku za proizvodnju rezervnih delova za vozila 

„Ford motor“, kompanije na površini od 6.500 m 2 , uz ulaganje od 7,5 milionaevra, a zapošljavaće 

200 radnika. Prema planu investitora proizvodnja će početi u januaru 2013. 

Takođe u Rumi, Hrvatska kompanija „Adrijana teks“, članica italijanske „Kalcedonije“podnela je na 

odobrenje elaborat za izgradnju pogona na 5.000m 2 za proizvodnju kupaćih kostima. Vrednost 

ulaganja iznosi 7,2 miliona evra, sa zaposlenjem oko 71 radnika, a do kraja 2014.,još 193 radnika. 

Prema urađenom elaboratu, ukupan godišnji prihod iznosiće oko 2.232 miliona evra. 

Značajna investicija je i firme „Insert“ iz Beograda, proizvođač cipela i gornjih delova za modnu 

obuću.Insert radi za renomirane kupce-Šanel, Kristian Dior, Valentino, Prada, Serđo Rosi i dr. Pored, 

danas iznajmljenog poslovnog prostora, vlasnik ima nameru da izgradnjom novog objekta od 

4.000m 2 ,i investiciju od 1,5 milionaevra, pored sadašnjih 100 zaposlenih, do kraja ove godine zaposli 

90 novih radnika. 

U Pećincima je postavljen kamen temeljac za izgradnju nove fabrike Nemačke firme „Bosch“, za 

proizvodnju sistema brisača za automobile, proizvodnih kapaciteta od oko 22.000m 2 .U izgradnju će 

biti uloženo oko 70 miliona evra u narednih sedam godina, a zaposliće 620 radnika. 

Ruska federacija je kupila za 300 milionadolara „Beopetrol“, započela gradnja magistralnog 

gasovoda Niš-Leskovac u vrednosti od 24 miliona dolara, i uložila u beogradsku turističku agenciju 

„Putnik“, oko 65 miliona dolara.Rusi su kupili fabriku bakarnih cevi u Majdanpeku za oko 35 miliona 

dolara, fabriku pumpi „Jastrebac“ u Nišu, u koju su uložili 3,2 miliona dolara. 

U Srbiji je otvorena i Moskovska banka sa kapitalom od 17 milionadolara. Ruska osiguravajuća 

kompanija„SOGAS“ je krajem prošle godine dobila od strane NBS dozvolu za rad, a plan je da u 

narednih nekoliko godina uloži oko 8 miliona dolara. 

Najveća ruska banka „Sberbanka“, koja je odnedavno vlasnik Folksbanke, van Austrije, uskoro bi 

mogla u Srbiju da unese bankarski kapital, što bi doprinelo poboljšanju načina kreditiranja privrede i 

građana. Na predstavljanju planova banke u Budimpešti, ove godine su planirana izdvajanje 200 

miliona evra za kredite namenjene malim i srednjim preduzećima, poljoprivredi i projektima za 

energetsku efikasnost. Plan je da deo tog novca bude na raspolaganju i u Srbiji, kojim bi se finansirao 

izvoz robe na rusko tržište. 

U najavi je ugovor o dodeli buđžetskih sredstava za podsticaj italijanskoj kompaniji za otvaranje 

fabrike obuće „GEOKS“ u Vranju u koju će se uložiti 15,8 miliona evra uz zaposlenje 1.250 radnika. 

Planirano je da fabrika proizvodi godišnje 1.250.000 pari obuće, a za svako radno mesto „Geoks“ će 

dobiti stimulativnih 9.000 evra. 

Takođe u najavi je i potpisivanje ugovora sa američkom korporacijom „Kuper standard“ o otvaranju 

fabrike auto-kedera u Sremskoj Mitrovici, uz ulaganje od 20 miliona evra, u kojoj će posao dobiti 500 

radnika, uz podsticaj Vlade Srbije sa 8.000 evra po zaposlenom radniku. U planu je zauzimanje 7ha 

građevinskog zemljišta za planiranu izgradnju nove fabrike sa 10.000 m 2 poslovnog prostora. 

Međutim, u Srbiji postoje i drugi problemi, a to je manjak parcela za industrijska ulaganja, posebno u 

Novom Sad i Aleksincu, pa iz tih raloga i ne mogu da se pohvale nekim značajnijim investicijama. Novi 

Belgrade, 2012 135



Sad raspolaže jednom jedinom parcelom uz sam Koridor 10, a i ona je pod sudskim sporom. 

Započeta je investicija na Rimskim šančevima na 4ha, za novu industrijsku zonu i tu će sledeće 

godine biti na raspolaganju 50.000 m 2 poslovnih prostora. 

U planu je aktiviranje dodatnih 60 ha zemljišta kraj pumpe „Minut“, koje bi se uz pomoć Republičke 

direkcije moglo pripojiti gradu i ponuditi investitorima.Ipak, Novi Sad nije bez investicija, u poslednje tri 

godine su iznosile preko 130 miliona evra. 

5. ZAKLJUČAK 

Posleg dužeg perioda, Srbija se suočava sa pitanjem budućnosti, kako sprovesti neminovni 

ekonomski oporavak unapređenjem privredne strukture i zaposliti radno sposobne generacije i time 

povećati socijalnu sigurnost. To je veoma teško ili praktično nemoguće sprovesti bez stvaranja novih 

vrednosti u industriji, poljoprivredi i drugim privrednim granama. Jedan vid ka ostvarenju takvih ciljeva 

je neophodna reindustrijalizacija koja mora biti u funkciji razvoja, ekonomskog rasta i otvaranjem novih 

radnih mesta. Pri tome treba biti izuzetno stručan i racionalan u smislu koje grane su vitalne i koje se 

mogu brzo pokrenuti, naprimer, saobraćaj i komunalne infrastrukture, građevinarstvo, elektroprivreda i 

pre svega poljoprivreda. To su oblasti u kojima Srbija ima komparativne prednosti i predispozicije ka 

izvozu. Danas su, polazne osnove poslovnog okruženja veoma kompleksne, jer srpska privreda ne 

može da postigne značajniji rast, održi nisku inflaciju, smanji spoljnotrgovinski deficit na održivom 

nivou, poveća izvoz roba, poveća broj novih radnih mesta i dr. 

U kontekstu pokušaja rešavanja realnih problema, tadašnje Ministarstvo za infrastrukturu i energetiku 

uložilo je veliki napor u realizaciji zakonske regulative i infrastrukturnih projekata, pre svega završetka 

započetih i pokretanjem izgradnje novih autoputeva, što će predstavljati neophodan preduslov za 

efikasno funkcionisanje kompletnog saobraćajno-transportnog sistema u Srbiji.U takvim uslovima 

privrednog razvoja znatno bi se smanjili troškovi transporta, uposlilo bi se lokalno stanovništvo, 

doprinelo razvoju lokalnih kapaciteta i same uprave, podsticajnim merama države Srbije u vidu 

sufinansiranja svakog radnog mesta,izdavanja zemljišnog poseda pod beneficiranim uslovima, 

oslobađanjem na određeno vreme plaćanje poreza i doprinosa i druge olakšice daće značajan 

doprinos ka ostvarenju tih ciljeva. Svim tim značajnim koracima progresa privrednog razvoja Srbije, 

imaće i konačni završetak Koridora 10, kao i intenzitet izgradnje novog Koridora 11, ali ništa manjeg 

značaja i revitalizacija sadašnjih magistralnih i lokalnih puteva. 

Privredni razvoj Srbije, ne može da se bazira samo na razvoju privrede u zoni Koridora 10, već mora 

donošenjem kratkoročnih mera da unapredi ravnomerno poslovanje privrede na celoj njenoj teritoriji, 

kroz stvaranje povoljnog ambijenta poslovanja, dobijanjem povoljnijihbankarskih kredita, iznalaženja 

novih tržišta, većim ulaganjem u nauku i drugih relevantnih parametara, što bi doprinelo povećanju 

produktivnosti, a time i likvidnosti preduzeća. 

LITERATURA 

[1] www.koridor10.rs/ 

[2] Petrović P., Petrović Marija:“Kvantifikacija interakcije čovek-vozilo u saobraćajnim nezgodama 

i opštoj bezbednosti saobraćaja u Srbiji“,(Časopis „Put i saobraćaj“, br.2, 2011, Srpsko društvo 

za puteve Via-Vita, str.11-18). 

[3] Petrović P., Petrović Marija:„Predikcijaznaĉaja „Koridora 10“ u bezbednosti drumskog 

saobraćaja u Srbiji”, (II-ga Konferencija „Koridor 10“–održivi put integracija”, Beograd, Institut 

„Kirilo Savić“, PKB, 2011.,str.8-12, CD). 

Belgrade, 2012 136



[4] Petrović P., Mirović R., Maravić B.: “Ekološki aspekt buke i vibracija u zoni izgradnje 

novogbeogradskog mosta preko reke Save”,(22 rd Nacionalna konferencija „Buka i vibracije“, 

Niš, 2010., Fakultet zaštite na radu, str.29-34). 

[5] Petrović P., Jovanović T., Petrović Marija, Mirović R., Tomić R.:„Predikcija buke saobraćaja, 

sa osvrtom na novi savski most i mogućnosti zaštite naseljenih mesta postavljanjem 

akustičkih panela”,(I -va Konferencija„ Koridor 10“-održivi put integracija, 2010., Beograd, PKB, 

Institut „Kirilo Savić“, str. 144-163 CD). 

[6] Statistički godišnjak Republike Srbije, 2011. 

Belgrade, 2012 137



FACILITATING SPECIFIC TRANSPORT SERVICES ALONG THE 

CORRIDOR X IN ORDER TO ATTRACT TRAFFIC FLOWS 

Dragan Kostić, Free zone Pirot, Serbia 

Aleksandar Simonović, Free zone Pirot, Serbia 

Vladan Stojanović, Free zone Pirot, Serbia 

Abstract: 

In the process of establishment of an integrated European transport system, Serbia joined by the 

development of the Master Plan for Transport in Serbia. The first steps of the implementation of the 

Master Plan are made, project of intermodal terminal in Belgrade and Pirot are in progress while 

planned integration of the terminal will be achieved through a variety of projects and initiatives, 

developing multimodal network in Southeast Europe and Serbia. In addition to primary objectives of 

the Master Plan it is good to follow current changes in the transport market because the chances of a 

further impetus for the development of intermodality in Serbia can be found in these changes. 

OMOGUĆAVANJE SPECIFIČNIH TRANSPORTNIH USLUGA NA KORIDORU X U CILJU 

PRIVLAČENJA TRANSPORTNIH TOKOVA 

Apstrakt: 

U procesu formiranja evropskog integralnog sistema transporta, Srbija se uključila izradom Master 

Transport Plana Srbije. Prvi koraci realizacije Master plana su naprvaljeni, izrada projekata 

inetrmodalnih terminala u Beogradu i Pirotu su u toku, dok će integracija predviđenih terminala biti 

ostvarena kroz različite projekte i inicijative razvoja multimodalne mreže Jugoistočne Evrope i Srbije. 

Pored osnovnog cilja Master plana potrebno je pratiti i trenutne promene na tržištu transporta jer se 

šanse za dalji podstrek razvoja intermodalnosti u Srbiji mogu pronaći baš u tom delu. 

1. UVOD: 

Ovaj rad se oslanja, pre svega, na rezultate predstudije izvodljivosti „Izgradnje Intermodalnog 

Logističkog Centra Pirot“ koja razmatra pored potreba samog logističkog centra Pirot i transportne 

tokove koje prolaze kroz Srbiju i Balkan i to kako trenutne tako i buduće scenarije transportnih tokova. 

Drugi dokument na koji se oslanja ovaj rad je projekat „Adriatic Danube Black sea multimodal 

platform“ koji se bavi unapređenjem intermodalnog transporta u Jugoistočnoj Evropi iz kog je uzet 

dinamčki plan razvoja intermodalnog transporta kao model i predlog za razvoj intermodalnog 

transporta u Srbiji. 

Centralnu deo u ovom dokumentu predstavlja činjenica da su cene RoRo transporta povećane i da se 

Turski kamioneri sve više opredeljuju za drumski transport od Turske do Zapadne Evrope koji je u 

ovom trenutku isplatljiviji nego li RoRo transport i gde naša zemlja može videti šansu u cilju privlačenja 

transportnih tokova kroz našu zemlju. 

2. KORIDOR XC – TRENUTNI PROTOK ROBE 

U okviru pred-studije izvodljivosti izgradnje „Intermodalnog Logističkog Centra Pirot“, urađene u 

Novembru 2010 godine, detaljno su istraženi zahtevi za transportom u odnosu na Balkan i Republiku 

Belgrade, 2012 138



Srbiju. Glavne karakteristike trgovinskih tokova preko Evrope i Balkana prikazani su vidu mreže 

transportnih tokova prikazane u nastavku. 

Detaljnije, trenutna situacija trgovinskih tokova je opisana PUTEM o-d matrica (Origine/Poreklo – 

Destination/Odredište) kroz pregled baze podataka EUROSTAT COMTEXT i UNCTAD COMTRADE 

koja je poslužila za dobijanje trenutne osnovne matrice za 2007 10 . Značajan napor je upotrebljen u 

dobijanju osnovnih matrica koje se tiču količina (tona/godišnje). Kao rezultat, Tabela 2 i Tabela 3, 

prikazuju nam godišnji protok količine robe od/prema odabranim Balkanskim zemaljama i zemljama 

Evro-Mediteranskog basena. Sirova nafta, struja i prirodni gas nisu uzeti u proračun zato što se način 

transportovanja obavlja u okviru specifičnih transportnih lanaca (putem cevi i kablova) koji ne 

predstavljaju deo koji je razmatran u pred-studiji izvodljivosti. 

Rezultati zadatka matrice trenutnog zahteva prema trenutnoj mreži snabdevanja, prikazani su ispod 

(Tabela 1), pretpostavljajući uklanjanje svih barijera koje otežavaju tranzitnu trgovinu kroz Srbiju. 

Koridor X je na glavnoj osi trgovine koja spaja Sever-Jug kroz Balkan, sa strateškim značajem u 

prihvatanju i podršci trgovini prema/od Istočne Grčke i Turske. 

Trenutni tokovi 

Tona / godišnje 

Tabela 1 – Godišnji tokovi (izraženi u tonama) u trenutnom scenariju zahteva za transportom pod 

hipotezom efektivnosti koridora X 

Tabela 1 – Godišnji tokovi (izraženi u tonama) u trenutnom scenariju zahteva za transportom pod 

hipotezom efektivnosti koridora X 

10 Matrice za 2008 i 2009 (zasnovane kasnije na privremenim vrednostima) takođe su trebale da uđu u proračun, ali nisu ušle 

zbog efekta globalne ekonomske krize. 

Belgrade, 2012 139



destination country 

origin country 

Albania Bosnia Herc Bulgaria Croatia Greece Macedonia Montenegro Romania Serbia Turkey 

Albania 4,652 33,074 129,566 59,660 1,198,467 169,681 14,097 20,504 352,924 554,961 

Algeria 3 3,632 131,252 6,618 184,181 207 - 105,928 19,442 647,991 

Austria 906 396,638 160,160 509,440 109,034 15,120 805 460,684 288,470 342,596 

Belarus 9 15 4,555 1,581 6,876 7,017 - 4,994 6,803 100,659 

Belgium 1,187 23,209 181,139 22,360 296,591 30,126 25 215,782 105,797 1,209,594 

Bosnia Hercegovina 8,683 - 81,887 2,143,147 20,218 115,495 11,647 94,862 1,284,693 104,565 

Bulgaria 14,188 125,852 - 202,193 1,344,164 607,042 654 1,289,919 489,494 1,387,664 

Croatia 1,283 5,777,657 66,160 - 92,730 194,503 4,720 31,497 457,582 143,990 

Cyprus 149 178 89,557 16,370 575,710 4,310 - 59,822 108,540 821,575 

Czech Republic 548 334,199 64,217 93,238 96,855 11,775 4,530 201,292 109,770 177,865 

Denmark 197 3,331 16,900 10,140 49,382 1,181 162 32,287 5,479 133,984 

Egypt 2,058 12,512 58,839 164,350 149,073 1,625 2 440,465 21,698 632,864 

Estonia - 175 738 321 6,871 187 0 3,959 1,209 29,993 

Finland 10 492 21,416 8,422 76,826 65 0 36,809 4,914 153,924 

France 12,468 27,267 174,661 75,821 1,190,056 16,719 272 656,825 205,411 1,267,764 

Georgia 0 2 14,109 2,899 15,767 28 - 10,353 1,175 825,901 

Germany 8,119 159,311 528,171 337,120 1,351,290 103,460 3,684 995,003 728,295 2,769,622 

Greece 257,911 10,688 1,943,081 23,485 - 530,568 24,056 651,714 192,349 1,720,304 

Hungary 62 250,765 98,825 696,663 129,314 13,887 43,841 1,504,650 377,196 234,901 

Ireland 12 523 5,885 4,867 27,582 7 136 9,481 15,450 355,113 

Israel 2 227 91,935 6,019 265,018 261 - 153,912 12,034 1,482,408 

Italy 456,879 659,980 741,820 7,260,771 1,879,135 144,248 331,049 2,171,693 803,591 5,784,764 

Jordan 23 395 7,600 387 21,037 33 - 76,549 4,088 286,565 

Latvia 44 14 4,128 3,010 7,680 1,208 - 4,150 3,186 38,455 

Lebanon 4 27 18,491 489 86,236 29 - 91,689 3,597 348,515 

Libya 3 1,993 520 1,602 30,620 81 - 6,939 245 446,726 

Lithuania - 193 9,355 3,206 14,510 673 87 12,251 2,130 59,294 

Luxembourg 17 5,353 341 3,987 955 1 - 1,149 1,818 18,175 

Macedonia 510,580 50,419 538,794 63,452 610,380 - 838 23,607 616,078 172,361 

Malta 0 0 60,455 200 23,175 3,056 - 64,116 9,995 22,980 

Moldova 23 30 18,701 911 12,370 198 - 284,707 3,789 98,750 

Montenegro 30,156 194,849 4,471 309,277 87,696 26,268 - 50,296 1,088,941 6,754 

Morocco 12 108 50,168 11,252 54,650 402 - 53,908 28,367 709,734 

Netherlands 155 16,354 113,750 52,635 380,629 12,032 879 299,003 70,822 1,014,904 

Norway 27 2,382 7,205 3,586 32,123 836 33 21,665 2,041 54,175 

Poland 253 420,196 175,663 88,163 241,012 9,384 179 332,223 113,830 532,214 

Portugal 0 828 29,714 3,988 63,235 21,085 0 34,044 57,206 617,220 

Romania 2,825 649,838 1,551,084 206,431 857,857 30,931 90 - 1,282,018 2,036,475 

Russia 15,428 4,109 182,092 14,772 306,952 17,642 57 199,299 173,273 3,622,672 

San Marino - - 18 287 760 - - 2,074 20 45 

Serbia 141,927 1,225,004 360,635 576,421 132,365 1,295,165 185,956 372,411 - 208,517 

Slovakia 83 11,550 62,560 48,976 129,457 6,916 165 149,504 103,625 112,005 

Slovenia 623 569,762 147,785 2,361,413 458,189 61,537 14,093 66,177 309,002 99,764 

Spain 20,823 11,683 423,688 96,175 829,260 172,977 1,004 603,731 94,492 4,029,391 

Sweden 85,337 12,474 30,263 26,974 331,024 3,868 7 63,714 18,890 248,044 

Switzerland 336 25,908 30,400 25,525 29,687 3,679 180 37,448 66,197 106,397 

Syria 0 323 29,891 2,577 72,050 15 - 223,737 1,361 1,977,988 

Tunisia 335 26 118,193 1,025 100,094 0 - 72,142 3,013 482,019 

Turkey 43,690 52,206 3,066,961 157,911 680,453 59,457 106 4,136,898 63,474 - 

Ukraine 18 1,412 107,484 11,354 201,235 2,886 - 301,105 75,188 1,385,906 

United Kingdom 25,145 4,538 170,947 43,246 921,095 23,353 205 256,243 92,272 2,292,153 

Tabela 2 – Trenutna o-d matrica (tona/godišnje): trgovinski tokovi do balkanskih zemalja (ne 

računajući sirovu naftu, struju i prirodni gas) 




Albania 4,652 8,683 14,188 1,283 257,911 510,580 30,156 2,825 141,927 43,690 

Algeria 15,256 2,344 0 9,316 2,958 - - 2,599 1 1,588,009 

Austria 32,499 190,198 326,212 882,150 364,427 38,990 17,318 869,250 307,397 585,115 

Belarus 534 755 14,575 167,404 3,427 110 0 38,706 41,840 119,397 

Belgium 4,536 26,604 207,915 65,757 827,951 6,677 739 276,227 55,817 2,244,026 

Bosnia Hercegovina 33,074 - 125,852 5,777,657 10,688 50,419 194,849 649,838 1,225,004 52,206 

Bulgaria 129,566 81,887 - 66,160 1,943,081 538,794 4,471 1,551,084 360,635 3,066,961 

Croatia 59,660 2,143,147 202,193 - 23,485 63,452 309,277 206,431 576,421 157,911 

Cyprus 6,059 465 139,551 3,235 611,493 452 2 123,473 1,832 239,551 

Czech Republic 14,208 265,273 196,455 351,019 161,753 22,772 14,753 652,197 160,326 140,860 

Denmark 1,268 5,947 35,148 39,320 173,693 4,430 144 68,803 10,875 415,897 

Egypt 70,013 29,744 83,319 32,166 706,356 22,594 36 113,863 21,593 1,917,531 

Estonia 0 2,050 4,993 1,716 10,082 106 11 6,457 2,076 468,034 

Finland 1,283 2,847 37,734 22,193 320,015 1,601 6 48,382 21,172 537,508 

France 10,904 34,264 135,821 107,620 1,815,213 9,155 1,771 735,593 113,192 1,509,076 

Georgia 10,639 4 57,391 26 26,381 5 - 487 2,002 715,258 

Germany 81,476 240,399 655,539 664,770 2,166,005 66,121 12,604 1,734,992 456,404 3,134,367 

Greece 1,198,467 20,218 1,344,164 92,730 - 610,380 87,696 857,857 132,365 680,453 

Hungary 20,078 437,657 359,563 758,134 741,955 48,287 9,415 3,926,534 606,903 413,861 

Ireland 753 2,102 7,088 3,182 27,472 1,038 30 17,744 4,398 51,799 

Israel 1,532 957 26,053 7,097 134,548 1,957 - 45,331 9,199 768,598 

Italy 1,648,582 341,480 639,970 1,824,719 3,883,416 56,372 100,308 1,821,002 418,661 1,972,098 

Jordan 286 90 2,506 29 4,763 240 - 4,714 642 19,120 

Latvia 24 64 1,611 975 14,751 21 1 4,677 119 9,073 

Lebanon 15,451 61 1,262 237 116,784 45 - 2,463 49 362,463 

Libya - 525 460 2,119 136,276 357 - 34,446 1,326 592,825 

Lithuania 8 290 9,159 9,176 25,051 227 36 31,174 2,243 373,496 

Luxembourg 2,237 2,174 4,765 3,892 228,246 278 4 42,492 2,331 95,318 

Macedonia 169,681 115,495 607,042 194,503 530,568 - 26,268 30,931 1,295,165 59,457 

Malta 5 1 336 257 847 0 - 23,271 14 21,907 

Moldova 12,549 580 49,859 825 55,182 94 0 314,570 16,109 96,247 

Montenegro 14,097 11,647 654 4,720 24,056 838 - 90 185,956 106 

Morocco 317 425 271,381 328,342 68,477 143 - 191,606 7,392 512,849 

Netherlands 10,712 38,292 146,686 133,837 1,078,807 18,553 6,711 445,666 86,020 1,969,628 

Norway 669 766 6,537 10,020 115,332 2,346 8 29,594 7,632 415,144 

Poland 53,494 49,975 257,337 243,894 398,546 262,534 10,747 2,299,777 214,270 321,264 

Portugal 5,253 2,744 9,206 9,686 68,566 465 4 26,649 1,812 145,246 

Romania 20,504 94,862 1,289,919 31,497 651,714 23,607 50,296 - 372,411 4,136,898 

Russia 361,177 139,352 2,536,798 504,733 1,499,475 35,104 76,807 4,405,884 1,558,963 25,587,299 

San Marino 149 - 100 34 1,405 - - 2,341 31 15 

Serbia 352,924 1,284,693 489,494 457,582 192,349 616,078 1,088,941 1,282,018 - 63,474 

Slovakia 4,189 67,438 67,816 163,479 114,189 16,371 596 728,730 484,833 358,584 

Slovenia 9,533 282,981 62,980 908,237 45,019 56,810 30,484 121,519 294,801 74,095 

Spain 12,115 23,557 177,963 148,848 829,445 9,075 3,112 257,264 53,693 1,230,909 

Sweden 1,912 11,151 33,163 40,652 209,905 3,375 926 86,473 67,097 2,262,415 

Switzerland 19,469 256,716 114,714 39,814 29,004 12,478 2,698 76,935 59,813 145,031 

Syria 1,496 2,260 214,048 951 254,579 41 - 72,322 103,766 883,222 

Tunisia 4,633 427 56,265 53,363 64,827 104 - 26,016 332 495,622 

Turkey 554,961 104,565 1,387,664 143,990 1,720,304 172,361 6,754 2,036,475 208,517 - 

Ukraine 188,778 102,100 4,549,074 150,492 474,132 174,474 - 2,577,696 1,901,514 11,258,710 

United Kingdom 9,611 5,772 188,377 32,413 652,584 4,397 1,756 221,339 25,032 3,118,275 

Tabela 3 – Trenutna o-d matrica (tona/godišnje): trgovinski tokovi od balkanskih zemalja (ne 

računajući sirovu naftu, struju i prirodni gas) 

Belgrade, 2012 140



3 MODEL PREDVIĐANJA TRGOVINSKIH TOKOVA U BUDUĆNOSTI 

U cilju podrške pred studije izvodljivosti, analiza potražnje je izvršena u odgovarajućim budućim 

scenarijima, koji se odnose na završetak koridora IV, VIII i X i proširenju trgovinskih sporazuma 

šengenskog tipa u korist Turske i drugih Severnih afričkih zemalja: za ovaj cilj, primenjen je sistem 

matematičkih modela u samoj analizi, a rezultati su dati u nastavku. 

3.1 Završetak odgovarajućih Pan-Evropskih koridora 

Prvo, na osnovu modela gravitacije prikazanog u pred-studiji izvodljivosti, prikazane su o/d matrice 

budućih zahteva (Tabela 4 i Tabela 5) u odnosu na izvoznu i uvoznu trgovinu. Matrice su postavljene 

pod pretpostavkom scenariju završetka Koridora IV, VIII i X. Zatim su vrednosti iz matrica uzeti za 

simulaciju predstavljenu ispod (Tabela 6) u smislu željenih linija. Glavni dokaz je značajan porast 

tokova tranzitne trgovine na Balkanu, na primer, kod Turske tranzitne trgovine u drumskom 

saobraćaju očekuje se povećanje od 1,74 miliona tona godišnje prema Severu i 2,21 miliona tona 

godišnje prema Jugu, što će rezultirati povećanjem tranzita Srpske trgovine. 

Rezultati iz pred-studije izvodljivosti pokazuju da neophodan uslov smanjenja konkurentnosti koridora 

IV a povćanje efektivnosti koridora X predstavljaju smanje kamionske vozarine koje se primenjuju u 

Republici Srbiji ali i povećanje efektivnosti i ubrzanje carinskih procedura. 




Albania 5,671 33,930 218,393 65,857 1,362,708 294,238 14,569 30,425 433,321 642,568 

Algeria 3 3,632 132,173 6,618 184,186 236 - 110,105 19,858 647,991 

Austria 982 434,952 295,995 567,449 149,148 18,674 947 684,201 331,266 427,186 

Belarus 11 16 4,950 1,792 8,342 9,621 - 5,709 7,883 102,565 

Belgium 1,291 23,988 276,713 23,488 350,491 32,836 25 287,045 109,445 1,434,925 

Bosnia Hercegovina 9,011 - 118,814 2,145,144 23,372 128,393 11,647 121,813 1,352,529 113,610 

Bulgaria 22,042 147,500 - 267,702 1,717,034 963,395 979 1,790,166 666,880 1,539,344 

Croatia 1,497 5,783,139 100,805 - 107,131 224,502 4,720 43,697 469,998 158,468 

Cyprus 149 179 90,450 16,395 576,723 4,366 - 64,371 117,890 821,575 

Czech Republic 714 356,944 104,400 106,878 138,321 14,486 4,703 301,378 128,969 229,383 

Denmark 226 3,416 22,326 10,682 61,535 1,364 166 40,687 6,258 154,532 

Egypt 2,058 12,512 59,764 164,350 149,331 1,650 2 483,701 23,148 632,864 

Estonia - 189 1,076 330 7,776 199 0 4,534 1,255 34,506 

Finland 11 517 28,151 8,545 87,439 75 0 41,989 5,105 159,409 

France 12,786 28,719 226,503 80,772 1,372,799 19,426 273 798,086 220,248 1,431,822 

Georgia 0 3 14,339 4,281 17,674 34 - 11,171 1,365 825,901 

Germany 8,919 169,259 896,981 358,031 1,724,891 119,045 3,807 1,489,647 814,483 3,281,628 

Greece 293,123 11,955 2,516,205 26,391 - 615,402 26,224 878,278 246,297 2,172,949 

Hungary 81 257,513 148,755 706,237 184,013 16,817 47,367 2,357,534 468,607 315,139 

Ireland 12 523 6,909 4,902 27,582 7 136 11,378 15,657 355,113 

Israel 2 227 93,108 6,019 265,980 265 - 160,898 12,947 1,615,554 

Italy 473,521 699,188 1,229,808 7,996,769 2,172,916 170,528 331,111 2,966,802 926,021 6,420,942 

Jordan 23 404 7,660 409 22,404 34 - 84,449 4,473 286,565 

Latvia 47 14 4,962 3,072 9,945 1,648 - 4,347 3,367 43,373 

Lebanon 5 28 18,664 533 97,601 31 - 99,696 4,044 348,515 

Libya 3 1,993 528 1,602 30,639 93 - 7,341 256 446,726 

Lithuania - 200 10,704 4,133 17,345 865 89 15,310 2,343 69,244 

Luxembourg 18 5,523 567 4,231 1,197 2 - 1,644 1,901 22,258 

Macedonia 897,876 54,879 852,537 72,112 697,369 - 1,028 39,985 753,188 191,970 

Malta 0 0 64,959 200 23,177 3,160 - 66,788 10,538 22,980 

Moldova 37 36 19,677 1,172 14,067 323 - 362,311 4,740 99,131 

Montenegro 31,262 194,849 6,655 309,277 95,922 32,141 - 73,658 1,175,078 7,184 

Morocco 12 112 54,772 11,407 56,077 451 - 58,250 29,623 746,038 

Netherlands 174 16,710 172,270 55,799 443,126 12,940 892 409,959 77,149 1,209,887 

Norway 30 2,448 10,985 3,702 37,814 901 33 27,042 2,191 60,981 

Poland 298 438,449 231,173 92,253 317,579 11,292 183 415,023 131,264 643,607 

Portugal 0 834 32,863 4,157 67,491 23,011 0 38,201 60,328 654,054 

Romania 4,123 870,689 2,218,705 295,720 1,207,047 52,731 144 - 1,872,315 2,423,823 

Russia 18,334 4,364 187,419 16,886 329,906 22,375 75 221,049 193,706 3,641,293 

San Marino - - 30 295 876 - - 2,909 24 49 

Serbia 167,348 1,271,051 490,068 590,779 168,680 1,580,513 200,360 535,600 - 249,496 

Slovakia 113 11,706 123,028 52,818 194,385 10,074 191 263,380 142,487 166,458 

Slovenia 642 633,331 247,779 2,758,570 555,023 80,660 15,297 92,114 352,783 114,221 

Spain 21,062 12,004 493,024 99,111 895,325 186,246 1,004 687,564 101,934 4,314,538 

Sweden 96,228 13,300 45,241 28,460 380,337 4,565 7 77,576 20,457 283,298 

Switzerland 344 28,143 54,766 26,538 36,068 4,487 180 50,100 72,779 124,307 

Syria 0 335 30,347 2,758 82,183 16 - 245,021 1,510 1,977,988 

Tunisia 337 26 119,270 1,025 100,095 0 - 75,691 3,111 482,019 

Turkey 50,960 57,037 3,388,356 174,987 854,620 66,461 114 4,995,117 76,968 - 

Ukraine 24 1,605 110,332 14,259 219,072 4,446 - 373,812 92,766 1,391,867 

United Kingdom 26,597 4,625 239,686 48,222 1,043,534 24,717 206 328,971 98,532 2,575,752 

Tabela 4 – Buduće o-d matrice (izražene u tona/godina): trgovinski tokovi iz Balkanskih zemalja u 

scenariju završetka koridora 4, 8 i 10 

Belgrade, 2012 141






Albania 5,671 9,011 22,042 1,497 293,123 897,876 31,262 4,123 167,348 50,960 

Algeria 15,307 2,344 0 9,316 2,958 - - 2,609 1 1,588,009 

Austria 35,384 208,901 594,616 972,619 503,893 46,764 20,107 1,295,349 349,330 720,320 

Belarus 632 821 16,168 198,503 4,053 141 0 45,533 48,698 121,678 

Belgium 4,900 28,056 305,486 69,869 956,928 7,189 740 368,508 57,349 2,680,499 

Bosnia Hercegovina 33,930 - 147,500 5,783,139 11,955 54,879 194,849 870,689 1,271,051 57,037 

Bulgaria 218,393 118,814 - 100,805 2,516,205 852,537 6,655 2,218,705 490,068 3,388,356 

Croatia 65,857 2,145,144 267,702 - 26,391 72,112 309,277 295,720 590,779 174,987 

Cyprus 6,059 469 141,194 3,269 613,916 458 2 129,955 1,982 239,551 

Czech Republic 18,171 281,387 311,982 400,326 226,263 27,316 15,374 985,149 183,499 180,382 

Denmark 1,581 6,147 47,064 42,009 213,312 5,155 148 93,659 12,388 493,795 

Egypt 70,013 29,744 84,295 32,166 708,223 22,996 36 127,768 23,304 1,917,531 

Estonia 0 2,167 6,342 1,774 11,432 113 12 7,361 2,149 543,332 

Finland 1,330 3,005 53,350 22,521 354,645 1,702 6 53,748 21,898 552,840 

France 11,180 35,927 173,811 115,742 2,075,858 10,514 1,774 872,718 119,778 1,715,481 

Georgia 13,112 4 59,004 39 28,375 6 - 525 2,284 715,258 

Germany 88,974 255,202 1,084,718 706,826 2,788,554 74,953 12,988 2,628,438 498,502 3,734,250 

Greece 1,362,708 23,372 1,717,034 107,131 - 697,369 95,922 1,207,047 168,680 854,620 

Hungary 26,448 441,471 547,173 770,556 1,067,621 57,941 10,176 6,309,341 710,802 568,015 

Ireland 754 2,102 7,891 3,203 27,472 1,072 30 21,517 4,443 51,799 

Israel 1,532 957 26,473 7,097 134,948 1,986 - 48,575 10,121 838,459 

Italy 1,709,540 362,675 1,015,770 2,007,790 4,388,941 65,489 100,324 2,488,056 470,109 2,165,978 

Jordan 301 93 2,530 31 5,091 246 - 5,246 706 19,120 

Latvia 26 67 1,902 1,008 18,117 29 1 4,986 125 10,255 

Lebanon 15,686 63 1,280 266 145,566 48 - 2,832 56 362,463 

Libya - 525 465 2,119 136,383 406 - 37,304 1,386 592,825 

Lithuania 10 316 10,414 11,829 27,916 290 37 41,185 2,454 440,650 

Luxembourg 2,339 2,261 7,485 4,151 296,243 328 4 63,784 2,428 115,685 

Macedonia 294,238 128,393 963,395 224,502 615,402 - 32,141 52,731 1,580,513 66,461 

Malta 5 1 341 257 847 0 - 23,815 15 21,907 

Moldova 20,457 685 53,760 1,101 62,355 143 0 398,825 20,290 96,679 

Montenegro 14,569 11,647 979 4,720 26,224 1,028 - 144 200,360 114 

Morocco 331 431 279,951 331,033 69,920 156 - 214,444 7,691 528,127 

Netherlands 11,953 39,239 223,050 144,154 1,248,084 20,014 6,813 630,531 92,476 2,359,595 

Norway 743 783 10,255 10,395 134,867 2,590 9 37,615 8,322 440,929 

Poland 62,728 51,824 333,559 255,314 475,016 306,388 11,035 2,757,951 234,435 388,661 

Portugal 5,289 2,767 9,927 10,081 72,217 495 4 29,812 1,881 153,345 

Romania 30,425 121,813 1,790,166 43,697 878,278 39,985 73,658 - 535,600 4,995,117 

Russia 424,047 152,175 2,633,612 590,441 1,721,770 44,697 101,269 4,864,609 1,749,851 25,720,208 

San Marino 159 - 168 36 1,565 - - 3,027 35 16 

Serbia 433,321 1,352,529 666,880 469,998 246,297 753,188 1,175,078 1,872,315 - 76,968 

Slovakia 5,079 68,345 123,911 173,948 167,387 23,961 681 1,320,398 662,150 547,494 

Slovenia 9,829 315,752 101,535 1,063,404 57,188 73,393 32,942 175,221 334,631 83,932 

Spain 12,250 24,238 204,544 153,832 892,420 9,877 3,112 294,157 57,780 1,317,904 

Sweden 2,083 11,832 49,257 42,922 236,128 3,818 994 106,610 71,947 2,603,435 

Switzerland 19,945 282,725 192,689 41,003 34,451 14,571 2,698 104,232 63,462 166,605 

Syria 1,525 2,352 214,905 1,006 290,917 43 - 77,726 115,895 883,222 

Tunisia 4,662 427 56,648 53,363 64,829 128 - 28,031 342 495,622 

Turkey 642,568 113,610 1,539,344 158,468 2,172,949 191,970 7,184 2,423,823 249,496 - 

Ukraine 236,520 118,026 4,683,189 190,541 548,281 250,004 - 3,191,540 2,324,259 11,309,373 

United Kingdom 10,177 5,891 285,415 35,529 735,225 4,645 1,757 288,357 26,425 3,549,380 

Tabela 5 – Buduće o-d matrice (izražene u tona/godina): trgovinski tokovi prema Balkanskim 

zemaljama u scenariju završetka koridora 4, 8 i 10 

Tabela 6 – Trgovinski tokovi između odabranih zemalja na osnovu o-d matrica Tabela 4 i Tabela 5 

Belgrade, 2012 142



4. UVOĐENJE EVRO-MEDITERANSKIH UGOVORA O SLOBODNOJ TRGOVINI 

Efekti uvođenja ugovora o slobodnoj trgovini koji se odnose na osnivanje Mediteranske Unije su uzeti 

u obzir u ovoj analizi, ponovo koristeći model gravitacije opisane u pred-studiji izvodljivosti. Ovaj 

rezultat usmerava ka razumevanju trendova povećanja zahteva i u tertnom transport na srednje/duge 

staze karakterisane stalnim smanjenjem tarifa i obaveza u okviru Mediternaskog basena, kao i 

smanjenjem vremena putovanja na osnovu poboljšanja pomorskih veza. 

Scenario “Mediteranska unija” se planira, u smislu sklapanja ugovora o slobodnoj trgovini. između 27 

članica EU, Balkanskih zemalja, Turske i svih Severnih Afričkih zemalja, u cilju eliminisanja carine i 

barijera koje nastaju zbog tarifa sa istom prirodom i efektima šengenskog tipa. 

Detaljnije, Tabela 7 i Tabela 8 prikazuju procentualni porast, podjednako u uvozu i izvozu, za svaku 

zemlju u Evro-Mediteranskom basenu pod punim formiranjem Unije. Tamnija boja znači veći uticaj na 

međunarodnu trgovinu te zemlje. Posebno, u tom smislu očekivani uticaj na region Balkana je veći u 

odnosu na srednju vrednost regiona. Detaljnije, međunarodna trgovina proizvedene robe iz Srbije 

beleži povećanje od 28,56% u izvozu i 10,63 % u uvozu prema/iz Mediteranskog basena. 

Tabela 7 – % promena u uvozu, podaci iz wrt 2007, 

pod pretpostavkom potpunog usvajanja ugovora o 

slobodnoj trgovini 

Tabela 8 – % promena u izvozu, podaci iz wrt 

2007, pod pretpostavkom potpunog usvajanja 

ugovora o slobodnoj trgovini 

5. TRANZIT TURSKIH KAMIONERA KROZ SRBIJU 

Veoma značajna za našu zemlju je ukupna trgovina Turske sa razmatranih 57 zemalja Euro- 

Mediterana koja iznosi oko 42 miliona tona/godišnje u izvozu i 75 miliona tona/godišnje u uvozu. Što 

se tiče ove ukupne sume, tranzitna trgovina koja je potencijalno privlačna Srbiji je predstavljena preko 

robnih tokova prema/iz zemalja Centralne Evrope (npr Francuska, Nemačka) i iznose približno 14,66 

miliona tona/godišnje, podeljenih na 8,37 miliona tona/godišnje prema Severu i 6,29 prema Jugu. 

Pomenuti robni tokovi trebaju biti prvo razvrstani na morske i drumske vidove transporta, a zatim 

Belgrade, 2012 143



drumski transport treba podeliti na tokove koji prolaze kroz Srbiju i tokove koji prolaze kroz ostale 

zemlje (npr. Bugarska): pregled svih situacija je predstavljen ispod (Tabela 9). 11 

Prosečno polovina drumskog tranzita prolazi kroz Srbiju na putu prema Severu. Model procene govori 

da će ukupna trgovina duž grane M1, krak između Pirota i Niša, biti oko 6,85 miliona tona/godišnje 

(4,11 prema severu i 2,74 prema jugu), tako da je količina Turske trgovine preko Pirota oko 40% 

prema severu i 50% prema jugu. 

Posebno, u interpretaciji rezultata treba uzeti u obzir budući porast efikasnosti koridora IV, u smislu da 

odgovarajuća “politika privlačenja” prema evropskom koridoru X treba biti podržana od strane Vlade 

Republike Srbije da bi napravili put još atraktivnijim (npr. ukidanje tranzitnih taksi). 

Završetak Koridora X je stvarni prioritet Vlada Republike Srbije i Republike Bugarske, o tome svedoči 

ugovor potpisan 24. aprila 2010. godine između premijera Republike Bugarske Bojka Borisova i 

bivšeg premijera Republike Srbije Mirka Cvetkovića 12 . Na ovaj način, Koridor X, postižući veći protok 

saobraćaja stiče i veću važnost kako od Severnih tako i od Južnih delova Evrope. 

Trgovinski tokovi prema/iz turske (tona/godišnje) 

Pravac 

Prema severu Prema jugu 

Ukupno 8374246 6289727 

Morski transport 4938204 2986133 

RoRo Jadransko more (Luka Trst) 2706430 1656998 

RoRo Francuska 2231774 1329135 

Drumski transport 3436042 3303594 

Kroz Srbiju (Dimitrovgrad) 1659928 1396312 

Kroz ostale Zemlje (Uglavnom Bugarska) 1776114 1907282 

Udeo u transportu kroz Srbiju 48% 42% 

Tabela 9 – Tranzit Turske kao potencijal razvoja pirotske okoline u trenutnom scenariju 

Ovaj aspekt može biti veoma jasan kada pogledamo rastojanja. Na primer, roba između Istanbula i 

Minhena bi putovala: 

2154 km Koridorom IV, 

2016 km Koridorom X, pravac Srbija-Mađarska ili 

1928 km Koridorom X, pravac Srbija-Hrvatska. 

Posebno, zadnja opcija znači dostizanje u praksi 10,5% uštede za svaku pošiljku, uzimajući u obzir da 

je dnevni transport na graničnom prelazu Gradina oko 900 kamiona, to vodi do uštede od 41 miliona 

tona/km dnevno. 

6. INTERMODALNI TRANSPORT U SRBIJI 

Jasno je da mreža terminala i strateški planovi za intermodalni transport nisu još uvek realizovani. U 

Srbiji je delimično razvijena infrastruktura, na železnici i u lukama unutrašnjih plovnih puteva (luka 

Novi Sad, Beograd i Pančevo) za kontenerski pretovar. Kod postojećih terminala postoji značajno 

ograničenje vezano za postojeće lokacije, stara oprema i dostupnost investicija za razvoj. Intermodalni 

transport u Srbiji se bazira na uvozu prekomorskih kontenera i vraćanje praznih kontenera u morske 

luke. Kontenerski pretovar u Srbiji vrši se u lukama Beograd i ŽIT terminal (Železnički Integralni 

11 Napomena: podaci vezani za granični prelaz kod Dimitrovgrada potvrđeni su od strane domaće ‘Republičkog zavoda za 

statistiku’ za Srbiju. Pravci prema severu i jugu pripadaju trgovini od Turske prema EU i iz EU prema turskoj. 

12 Izvor podataka: http://www.poslovnimagazin.biz/vesti/bugarska-i-srbija-potpisale-sporazum-o-policiji-i-carini-1-5473 

Belgrade, 2012 144



transportni Terminal u Beogradu) gde intermodalni transport u Srbiji učestvuje u ukupnom transportu 

sa 0,5%, a u EU zemljama sa 6-9%. 

Podrška će biti obezbeđena racionalnom i ciljanom razvoju intermodalnog transporta na 

međunarodnim koridorima da bi omogućili da intermodalni transport, unutrašnjim plovnim i kopnenim 

putevima u Srbiji, bude bezbedan, efektivan, fleksibilan i jednostavan za njegove korisnike. U skladu 

sa transportnim politikama EU i strategijama održivog razvoja transporta, glavni prioriteti 

komplementarne transportne politike do 2014. u Srbiji biće: 

• Omogućavanje tehničke osnove za primenu tehnologije intermodalnog transporta, 

konstrukcijom i rekonstrukcijom slobodnog UIC-C profila tunela i mostova i 

• Omogućavanje tehničke baze za primenu tehnologija intermodalnog transporta, razvoja 

terminala za intermodalni transport. 

Još uvek nisu striktno definisane lokacije intermodalnih čvorova. Defininisana su područja gde trebaju 

da budu smešteni intermodalni čvorovi, a realna potreba za postavljanjem predviđenih intermodalnih 

terminala biće definisana studijom izvodljivosti koja će biti urađena za svaku lokaciju posebno. 

Projekat „Olakšavanje intermodalnog transporta u Srbiji“ ima za cilj, pored već pomenute 3 glavne 

lokacije intermodalnih čvorova (Novi Sad, Beograd, Niš), da precizno definiše lokacije ostalih 

intermodalnih čvorova i terminala u okviru intermodalne transportne mreže Srbije. 

Usvojeni prostorni plan Republike Srbije (Sl. gl. 88/10) od 2010. do 2020. Godine definiše Slobodne 

zone kao generatore razvoja pojedinih regiona u Srbiji i predlaže sledeće lokacije za razvoj 

intermodalnih terminala: Subotica, Senta, Šabac, Sombor, Smederevo, Pančevo, Prahovo, Jagodina, 

Valjevo, Užice, Čačak, Kragujevac, Kraljevo, Niš, Dimitrovgrad-Pirot, Priština, Preševo. 

Planirana ulaganja u razvoj intermodalnog transporta po TMP su u minimalnom scenariju 26 miliona € 

dok planirana ulaganja u razvojnom scenariju dostižu vrednost od 136 miliona €. 

Vlada Republike Srbije je, na osnovu Master plana transporta, definisala kao prioritetne aktivnosti 

izgradnju koridora X u cilju integracije domaćih transportnih puteva u evropsku transportnu mrežu. 

Razvoj terminala u Pirotu vezan je za razvoj, kako mreže intermodalnih terminala Srbije tako i razvoj 

intermodalnosti Republike Bugarske. Time transportni terminal u Pirotu postaje čvorište logističkih 

operacija između Istoka i Zapada. 

7. INTERMODALNI LOGISTIČKI CENTAR PIROT 

Cilj izgradnje Intermodalnog Logističkog Centra Pirot je da se, pružanjem usluga iz oblasti transporta, 

izađe u susret transporterima koji već koriste usluge u Slobodnoj zoni Pirot ali i transporterima čiji 

kamioni i vagoni prolaze krakom koridora Xc i predstavljaju potencijal za pružanje transportnih usluga 

od strane Intermodalnog Logističkog Centra Pirot. Kroz formiranje „Zelenog koridora“ koji će doprineti 

smanjenju negativnog uticaja tranasporta na okolinu i kroz nastojanja Slobodne zone Pirot ILC Pirot 

će postati deo intermodalne transportne mreže zemalja Zapadnog Balkana i Evropske Unije. 

Što se tiče kvantitativne procene, trenutne potrebe za izgranjom Intermodalnog Logističkog Centra 

proizilaze pre svega od korisnika Industrijske Zone Pirot, među kojima značajnu ulogu zauzima gigant 

u proizvodnji auto-guma „Tigar Tyres“, deo Michelin grupe, kao i značajan broj transportnih jedinica 

koje prolaze koridorom Xc . Značajno povećanje broja kamiona i vozova se očekuje nakon završetka 

Koridora X gde Slobodna zona Pirot vidi mogućnost privlačenja pomenutih transportera pružanjem 

različitih transportno-logističkih usluga. 

Belgrade, 2012 145



Pozicija budućeg transportnog terminala još uvek nije ispitana do detalja, dati su samo nacrti (skica 

ispod) i pozicioniran je tako da može da se nesmetano širi usled povećanja kapaciteta. Detaljnije, 

kapacitet terminala, saobraćajna infrastruktura, potrebna oprema za terminal i skladišni prostor biće 

određeni nakon studije izvodljivosti. 

Ilustracija 1 Nacrt Intermodalnog 

logističkog Centra – jedan od tri 

nacrta koji će ući u razmatranje u 

studiji izvodljivosti koju će raditi 

„Municipal Infrastructure Support 

Programme 2008“. 

Završetak studije izvodljivosti očekuje se do kraja novembra 2012. godine gde ćemo saznati 

pojedinosti budućeg terminala. Nakon studije izvodljivosti nastavlja se sa daljom izradom projektne 

dokumentacije. 

Planirani zavrešetak Intermodalnog Logističkog centra Pirot predviđen je do kraja 2016. godine, a 

površina predviđena planom detaljne regulacije za ILC je u ovom trenutku oko 30ha. 

8. RAZVOJ MULTIMODALNE MREŽE JUGOISTOČNE EVROPE 13 

Na razvoju Evropske intermodalne transportne mreže i pronalaženju najboljih transportnih rešenja na 

ovom području, pored ostalog intenzivno se radi kroz različite programe Evropske Komisije za 

unapređenje transporta. Neki od programa koji su aktuelni kod nas su „South East Europe 

Transnational Cooperation Program“, zatim „FP7 (Seventh framework Program)“ koji se u okviru svojih 

podprograma bave zahtevima unapređenja transporta na teritoriji EU i zemalja kandidata za članstvo 

u EU. 

Trenutno aktuelan projekat značajan za našu zemlju iz programa „South East Europe Transnational 

Cooperation Program“ čije su aktivnosti usmerene na razvoju transportne mreže Jugoistočne Evrope 

je projeakt „Adriatic Danube Black see Multimodal platform“ u kome učestvuju u ulozi IPA partnera 

Opština Pirot, i kao pridruženi partneri - posmatrači „Ministarstvo Infrastrukture i Energetike Srbije“ i 

„Privredna komora Beograd“. 

Cilj pomenutog projekta je da analizira i prikaže kako unaprediti multimodalni transport između luka i 

kontinetalnih zemalja u Jugoistočnoj Evropi. Za ovaj cilj projekat predviđeno je uspostavljanje 

"Multimodalne transportne razvojne platforme", koji integriše različite regione i aktera iz oblasti 

transporta u jedinstvenu mrežu. 

U projektu učestvuju 43 partnera iz programskog dela Evrope. Predviđeni bužet za projekat je oko 5,5 

miliona Evra, a trajanje projekta je 30 meseci. Projekat uključuje Regione, Univerzitete, Institute, 

Lučke Uprave, Privredne komore, Uprave carina, Uprave železnica, Ministarstva transporta, 

transportne asocijacije i klastere i ostale aktere u transportu... 

13 Podaci uzeti iz radnog plana projekta u okviru programa SEE trnsnational cooperation „ADB Mulimodalna platforma“ koji je 

trenutno u fazi implementacije 

Belgrade, 2012 146



Ovako formiran konzorcijum ostvariće cilj projekat kroz sledeće aktivnosti: 

1. Analiza intermodalnih čvorova na koridorima Jugoistočne Evrope kroz širu analizu relevantnih 

izvora uzimajući u obzir trenutne transportne zahteve kao i projektovano stanje 2015, 2025, 2035. 

godine u zemljama Jugoistočne Evrope. Istraživanja nemaju za cilj stvaranje novog simulacionog 

modela projektovanog stanja na temu zahteva transporta, zato što su rezultati dostignuti u 

prošlosti veoma značajni i ostvareni kroz projekte koju su implemenirani do sada i koji su fazi 

implementacije (SONORA, BATCO, CREAM, Freightvision...). Pod-aktivnosti u okviru ove 

aktivnosti obuhvataju sledeće: 

a. Analiza potencijalnog zahteva transporta i infrastrukturnih potreba (Gap analiza) 

b. Proučavanje kvaliteta i performansi postojećih terminala na području koje zahvata 

projekat 

c. Proučavanje institucionalnih okvira, standarda i procedura 

d. Osnivanje kvalitetne transportne mreže na transportnim koridorima 

2. Drugi radni paket u okviru pomenutog projekta obuhvata istraživanje postojećih alata za 

informacije o organizaciji intermodalnog transporta, praćenje železničkog transporta, informacije o 

carinskim uslugama, informacije o transportu na Dunavu u cilju: osavremenjivanja i usklađivanja 

informacija. Ciljevi ovog poglavlje biće ostvareni kroz sledeće podaktivnosti: 

a. Pregled postojećih alata za praćenje i pronalaženje železničkog transporta 

b. Analiza rečnih informacionih sistema u cilju osavremenjivanja 

c. Harmonizacija carinskih procedura 

d. Implementacija Pilot projekat Informaciono komunikacionih tehnologija 

e. Harmonizacija alata za izbor moda transporta 

3. Multimodalni razvojni centri 

Cilj ovog radnog paketa je da se obezbedi efikasna promocija "rešenja po meri" za multimodalne 

korisnike, uključujući i rešenja za poboljšanje kvaliteta u drumskom saobraćaju, kao poslednju 

etapu u multimodalnom transportnom lancu. To će biti ostvareno kroz razvijanje inovativnog 

modela promocije intermodalnog transporta pod nazivom "Multimodalni Centar za razvoj - MDC". 

Ciljevi ovog radnog paketa biće ostvaren putem:. 

a. Analiza lekcija naučenih od trenutnih aktivnosti promocije intermodalnog transporta 

b. Definisanje smisla, potreba i targeta multimodalnih razvojnih centara 

c. Stvaranje ADB modela za MDC 

d. Otvaranje lokalnih agencija za međunarodne MDC 

4. Zeleni transport u ADB regionu 

Implementacijom "ADB sporazuma o zelenom transportu", istaknuće se posvećenost 

transnacionalnih institucionalnih aktera prema primeni mera za internalizaciju eksternih troškova 

zelenog transporta. Ovi ciljevi biće postignuti sledećim aktivnostima: Izračunavanjem spoljnih 

troškova prevoza u ADB oblasti i troškova na izabranim pravcima; naučene lekcije od prethodnih 

modela za proračunavanje troškova; Razvoj zajedničkih mera za internalizaciju eksternih 

troškova; ADB sporazum o zelenom transportu: interesne grupe, cilj, obim; Uticaj na životnu 

sredinu ADB projekta zelenog transporta: procena ADB akcije; Uključivanje ADB rezultata u 

obrazovanje: razvoja zajedničkog programa obuke u oblasti saobraćaja ekonomije i teritorijalni 

uticaj transporta na životnu sredinu, obraćanje studentima i praktikantima. 

a. Eksterni troškovi u ADB regionu – analiza naučenih lekcija 

b. Razvoj mera za internacionalizaciju eksternih troškova zelenog transporta 

c. Formiranje transportnih ugovora o zelenim koridorima: zainteresovane strane, targeti, 

ciljevi 

d. Uticaj ADB projekta na zeleni transport: evaluacija ADB aktivnosti 

e. Uključivanje ADB istraživanja u obrazovanje: razvoj sličnih trening programskih obuka 

5. Implementacija pilot projekta – provera ICT modela 

Ovaj Radni Paket je konačan rezultat ADB projekta, čiji je cilj da pokaže efikasnost radnih paketa 

ADB Multimodalne platforme u postizanju opšteg cilja poboljšanja kvaliteta i održivosti ovakvog 

transporta robe. IKT (Informaciono Komunikacione Alatke), CKN (Kvalitetna mreža koridora) i 

MDC (Multimodalni Razvoji Centri), dizajniran i razvijen u prethodnim radnim paketima, kao ovde 

Belgrade, 2012 147



međuzavisna sredstva postavljena da dostignu ciljeve novih usluga intermodalnog transporta robe 

za nesmetan protok robe kroz multimodalne čvorove. Predviđena su četiri pilot projekti: 

a. Protok robe od Crnog mora do kontinentalnih zemalja (GR/BG/RO i "Koridor Xc"); 

b. Protok robe od severnog Jadrana do kontinentalnih zemalja (AT/SK/SB/ HU), 

uključujući i komplementarne linkovima na istočna i zapadna tržišta; 

c. Koridor VIII i povezivanje regionalnog i lokalnog ICT sistema; 

d. Protok robe Dunavom od Slovačke do Crnog mora. 

Ovakav pristup razvoju transporta primenjen u našoj zemlji značajno bi poboljšao trenutno stanje 

intermodalnog i kombinovanog transporta u Srbiji i omogućio integraciju u evropske tokove 

intermodalnog i kombinovanog transporata. 

Veoma je značajno iskoristiti šansu povećanja cena Ro-Ro transporta za Turske kamionere koje voze 

robu do zapadne evrope zbog čega se sve više koristi drumski transport. Organizacijom Ro-La 

transporta kroz našu zemlju znatno bi privukli transport na relaciji Turska, Zapadna Evropa. 

9. ROLA KROZ SRBIJU 14 

Dokaz o tome da je međunarodni "Ro-La" transport moguć kroz Srbiju govori članak objavljen na sajtu 

Železnica Srbije o pilot projektu Ro-La voza koji je prošao kroz Srbiju septembra 2006 godine. 

"Ro-La" voz za prevoz kamiona železnicom, je 23. septembra 2006. godine je po prvi put saobraćao 

prugama Srbije. Voz je krenuo iz turskog grada Halkali do austrijskog grada Velsa preko: Kapikule– 

Svilengrad/Dragoman–Dimitrovgrad/Sid-Tovarnik/M-Savski/Marof-Dobova/Jesenice-Wels. 

Železnice Srbije prevezle su kompoziciju dugu više stotina metara, sastavljenu od 20 specijalnih 

vagona, koja je prevozila isto toliko kamiona-šlepera. 

Kompozicija je od Turske do Austrije prevalila rastojanje od skoro 2.000 km, a vožnja je trajala oko 

sedamdeset sati. 

Pored značajnog deviznog prihoda koji će ovi vozovi doneti srpskim železnicama i promotivnih efekata 

u robnom saobraćaju, "Ro-La" vozovi predstavljaju zajedničku poslovnu aktivnost evropskih 

železničkih uprava radi ostvarivanja što bolje pozicije na tržištu transportnih usluga, posebno u odnosu 

na drumske prevoznike. 

Slika br. 1 R-La voz kroz Srbiju – pilot projekat 

14 

Tekst i slike preuzete sa sajta Železnice Srbije http://www.zeleznicesrbije.com/active/srlatin/home/glavna_navigacija/prezentacije/RoLa_vozovi.html 

Belgrade, 2012 148



Projekat je imao promotivni period od septembra do novembra 2006, kada je šest promotivnih vozova 

prevezlo 84 kamiona.Transport je tada otkazan zbog organizacionih i komercijalnih problema. Kako 

interesovanje za takvom vrstom transporta postoji na pomenutom pravcu, oživljavanje ovakvog oblika 

prevozne usluge zavisiće pre svega od mogućnosti definisanja komercijalnih uslova prihvatljivih za 

tržište. 15 

10. OMOGUĆAVANJE ROLA TRANSPORTA KROZ SRBIJU 

Kako bi iskoristili mogućnost koja nam se u trenutku pruža kroz veći protok saobraćaja kroz Srbiju pre 

svega Turskih kamionera potrebno je preduzeti određene korake u cilju što bržeg pronalaženja 

rešenja kako bi se privukli transportni tokovi. Obzirom da su cene Ro-Ro transporta znatno povećane i 

da se turski kamioneri sve više opredeljuju za drumski transport, jedno od rešenja je pružanje Ro-La 

usluga kroz Srbiju. 

Kako bi što pre došli do rešenja ove sitacije potrebno je preduzeti niz korka počevši od analize 

postojećih podataka vezanih za Ro-La transport (analiza onoga što je do sad urađeno na tom polju – 

studije, domaći i strani projekti), proučavanja infrastrukture i regulativa vezanih za Ro-La transport, 

formiranja ruta i umrežavanja sa susednim zemljama u cilju harmonizacije regulativa. 

Veoma bitna stavka je formiranje informacionog sistema vezanog za Ro-La transport, kako internog 

tako i eksternog u cilju što boljeg upravljanja Ro-La transportom kroz Srbiju, kao i formiranje razvojnih 

centara koji će omogućiti komunikaciji sa ostalim Ro-La centrima u cilju daljeg razvoja i unapređenja 

Ro-La transporta. 

Takođe je veoma važno uzeti u obzir smanjenje zagađenja okoline, kao veoma bitne stavke, 

korišćenjem ovakvog vida transporta i iskoristiti činjenicu i podatke postojećeg pilot projekta Ro-La 

voza koji je prošao kroz Srbiju septembra 2006. godine u cilju uštede vremena pri simulaciji Ro-La 

transporta. 

Ro-La termionali su dostupni do same granice tj do Segedina na Severu, dok na Jugoistoku Bugari 

spremno dočekuju Ro-La transport sa izgrađenim dva termianala: jedan u Dragomanu na samoj 

granici sa Srbijom dok je drugi u Svilengradu na Granici sa Turskom. 

Ilustracija 2 - ROLA transportne usluge koji pruža kompanija ÖKOMBI Gmbh in Austria 16 . 

15 UTICAJ KOMBINOVANOG KOPNENOG TRANSPORTA NA ZAŠTITU ŽIVOTNE SREDINE, dr Zoran Bundalo, rad za 4. 

Nacionalnu konferenciju o kvalitetu života, Kragujevac, Maj 2009 

16 Slika preuzeta sa sajta http://www.oekombi.at/ 

Belgrade, 2012 149



LITERATURA: 

[1.] LOGICA, Napulj Italija, Opština Pirot, SZP, PREDSTUDIJA IZVODLJIVOSTI IZGRADNJE 

INTERMODALNOG LOISTIČKOG CENTRA PIROT, Autori: U ime agencije LOGICA Scarl: 

Vittorio Marzano,Lucia Ciciarelli, Sergio Bologna, Barbara Trincone; u ime Slobodne zone 

Pirot: Dr. Dragan Kostić, Zoran Petrović, Aleksandar Simonović, Aleksandar Panić, Maja 

Vasić, Vladan Stojanović, Novembar 2010 

[2.] Projekat „ADB Mulimodalna platforma“ u okviru trećeg poziva programa SEE transnational 

cooperation koji je ternutno u fazi implementacije. 

[3.] UTICAJ KOMBINOVANOG KOPNENOG TRANSPORTA NA ZAŠTITU ŽIVOTNE SREDINE, 

dr Zoran Bundalo, rad za 4. Nacionalnu konferenciju o kvalitetu života, Kragujevac, Maj 2009 

[4.] Dr. Francesca Trampus PhD in Transport Law University of Trieste (Italy) 

USING EPZs TO BUILD TRADE CAPACITY: CHANGING INTERNATIONAL LEGAL 

ENVIRONMENT WEPZA 2003 ISTANBUL CONFERENCE 

[5.] Dr Dragan Č. Kostić, RAVNOMERNI REGIONALNI RAZVOJ KROZ SINERGIJU SLOBODNIH 

ZONA, INDUSTRIJSKIH PARKOVA I LOGISTIČKIH CENTARA 

[6.] STRATEGIJA REGIONALNOG RAZVOJA REPUBLIKE SRBIJE ZA PERIOD OD 2007. DO 

2012. GOD, Vlada RS „Službeni glasnik RS”, br. 55/05 i 71/05 – ispravka. 

[7.] EFEKTI RAZVOJA INTERMODALNIH TERMINALA U SRBIJI, Izveštaj faze 3, IMOD-X 

Intermodalna rešenja i konkurentnost u transportnom sektoru Srbije, REPUBLIKA SRBIJA 

MINISTARSTVO ZA KAPITALNE INVESTICIJE BEOGRAD, SRBIJA; SAOBRAĆAJNI 

FAKULTETUNIVERZITETA U BEOGRADU; SINTEF TEHNOLOGIJE I DRUŠTVO 

TRONDHEIM, NORVEŠKA 

Belgrade, 2012 150



RAILWAY SIDINGS IN SLOVENIA- PROBLEMS AND MEASURES TO 

INCREASE THEIR ATTRACTIVENESS 

Klara Zrimc, Prometni Institut Ljubljana d.o.o., Ljubljana, Slovenia 

Mihaela Fridrih Praznik, Prometni Institut Ljubljana d.o.o., Ljubljana, Slovenia 

Mateja Hočevar, Prometni Institut Ljubljana d.o.o., Ljubljana, Slovenia 

Mateja Matajič, Prometni Institut Ljubljana d.o.o., Ljubljana, Slovenia 


The construction and use of private sidings was relatively common in Slovenia in the period before 

gaining independence, but after that there was a decline trend in interest in using the sidings in 

Slovenia and elsewhere in Europe. According to the Slovenian Railways there were 243 sidings in 

Slovenia in 1993, in 2002 there were only 199 left, in 2011 the number of registered sidings reduced to 

the overall of 175. Foremost is this due to the development of efficient and optimized logistics 

distribution chains, and more cost-effective and more flexible organizational delivery of goods by road. 

In this paper we analysed the ”state of the art” and problems of private sidings from the owners point 

of view, in the end we made proposals for measures to increase the attractiveness of the use of 

private sidings in Slovenia.The analyse was based on a survey made by the Institute of Traffic and 

Transport Ljubljana for the needs of the study "Analysis of opportunities and development needs of 

private sidings in Slovenia”. 

In the scope of the analysis of the existing situation of private sidings there were 155 sidings 

analyzed which are served from 67 stations. As can be seen from the picture below, from the 

total of 155 analyzed sidings in Slovenia, there are 78 % active sidings classified where traffic 

is carried, while 13 % of private sidings are defined as inactive, which means that in the last 

two years there was no traffic. 9 % of the sidings are closed. 

Picture 0-1: Review of the railway sidings and their status along the supply stations 

Source: Institute of Traffic and Transport Ljubljana, 2012. 

Belgrade, 2012 151



The analysis of private siding owners showed that some owners own several sidings at the same or at 

different locations. For the study of private sidings there were a total of 117 owners recorded, while the 

18 owners own more siding on the same or different locations. 

Analysis of the traffic dynamics on private sidings in Slovenia showed that over 20 % of all owners of 

private sidings carried out 90 % of freight wagons and transported tonnage in 2010. The largest 

owners by number of wagons or carried tonnes in 2010 were Instalacija l.l.c. with 30 %, Petrol l.l.c. 

with 19.0 % and Acroni l.l.c. by 5 %. 

Private sidings of Luka Koper and Slovenian Railways were not considered in the analysis, since the 

purpose of the study was to show the general situation of private sidings in Slovenia, which means 

that the basic activity of presented owners is not related to the actual transport, but their sidings 

represent an additional activity and easier transfer of goods to the end users. Transport on private 

sidings of Luka Koper represent 80 % more traffic in the number of transported consignments as was 

the traffic in 2010 on all private sidings in Slovenia. 

2. THE SURVEY 

Transport and Traffic Institute Ljubljana l.l.c. conducted a survey during the period between 9.9.2011 

and 18.11.2011 with private sidings owners for the need of the study "Analysis of opportunities and 

development needs for private sidings in Slovenia". The aim was to obtain information on current state 

of private sidings, on mode and extent of private sidings use, information about the reasons for nonuse 

or partial use of sidings and information on the advantages and disadvantages of rail transport 

from the user's perspective. The questionnaire was sent to 117 owners of private sidings by email. 44 

owners of private sidings responded (38 % of who received the survey questionnaire), of which 36 

sidings owners returned the completed questionnaire (31 % of who received the survey 

questionnaire), which is almost a third of all, which was sent a questionnaire. 

Between the owners of private sidings, who completed a questionnaire and gave some information on 

private sidings there are some owners who have owned several sidings on the same or different 

locations, so the response to the survey was slightly larger in terms of private sidings. 

The survey was quite broad and was largely based on the basis of previously proposed answers. 

Questions offered a choice of responses, that the owners of sidings mostly completed. More 

difficulties in completing the survey questionnaire was in part related to the volume of traffic, where it 

was necessary by the sidings owners to enter the transportation volume for the past several years and 

planned growth or decline in transport volumes. Questions about the transport segment were thus only 

partially fulfilled, but their responses were meaningfully used in further analysis. 

From a total of 117 questionnaires sent to the owners of private sidings a survey was completed by 36 

owners or 31% of the total, which is a reasonably good basis for the preparation of the analysis. 

Questionnaire was completed by important railway transport users as well as users who rarely use 

railway transport or those who by a variety of reasons currently not use the railway transport. 

Owners of sidings that submitted a survey questionnaire were classified into each group from largest 

to smallest user or owner of the sidings (rank), keeping in mind the amount of traffic of those sidings 

owners that didn’t submit the questionnaires (in the analyzes and calculations Luka Koper, Slovenian 

Railways and its subsidiaries are not taken into account). 

From a total of 36 sidings owners who completed a questionnaire, in the viewpoint of transport work 

done in 2010, a questionnaire was answered by 15 major users, 14 medium users and 7 smaller users 

or non-users of private sidings. In each group, we classified the following sidings owners who 

completed questionnaires: 

Group 1: Big users 17 

In the group of Big users who responded to the questionnaire, we classified Acroni from Jesenice, with 

the largest share (8.82 %) of shipments in 2010, followed by Instalacija with 7.81 % share of 

shipments and by far the largest share of cargo transported (29, 89 %), and Petrol with 4.23 % share 

17 Big usees carried more than 1 % of shipments in 2010 and transported more than 0,5 % of cargo, such as Acroni, Instalacija 

in Petrol. 

Belgrade, 2012 152



of shipments and 11.91 % of freight carried. 

Important users are also Store Steel, Lesonit, Nafta Petrochem, GG Novo mesto, Butan plin, VIPAP 

Videm, Istrabenz plini, Kamnolom Verd and Ursa Slovenia. In the group of Big users we also ranked 3 

sidings owners (Talum, IAK and Salonit Anhovo), which had less than 1 % share of shipments in 

2010, but carried more than 0.5 % of the cargo. 

Group 2: Medium users 18 

Among Medium users we classified sidings owners, which transport work in 2010 ranged between 

0.07 and 0.7 % of shipments and between 0.01 and 0.31 % of freight carried, namely: Paloma, Zavod 

RS za blagovne rezerve, Kovinatrade, GG Bled, Lafarge Cement, SILGAN Ljubljana, Alpos, 

Radenska, Container, KZ Ptuj, Tanin Sevnica, Trimo and Color. 

Among Medium users we classified the owner of private sidings Jata Emona, which had less than 0.07 

% of the shipments in 2010, and therefore a little more cargo carried as Trimo, Tanin Sevnica and 

Color. 

Group 3: Small users 19 

Among Small users of private sidings, which did not exceed 0.03% of shipments and 0.02% of cargo 

in 2010, we classified following private sidings owners: Etra 33, Železarna Ravne Monter, Pivovarna 

Union, Kovinar from Jesenice, Hoja and private siding owners Ikebana Brinc and Pivovarna Laško, 

which didn’t use the private sidings in 2010 but completed the survey anyway. 

3. ANALYZES OF REASONS FOR NOT USING OR PARTIAL USE OF PRIVATE SIDINGS 

Within the questionnaire, which was sent to the owners of private sidings, we also asked about the 

problems, the advantages and disadvantages of railway transport and the conditions that would 

contribute to an increase in the use of private sidings and railway transport. 

Analyzed answers of the respondents were based on a selection in the advanced proposed answers, 

with the possibility of additional references and own answers. 

3.1 Existing problems of individual private sidings from the perspective of the owners 

Analysis of existing problems of private sidings showed that the greatest dissatisfaction for sidings 

owners is with the organization of deliveries. With the poor organization of deliveries agrees almost 

half of big users because they use rail transport more often and are more dependent on it and less 

than a quarter of medium and some smaller users. Few owners believe that the sidings are poorly 

maintained and have insufficient axle load, few more indicates wear of tracks as the existing problem. 

Under category “Other” owners mentioned the high costs of maintenance of private sidings, rigid 

organization of deliveries, insufficient number of transported wagons and high price of transport. 

3.2 Benefits of railway transport from the perspective of the owners 

Analysis of the benefits of private sidings from the perspective of sidings owners showed that the 

majority of owners that responded to the survey are well aware that railway transport is becoming 

increasingly important, as it is the most environmentally friendly form of transportation and a very 

important factor in sustainable development. Depending on the answers of the respondents the big 

advantage of railway transport is also the possibility of increasing the quantity of transported cargo 

and transport of heavy loads. Less than half of the private siding owners recognize the advantage of 

railway transport in higher utilization of wagons, higher efficiency due to fewer staff, lower price of 

railway transport compared to road transport, less transport manipulations and reliability of transport. 

That the railway transport can carry more cargo volume is very important for big and medium users, 

which is also reflected in the responses of most which completed the survey. Almost half of big users 

agree that railway transport is efficient and therefore require less staff, but this fact preferred not to be 

identified by smaller users. Smaller users do not indicate reliable railway transport, higher utilization of 

transport wagons and less manipulation as an advantage. Nearly half of small users, some medium 

users and one third of big users agree that railway transport is cheaper over road transport. 

18 M edium users carried less than 1 % of shipments and less than 0,4 % o , such as Paloma, Zavod RS za blagovne rezerve, 

f total cargo in 2010 

Kovinatrade. 

19 S mall users and non-users of private siding s carried less than 0,04 % o f shipments and less than 0,03 % o f total cargo in 2010 or they didnt 

, such as Etra 33, Železarna Ravne Monter, Pivovarna Union. 

use the private sidings in 2010 

Belgrade, 2012 153



3.3 Weaknesses of railway transport from the perspective of the owners 

Analysis of weaknesses of private sidings from the owner’s perspective showed that half of the 

owners, who responded to the survey indicate lower average speeds and poor railway links as 

weaknesses of railway transport, influenced mainly from the lack of investment in railway infrastructure 

in previous years and overpriced railway transport. Also, almost half of owners think that additional 

cargo handling vehicle-wagon and vice versa, carrier delays in delivery and removal of cargo 

are weakness in railway transport. A smaller proportion, 8% believe that the weakness of rail transport 

is in low utilization of the wagons, 11% have problems with limiting the loading of wagons due to lack 

of axle loads. In a comparison between groups of owners, most disadvantages of railway transport 

indicate big users, more than half of them are the opinion that the price of railway transport is too high 

and the average speed is lower than on the road. They are dissatisfied with carrier delays in delivery 

and removal of cargo and poor rail links. Half of bigger customers agree that the price of maintenaning 

the private siding is too high. 

3.4 The possibilities of increased use of private sidings 

Analysis of the conditions, under which the siding use could be increased shows that if current 

railway fares would be reduced from 10 to 50% more than half of sidings users would used it on a 

larger scale, almost half of respondents were convinced that railway transport would be more 

frequently used in the event of more accurate delivery, or if there are less delays in 

transportation. In particular smaller users would use private sidings to a greater extent if the railway 

transport was less time consuming and didn’t need as much administration, and if their customers 

would choose for such a service. Amongs “Other” the owners indicated that the use of the sidings is 

dependent on the current situation on the market and on suppliers and customers, and that sidings 

would be used to a greater extent if specific recipients and senders had available sidings. 

4. MEASURES 

Following the above presented problems of private sidings in Slovenia we present three groups of 

measures that could be used by the Government to increase the interest of the private sector to invest 

in the development of private sidings and, consequently, also to increase their use. These are namely 

measures to improve the technical condition of the private sidings, measures to improve competitive 

conditions for railway transport with the use of private sidings and measures to improve the availability 

of public railway infrastructure. 

4.1 Measures to improve the technical condition of private sidings 

Maintenance of private sidings should be done in a manner that its frequency and scope is dependent 

on several factors, especially on the volume and type of traffic that is carried out on private siding. 

Measure 1: Adoption of a statutory instrument concerning the standards for railway 

sidings maintenance. 

In order to relieve the costs of mandatory maintenance of sidings for the owners of sidings, the costs 

could be taken over by the Government, in whole or partially, which would mean a good financial 

incentive to increase interest of owners for the use of private sidings and consequently the use of 

railway transport services. 

Measure 2: The takeover (partially or fully) of the costs of mandatory maintenance of 

railway sidings within the framework of maintaining of public railway infrastructure. 

Given into account that the siding owners highlighted the high cost of sidings maintenance as a 

weakness it makes sense that in the context of state aid in Slovenia, like in Austria, the refund or tax 

credit for part of the cost of sidings maintenance is also allowed. As a criterion for determining the 

remuneration of maintenance costs the actual managed volume of maintained sidings per kilometer 

could be used. 

Measure 3: The introduction of a state aid system for the maintenance, renewal or 

extension of existing railway siding and their construction. 

Belgrade, 2012 154



As part of government incentives for the development of private sidings it is reasonable to allow the 

access to these resources also to other interested subjects, specially carriers which would have, 

together with the owners or users of sidings, the interest to finance the construction of new or 

renovation or expansion of existing sidings, where to identify its long-term economic benefit. 

Measure 4: Encourage of carriers investments in the development of railway sidings 

which can have long-term economic benefit. 

To achieve a balanced development of the private sidings network, logistics and distribution centers 

with private sidings it is very important that a strategy in the form of stand-alone document or as part of 

a national program for the development of public infrastructure is carried out at the national level. 

Measure 5: Development Strategy of railway sidings. 

The European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) has available resources for joint financing of 

projects for the development of infrastructure and industrial projects, which promote economic and 

social development and cohesion in the less developed parts of the European Union. These funds 

could be used for the development of private sidings, but the potential beneficiaries of these funds 

operating in the less developed regions of Slovenia are often not aware that the funds are available or 

are not familiar with the procedures to be carried out, that such funds can benefit from, so it would 

make sense that they are the most informed about the programs and opportunities that draw on these 

funds. 

Measure 6: Raising railway sidings owners’ awareness of the possibility of obtaining 

grants of the European Union. 

In accordance with the law, which regulates rail safety, it is necessary that the conditions and 

relationships for the maintenance of sidings are regulated by the contracts between the infrastructure 

manager and the owners of the sidings. 

Existing agreements on mutual relations, which govern the relationship of private sidings, have 

become obsolete, as they are largely concluded before 2005, and they often no longer reflect the 

actual state of ownership, since the owner changed or ceased to exist or they legally and 

organizationally transformed or changed the company name under which they operate. The Cargo 

transportation company lead such contracts and is also responsible for updating these contracts. 

Given that these contractual arrangements relates to the use of infrastructure and the maintenance of 

proper technical condition of sidings for safe railway traffic, which is in line with the reorganization of 

the company Slovenian Railways Ltd. into system of a Holding the activity was transferred to 

Slovenian Railways - Infrastructure Ltd., it is necessary that Slovenian Railways - Infrastructure l.l.c. 

enter into this contractual relationship or edit a new standardized contracts. 

Measure 7: The introduction of standardized contracts for the arrangements of mutual 

relations regarding railway sidings use by public railway infrastructure manager. 

Such axle load should be provided on private sidings, which is equal to the line feeding the private 

siding. This would allow easier technological work processes to optimize the utilization of wagons and 

tractors. For sidings, which are powered by the main line, axle load is 22,5 tonnes per axle, for sidings 

on regional lines there is a minimum axle load of 20 tonnes per axle or 22,5 tonnes per axle. 

Measure 8: Ensure of appropriate axle load of railway sidings. 

With the electrification of private sidings on electrified lines simpler technological work processes and 

better use of locomotives would be enabled. Emissions to the environment would reduce (noise, 

exhaust), burden on locomotives would increase and the travel time would reduce. 

Measure 9: Electrification of railway sidings. 

With increasing railway safety by upgrading the interlocked switch to private sidings setting times 

would shorten and traffic safety would increase. 

Measure 10: Interlocked switch to private siding. 

4.2 Measures to improve competitive conditions for the use of private sidings 

The existing system of state aids for part of the transport costs, which in accordance with the 

applicable law on railway traffic, carriers of goods can benefit from, it would make sense to expand 

Belgrade, 2012 155



and provide compensation of transportation expenses for consignors and owners of private sidings 

which use sidings to transport their goods. For these entities financial incentives could be provided in 

the form of compensation or part of the cost of transport in the form of a tax deduction on the tax 

return. As a criterion of the scope, the extent of sidings use per kilometre or volume of tonnage / 

wagons at the sidings could be used. 

Measure 11: The introduction of a state aid system for partial refund of transport costs 

for users of railway sidings. 

Existing system of financial incentives, governed by the law of the railway traffic, granted to carriers in 

railway traffic, may be worth exploring in terms of efficiency and by upgrading and complementing the 

system of state aid, which is in line with the Community guidelines on State aid for railway 

undertakings. 

A balanced and well-designed program of incentives for railway traffic carriers would also contribute to 

a more competitive rail transport (more efficient deliveries, greater flexibility, lower rail fares, ...), and 

this would consequently reached a higher interest of owners and other potential users of sidings for 

rail transport services. 

Measure 12: Introduce of incentives to improve the quality and competitiveness of 

railway transport carrier. 

An appropriate spatial planning of business centers and industrial plants in the local spatial planning 

documents can significantly contribute to the improvement of the use of sidings and, consequently, to 

greater use of rail transport. For this purpose, it is reasonable to establish the criteria under which it 

will allow the construction or development of such facilities only in the immediate vicinity of the railway 

infrastructure, if under these facilities, business that can service the transport network will be held. 

Measure 13: Promote the development of commercial centers and industrial plants in 

the immediate vicinity of the public railway infrastructure. 

To improve the use of private sidings it is very important that in conjunction with other measures also 

support measures for transport, environmental and other policies are implemented, which will improve 

the conditions of rail transport compared with other modes of transport, especially road transport, and 

will encourage relief of road infrastructure by shifting freight from road to rail. 

Such measures include in particular: the internalisation of transport costs with the introduction of fees 

for heavy road freight vehicles, the mark-up to the tolls on sections where there is severe congestion, 

and for road vehicles, causing significant environmental damage; the introduction or upgrading of 

existing systems of state aid that promote the development of terminals and intermodal transport; 

introduction of stricter time limits in the transport of goods by road. 

Measure 14: Increase the competitiveness of rail transport and promote the freight shift 

from road to rail with supportive measures. 

By creating the conditions and by encouragement of conclusion of long-term contractual relationships 

between the owners and users of private sidings, operators and carriers, the reduction in risks would 

be reached that otherwise owners of sidings assume when investing their capital in the development 

of sidings and by their application. 

Measure 15: Promote long-term cooperation between the users of railway sidings, 

carriers and operators of public railway infrastructure. 

The big problem with the use of private sidings highlighted by owners of sidings is the communication 

between the key players involved in the realization of the railway transport, between the state as 

owner of public railway infrastructure, carriers and users of private sidings. 

Country as a carrier for the promotion and development of transport by rail could therefore be active 

and as promoter or initiator in the involvement in the design of open dialogue between the owners and 

operators (eg, the creation of an informal network of interested parties, information portal for 

monitoring the development and use of sidings) and thereby promote the development of a unified 

strategic planning. 

Measure 16: Unifying strategic planning and create open dialogue between users of 

railway sidings, carriers and country. 

Belgrade, 2012 156



4.3 Measures to improve the availability of public railway infrastructure 

Measures to relieve bottlenecks on the lines of the railway infrastructure in Slovenia are defined in the 

National Programme of the Slovenian Railway Infrastructure (NPRSZI) and other strategic projects, 

mainly related to an increase in capacity of the existing single-track trails: Ljubljana-Jesenice-state 

border; Divača-Koper, Maribor-Šentilj section and Pragersko-Ormož section and track Ormož-Murska 

Sobota-Hodoš-state border. By balancing bottlenecks, especially with the two-tier upgrade, to avoid 

the implementation of train crossings, in order to significantly reduce journey times, which affects the 

quality of rail services and, consequently, also on better terms with the use of sidings. 

To ensure the appropriate axle load on public railway infrastructure (axle load category D4 (22,5 t / 

axle and 8 t / m)) on the lines of V. and X. Pan-European corridor, which is also defined in the 

agreements AGC and AGTC. This allows higher utilization of wagons and locomotives. 

Ensure of loading gauge UIC-C1 on the main lines for the purpose of implementation of piggy-back in 

the way to meet the loading gauge UIC-C1. This profile is also defined in the AGTC Agreement. 

Overhaul of tracks, carrier and fixing material and thresholds on the lines of the public railway 

infrastructure, which will increase the speed (elimination of slow runs) and improve the technical 

characteristics of lines and the resulting increased utilization of separate rail sections. 

Measure 17: Improve the technical characteristics of existing public railway 

infrastructure. 

With the optimization of technological processes of work in the railway traffic between carriers and 

operators of public railway infrastructure, the efficiency of rail transport, in order to ensure a higher 

quality, can be improved. Train routes that enpower the sidings, would be required to coordinate with 

other ongoing train timetable, because of the specifics of the flow of cargo on the sidings over long 

period of time this is not possible. In addition, freight trains serving the sidings are usually at a 

disadvantage because of lower ranking of the trains. 

In the context of optimization it is necessary to simplify the procedures for procurement of wagons and 

ensure the timely delivery of these sidings due to their unavailability or unforeseen extension of freight 

wagons, which the carrier did not include. 

The vast majority of cargo transfers to trains in shunting yards. There are still reserves to reduce the 

time of technological processes of shunting trains for the needs of empowering the sidings. By 

reducing the time, delivery times on private sidings can be shorten, which increases the 

competitiveness of rail transport. 

Measure 18: Optimization of technological processes on the relation carrier-public 

railway infrastructure manager. 

5. CONCLUSION 

As demonstrated by the survey results, the majority of private siding owners are of the opinion that 

railway transport is environmentally friendly form of transportation and allow the movement of large 

amounts of cargo and heavier loads, which is definitely an advantage of rail transport compared to 

road transport. Among respondents there is also to indicate strong dissatisfaction with railway 

transport due to lower average speed of railway transport, poor rail connections and transport 

delays in delivery and removal, which is certainly impact on the poor state of infrastructure and 

diversification compared to road infrastructure. More than half of respondents believe that the price of 

railway transport is too high, and that the railway transport would be more frequently used in the 

event of price reductions of 10-50 %. Railway transport would be more frequently used also in the 

case of a more accurate delivery of carriers and by receiving government benefits. The state may 

contribute to the increased interest of private sector to invest in the development of private sidings 

and, consequently, also to increase their use. 

Belgrade, 2012 157



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

[1] Information from Slovenian Railways – Infrastructure; 

[2] Information from Slovenian Railways – Cargo transportation company; 

[3] Information from Slovenian Railways – Section for railway tracks maintenance; 

[4] Contracts on mutual relations between owners of private sidings and Slovenian Railways for 

each private siding; 

[5] Station operating systems of railway stations; 

[6] Business directory Bizi.si (2011). 

Belgrade, 2012 158



INTERMODAL INFRASTRUCTURE PLANNING IN LJUBLJANA: 

FIELD SURVEY AS A METHOD FOR PUBLIC PARTICIPATION 

Klemen Gostič, Institute of Traffic and Transport Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenija 

Summary 

From the year 2008 Municipality of Ljubljana was included in the international Civitas ELAN project. 

With the aim to achieve better living environment in the European cities, project activities included 

sustainable transport measures from 37 project partners in five European countries. One of the project 

activities was to include public into discussions for future development of intermodal passenger 

infrastructure. With conducting 617 surveys data about current use and expectations towards 

intermodal infrastructure in Ljubljana were collected. Survey was carried out on 17 locations including 

city centre of Ljubljana, main train station, city bus stations and Park and Ride facilities on the 

outskirts. Within the questionnaires respondents were invited to present their own perspective on the 

measures that should implemented in order to achieve more user friendly and functional intermodal 

passenger infrastructure in Ljubljana. Article presents the importance of public participation in the 

processes of transport infrastructure planning and includes methodology, main results and outcomes 

of conducted field surveys in Ljubljana. 

Key words: passenger intermodal infrastructure, transport planning, participatory planning, public 

participation, methodology, user’s satisfaction, service quality perception 


Favorable geo-strategic position, location on the crossing of V. and X. pan-European transport corridor 

and centrality of service, economic and production activities, are just some of the factors for the 

importance of Ljubljana urban region (LUR) in Slovenia. During the years 1991 and 2002 LUR 

recorded 5.3 % growth of population thus twice exceeding the national average. By increasing the rate 

of motorization (524 cars per 1,000 inhabitants at the end of 2011) and the daily migration flows 

between city and the outskirts to 120.000-140.000 daily immigrants, the importance of effective urban 

and transport planning became an important issue in public discussions. 

Currently available data indicate that two thirds of the whole trips in the city of Ljubljana is done by car 

transport, which is fallowed by 13 % of public transport users and 20 % by walking or using a bicycle 

(Guzelj in Trošt, 2011). Considering the current situation transport plans for the city of Ljubljana are 

addressing the issues of lowering demand for car use thus improving the conditions for effective use 

of public and bicycle transport. With the aim to allocate user’s needs and perspectives for the future 

transport planning process a survey on usage and perspectives of intermodal infrastructure in 

Ljubljana was done within CIVITAS Elan project. 

2. INTERMODAL TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE 

When discussing passenger transport we are usually referring also on integration of transport systems 

or intermodality. In reality, each passenger trip is always conducted of at least two transport modes 

which can include walking, cycling, public transport or car use. Intermodality represents the use of 

several transport modes in one trip when all used modes are combined or integrated. Integration of 

different public modes is usually possible thanks to adequate intermodal infrastructure or to intermodal 

agreements concluded by transport operators. In the best option these agreements allow a common 

reservation for the whole trip, coordinated timetables, a common checking, the certainty to travel to the 

final destination despite delays faced by one or several transport modes during the trip, etc (Rodrigue, 

Comtois, Slack, 2009). The change of the transport modes is taking place on the intermodal 

passenger infrastructure or intermodal hubs. When distinguishing intermodal hubs we mostly 

Belgrade, 2012 159



concentrate on bus and train interchanges, Park and Ride (P+R) systems, cycling stands on 

intermodal interchanges (Bike and Ride, B&R systems) and others. Besides infrastructural elements 

intermodality of passenger transport is also related to integration of time tables and quality of services, 

which additionally improve level of service and benefits of intermodal passenger transport. Main 

benefits of intermodal transport are: 

improvement of accessibility of different transport modes; 

provision of connections between different modes of transport; 

reduction of travel time and distances between different points of interest; 

improving quality and precision of given information between transport modes; 

better accessibility to different transport hubs. 

3. PASSENGER PERSPECTIVE AND QUALITY OF PUBLIC TRANSPORT SERVICES 

The integration of different transport modes represents one of the ways to improve quality of a system 

as a whole, thus targeting the user’s interests to receive expected level of quality service. Looking 

more closely at the issue of user’s interests, it becomes apparent that these cannot be reduced to the 

quality alone, but to meet the user’s needs of mobility in general (Schiefelbusch, 2009). The best 

solution to overcome the barriers of dissatisfied public transport users is their involvement in 

preplanning and also implementation activities. To successfully implement intermodal transport 

services or facility, a certain degree of public involvement should be achieved within: 

political level: the framework for public transport and intermodality is a set up and the strategic 

decisions on the level of service are made; 

planning level: concepts for the service are developed and planned in detail including the 

preparation of operation and operators and the level of capacity provided; 

provision level: planned concepts are implemented, bearing in mind that the deviations from 

the pre-planned pattern of intermodality links or transport in general are kept at the minimum; 

practical level: practical problems and users expectations have to be solved with applicable 

solutions to arising problems (Schiefelbusch, 2009). 

After the planned activities are being put into operation, users state their personal sadisfaction with 

implemented services. The practices of quality management measurement of satisfaction can be 

performed as mystery shopping surveys (MSS), direct performance measurements (DPM) or customer 

satisfaction surveys (CSS) (Meier, Neugebauer, 2005). CSS surveys with proposals of further 

transport implementations are also to be used in practices when public is to be questioned on their 

proposals for further needed implementations in the field of transport operation services. Usually there 

is a clear disconnection between realized and perceived level of transport and intermodal 

infrastructure services (EN 13816), which can be defined as: 

difference between sought and targeted service quality (provides costumer orientation); 

difference between targeted and delievered service quality (measure of entrepreneurial 

performance); 

difference of delivered and perceived performance quality (indicator of the importance of 

personal experiences, options and also prejudices); 

difference between perceived and sought service quality (customer satisfaction). (Meier, 2005) 

User’s perspectives concerning public transport and also performance of all the means of public 

transport within intermodal chain, are to be included in the preparation of transport plans in the local or 

regional level. Public participation in the phases of strategic transport planning are usually 

implemented during the broad preparation of the transport concepts or when some activities have 

already took place and the public is to be asked about the satisfaction with services and proposals for 

further implementations. If the communication with wider public during the planning processes is 

conducted in the right way, implementations also receive some degree of agreement within the public. 

Surveying activities represent only one of the options on which public point of view can be 

emphasised, as there are also possibilities to conduct round tables or focus groups with different 

stakeholders e.g. The general proposals from the public are to be further analysed and in the 

reasonable scale implemented in the overall transport strategy (SUMP, 2011). 

Belgrade, 2012 160



4. SURVEYING METHODOLOGY 

Same as in other Civitas ELAN partner cities also in Ljubljana the survey on intermodality and 

intermodal infrastructure planning was prepared. Although the Civitas ELAN cities can’t be indefinitely 

compared by its urban structure, demographic status, usage of transport modes e.g., comparisons 

between cities in terms of usage and intermodal infrastructure operation can be exposed. The survey 

within Ljubljana was prepared with the aim to gain additional data about satisfaction with intermodal 

infrastructure, usage of intermodal interchanges and satisfaction with functioning of intermodal 

interchanges. Survey was carried out on various locations around Ljubljana Civitas ELAN test corridor 

on Dunajska, Slovenska and Barjanska streets and on Park and Ride facilities on the city outskirts. In 

the survey correspondents also proposed their view on intermodal infrastructure in the future. During 

the surveying period, before the summer vacations in the July 2011, altogether 617 surveys on 

intermodality in Ljubljana were assessed. 

In order to reach respondents that are using intermodal infrastructure and also other respondents that 

are less likely to use intermodal junction points the structure of surveying locations was split into two 

categories. In the first category surveying took place on intermodal interchanges where there was 

more likely to survey more or less regular users of intermodal infrastructure. At the intermodal 

interchanges 303 surveys were completed. Second category of surveying location remained neutral, 

because in the main city squares, before shopping malls and on other interested locations the 

possibility to survey a person which is regularly using intermodal interchanges is lower. 

Surveying on intermodal interchanges included main Ljubljana railway station (located on the X. pan- 

European corridor) with the nearest car and bicycle parking places, main Ljubljana bus station, city 

public transport stations Bavarski dvor (both ways), Konzorcij, Pošta and Drama (all one way) and 

Park and Ride system Dolgi most, P+R Stožice and P+R Rudnik. Both genders were equally 

distributed and also the surveying sample resembled to demographic structure of Ljubljana. 

5. USER’S PERCEPTION OF CURRENT INTERMODAL INFRASTRUCTURE IN LJUBLJANA 

In the questionnaire there was a sequence of questions referring to the perception of the intermodal 

infrastructure planning processes in Ljubljana. In order to understand the results of the survey better 

the current situation on intermodality in Ljubljana that could have an effect on the answers was also 

considered. Those influences were introducing of BicikeLJ public bicycle rental system in May 2011 

and implementation of 25 electronic timetables displays on frequent bus stations in Ljubljana within 

Civitas ELAN project in September 2010. 

Municipality of Ljubljana (MOL) in May 12 th 2011 introduced the public bicycle rental system BicikeLj 

with 300 bicycles on 30 parking places. The renting system was well accepted since in just two 

months after activation almost 17.000 users have logged to the system and 130.000 bicycle rentals 

have been made. Further on until September 2012 almost 900.000 rentals have been made from 

more than 37.700 long-therm users. For busting the usage of new rental service many promotion 

activities took place. Survey showed that many respondents felt familiar with the intermodal 

infrastructure planning from the promotions of BicikeLj renting system. Since implementation of the 

public bikes renting systems presented new travel option for the residents, the implemented innovation 

also improved the status of intermodality in the city. 

Also many respondents felt that the electronic displays on the city bus stops are the right way to 

promote intermodal infrastructure in Ljubljana, since additional information about accurate bus arrivals 

encourages use city bus services. Although the timetable displays are proven to be innovative and 

important for the users of public transport services, some users share same opinion that electronic 

timetable should be located on almost every bus station in the city. Some of the respondents have 

also some bad experiences with inconsistency of displays with actual bus timetables as busses 

sometimes arrive later than it is shown on display which is quite disturbing from the user’s perspective. 

Consequently, some respondents proposed better functioning of time schedules and real time 

information systems. 

The main results of the field survey indicated that citizens in overall feel informed about intermodal 

infrastructure planning processes and are rather satisfied with the information they receive. When 

questioning the awareness about the on-going process of intermodal infrastructure planning 65 % of 

respondents answered affirmatively that they are familiar with transport planning processes taking 

Belgrade, 2012 161



place in the city. Survey showed that more than one third (37 %) of the respondents felt familiar with 

the planning processes in Ljubljana from the implementations in site or they have heard it from a 

friends/relatives. Some (21 %) heard about the intermodal infrastructure planning from municipal 

newspapers and 17 % from regional or national television. From transport company web pages 

(Ljubljana City Public Transport, Slovenian Railways) 11 % of respondents heard from the transport 

infrastructure planning and other from meeting from representative of the city or from municipal 

webpage (5 %). Analysis thus shows that the practical implementations of the intermodal infrastructure 

have a significant importance on the feeling of acceptance from the wider public. Long-term planning, 

public involvement and real implementations have an effect on the perception of the offer and the 

quality of intermodal public transport services within the public. 

In the questionnaire we also wanted to analyse the main issues of satisfaction or dissatisfaction on the 

passenger intermodal infrastructure. Public transport users are in general satisfied with the level of 

security at interchanges, received information and the offer of services (vending machines, shops) at 

the interchanges etc. Field survey indicated that citizens are less satisfied with car and bicycle parking 

facilities near intermodal interchanges (train station, main bus station), and also with frequencies of 

the city buses and regional trains. The respondents would like to see more electronic timetable 

displays on the main interchanges and a further spread of interchanges where integrated public 

transport card (Urbana) could be used and filled. Users also proposed further improvement of public or 

intermodal infrastructure in Ljubljana. 

Picture 1: Surveying on the city bus stations with 

electronic timetable displays 

Picture 2: BicikeLj, public bicycle rental system in 

Ljubljana. Rental station near main train station. 

6. PROPOSALS ON THE PUBLIC ON INTERMODAL INFRASTRUCTURE IN LJUBLJANA 

With the aim to receive some more or less innovative ideas and follow the criteria of participatory 

intermodal infrastructure planning, the respondents were invited to describe their recommendations for 

improvements of intermodal interchanges. Proposals were collected in the open case answers, so the 

respondents could freely state their opinion and propose improvement on intermodality in Ljubljana. 

One thirth of the respondents choose to recommend some additional ideas on improvement of 

intermodal infrastructure and by grouping the stated answers main proposed ideas were specified. 

Overall, user’s proposals towards better function and connections of transport in Ljubljana were not 

directly focused on intermodal infrastructure, but were more connected to activities for improvement of 

public or personal transport operation. Users of intermodal interchanges would prefer more frequent 

connections of city busses as they perceive that the quality of intermodal transport terminals also 

reflects in quality of its services. Some users were negatively oriented towards current bus timetables 

(lack of 24-h service) and its frequency outside the rush hours. Question arose if timetable 

optimization could suffice to achieve more frequent bus transport or there should be some additional 

investments made in order to maximize public transport operation in general (e.g. increasing the 

number of operating busses, optimizing the routes e.g.). Considering the improvement of public 

transport system operation, users highlighted better connection of rail public transport with other 

motorised or non-motorised means of transport. If rail public transport users would have had better 

connections with public transport from the main or peripheral train stations to their daily destination, 

they would have used it more regularly. In that field some progress has already been done. With the 

Belgrade, 2012 162



aim to improve access to the rail passenger transport, in the year 2009 study of revitalization of 

existing railway stations in the suburban area of Ljubljana was carried out (Institute of Traffic and 

Transport Ljubljana, Slovenian Railways, 2009). On the basis of settlement density and traffic analysis 

the study examined the possibility of establishing 16 new locations of rail passenger stops within the 

wider area of Ljubljana urban region. With additional connections of bus or P+R system in the region, 

the proposed locations for new smaller rail stations could represent useful intermodal passenger 

terminals in the city and also in the wider region. 

Also there were proposals to improve transport infrastructure on the interchanges. Users propose that 

every bus stop (even outside the city centre) should be well protected against the weather conditions 

and have other necessaries (timetables, seats ...) that are depending on the importance of the bus 

stop. There were also proposals for better connection of main bus station with city public transport, 

which should be resolved by construction of Emonika transport junction point on the place of current 

main railway station. Proposals are also aiming at the infrastructural and informational improvements 

on bus interchanges and to spread the locations of digital timetable displays that were put into 

operation at the end of the year 2010. 

As mentioned surveying also took place in the P+R facilities near the ring-road around the city of 

Ljubljana. P+R systems allow affective connection of personal motorized and public transport since 

users can park their cars outside the city and continue their travel to the city centre of by public 

transport. From the users perspective the attention towards the increase the number of parking places 

was brought. In the morning rush hour parking places on the P+R system Dolgi most (217 parking 

places) is filled quickly, while the newly build P+R system at the Stožice arena (1,200 parking places) 

is almost fully free due to unfriendly location to means of public transport. The users also perceive the 

timetable intervals rather low, especially during the summer time when frequency of the bus 

connections from P+R to the city centre is decreased. Users also propose the additional guarding 

procedures on P+R Dolgi most, since in the past some cases of vandalism have occurred. 

To achieve appropriate level of the intermodality there is an importance also to combine public 

transport and non-motorised personal transport. With combining bicycle trips and public transport one 

can further reduce the negative impacts of transport on the environment and space in the city. While in 

Ljubljana there are about 8,000 bicycle racks, their quality and capacity near public transport stations 

and P+R systems are rather low, which was also stated from the users. Some proposals were 

referring to additional implementation of bicycle racks at the main train and bus station in Ljubljana, so 

they could use their bikes to continue the daily commute to the desired destination. 

Picture 3: One of the few bicycle racks near main 

train station in Ljubljana 

Picture 4: In the morning hours car parking 

places at P+R system Dolgi most are already 

fully occupied 

In the terms of improving overall transport condition in Ljubljana, some respondents would like to see 

the reintroduction of city tram line. Also there were proposes for additional prolonging of some city bus 

routes to the neighbouring cities and good connection of the busses to the newly build P+R facilities in 

the region. Results of the survey on intermodal infrastructure planning arose some new options to 

further develop intermodal infrastructure in Ljubljana. The impression came into notice that the 

respondents were in most cases very satisfied to be questioned on their proposals for the future 

development of intermodality and transport in general in their city. 

Belgrade, 2012 163



7. CONCLUSION 

The intermodal infrastructure planning survey gave us some new information about usage and 

perspective on intermodality in Ljubljana. We can conclude that in general people feel informed about 

intermodal infrastructure and are rather satisfied with the information they get but they would still like 

to be more included in preparational and organizational processes for intermodal infrastructure 

planning. Many of respondents are regularly using intermodal junction points and are in general also 

rather satisfied with its functioning. User of public transport are satisfied with security in interchanges, 

offer of services (vending machines, shops ...) and also with information they get on interchanges, but 

are less satisfied with car and bicycle parking places near interchanges and also with sequences of 

the buses. Also some new ideas for the improvement on intermodal junction points were received and 

present the potential for future improvements. 

The next step for further improvements on intermodal interchanges planning and functioning would be 

to get specific and more accurate data about usage of transport modes in and outside the city centre 

of Ljubljana. It is rather important to get to know other commuting habits from users of personal car 

transportation in order to get to know which “soft and hard” measures are to be used for increasing the 

rate of more sustainable passenger transport modes or the combination of personal and public 

transport (P+R, car sharing, ...) in Ljubljana. Surveying of the city inhabitants of their transport vision is 

just one of the steps to achieve more user’s friendly and effective public or personal transport in the 

city of Ljubljana and also in the wither region. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

[1] Guzelj, T., Trošt, D., 2011. Makro in mezoskopska preveritev koncepta trajnostnega prometa v 

Ljubljani. PNZ, OUP MOL. 

[2] Institute of Traffic and Transport Ljubljana, 2011. Participatory intermodal infrastructure 

planning in municipality of Ljubljana. Final report of Civitas ELAN measure 

[3] Institute of Traffic and Transport Ljubljana, Slovenian Railways, 2009. Revitalizacija obstoječih 

železniških postaj in postajališč v primestnem območju Ljubljane. Končno poročilo. 

[4] Meier, H., Neugebauer, N., 2005. Costumer perspective in Quality management. Edited by: M. 

Schifelbsch, D. Hans-liudger. Public transport and its users. The Passenger’s perspective in 

planning and Costum Care, 299 p. 

[5] Rodrigue J.-P., Comtois C., Slack B., 2009, The Geography of transport systems. 352 p. 

[6] Schiefelbusch, M., 2009. Passenger interest in Public Transport. p. 5-18. Edited by: M. 

Schifelbsch, D. Hans-liudger. Public transport and its users. The Passenger’s perspective in 

planning and Costum Care, 299 p. 

[7] Sustainable urban mobility plans (SUMP), 2011. 12 p. 

Belgrade, 2012 164



MODERN RAILROAD TERMINALS AS RELATED TO URBAN 

MATRIX DEVELOPMENT 

Ksenija Stevanović, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia 

Zdenka Popović, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia 

Milica Pajkić, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia 

Abstract: 

In the era of integration of all means of transportation, as well as expansion of railway networks for 

high speed trains, there is a revived interest in railway transport. The renaissance of railway, led to a 

great production of exclusive new generation terminals, multimodal traffic interchanges. These points 

are formed on airport terminals, on intersections of important regional and main traffic lines and in big 

cities. 

In this paper, attention was dedicated to terminals in major cities, where space and resources are 

inevitably limited and the rule of the planers is to reach the best compromise. We list a number of 

demands that terminals have to fulfil regarding efficiency and environmental protection. Since the 

adoption of pass-through type terminals is of crucial importance, we recognise their advantages used 

to exploit the concept of vertical content development. This superposition of content provides for easy 

transition from one method of transportation to another, as well as independent surfaces for 

movement for individual transportation systems, reduces the occupancy of city property and easily fits 

into a unique architectural form. 

Finally, the paper also notes the importance of architectural prevalence as part of the ambiance and 

the city as a whole. 

The goal of this paper is to identify the importance of modern railway passenger terminals as related 

to city transformation. New city terminals consider several design and urban integration challenges 

including: 

- integration with different transport, making multimodal interchange; 

- functional advantages of the pass-trough type of station towards urban matrix; 

- energy efficient solutions for these mega city hubs; 

- commercial developments into new city centres; 

- site responsive design 

Key words: Railway terminals, multi-modal traffic interchange, pass-through terminal concept, 

coexistence with the urban matrix, morphogenesis 


The time of huge and fast global changes results in great architectural production in all areas, due to 

new technologies and possibilities, as well as the flow of capital. Traffic buildings, as a part of the 

traffic infrastructure, are also being improved by new architectural solutions and reconstructions all 

Belgrade, 2012 165



around the world. The general reorganization of traffic is leading towards the integration of all types of 

transport into a unified system. Ease of transfer between different modes of public transport is a great 

contribution to mobility which can be made by the transport industries. In this way, the advantages of 

different methods of transport are becoming more prominent, while the flaws are reduced (1). In 

accordance with these tendencies, a revival of railroad passenger traffic took place, followed by a reactualization 

of city terminals as key spots on the railroad network. 

The end of the 20 th century and the beginning of the new millennium is a period of the renaissance of 

railroad terminals, which are in the function of the concept of integrated traffic, and a period of 

improved railroad networks, achieved by the introduction of high-speed trains. 

Railroad terminal buildings have undergone changes both in function and in appearance. Thus today, 

general functional demands these terminals have to satisfy in order to service the increasingly 

demanding customers can already be recognized even without the necessary time distance. 

Sustainable growth philosophy in transport sector has a key role in battle for environmental protection. 

Railway transport is considered relatively clean and energy efficient using electricity instead of nonrenewable 

energy resources. 

Constant expansion of railway networks for high-speed trains, as well as comfortable and fast travel 

they offer, reduced the use of cars and are also taking over passengers who travel on relations 

between 500 and 1400 km from airlines. 

2. MODERN TERMINALS AS MULTIMODAL TRANSPORT INTERCHANGES 

The aboveementioned phenomena and facts also caused an extremely fast construction of modern 

railway terminals. With their functional concepts and shape solutions, they represent the paradigm of 

new railway station facilities. They are straightforward, materialized examples of the idea and 

imperative of merging all traffic systems in order to achieve more efficient and healthier functioning as 

related to the environment. In this regard, new-generation terminals are multi-model traffic 

interchanges, places where people switch modes of transportation, resulting in use of adequate 

transportation both on the regional level and the metropolitan level (Figure 1). These landmarks within 

the traffic network make it possible to emphasize the advantages of a certain traffic system, as well as 

to reduce its flaws, and reduce traffic jams and pollution by providing better propulsiveness. 

These points are formed on airport terminals, on intersections of important regional and main traffic 

lines in big cities. 

Urban multimodal interchanges can only benefit the community by making public transport more 

atractive by opening up comercial and social opportunities. The station can be more vital and 

synergetic public facility. In thr proces of creating station to a product that: 

- improove public transport, accessible to all and attractive to all, 

- becomes a thriving public space, 

- is quality urban design, 

all have a part to play, transport operators, local and central authorities, developers, investors and 

designers, but it is a vision of designers which will act as a catalist in that proces. 

Belgrade, 2012 166



Figure 1. Complexity of Lerter station in Berlin, traffic intersection: Stadtbahn above, regional rail 

below, and the multifunctional hall in between 

In this paper, special attention is dedicated to terminals in major cities, since they are the most 

complex – encompassing both systems of non-urban traffic and city transportation. On the other hand, 

these mega city structures have their specific features in cooperation with the urban matrix, unlike the 

incompatible old ones (Figure 2), which makes them even more important to the development of 

healthier cities. 

Figure 2. Frankfurt historical station, conflicts with urban matrix 

3. ADVENTAGES OF PASS-TROUGH TERMINAL CONCEPT 

For 25 years, in major European cities, new railway terminals are being constructed and old, historical 

ones are being improved. Modern station facilities are adapted to the continual railroad network, as 

well as other forms of public transport, thus creating the traffic interchange. 

Modern railway terminals have to fulfill a number of demands regarding efficiency and environmental 

protection. 

By determining the phenomenon that railway station poses by it presence in the city and by their 

analysis we are able to recognise what are the conflicts that it is posing, but also which are the 

Belgrade, 2012 167



advantages for the town. New railway terminals give the experience for the interaction, mutual 

progress of the station and the city (4). 

The urban aspect of terminals is viewed from the standpoint of the needs of a metropolis, as well as 

spatial potentials. In order to be able to use their main advantage, accessibility in central city zones, 

railroad terminals in big cities, due to a lack of building land, have to search for compromise solutions, 

such as trenching of the route, vertical approach, etc (3). 

The adoption of pass-through type terminals is of crucial importance, not only because of their 

advantages in comparison to oldones, but in using the methods to exploit the concept of vertical 

content development (Figure 3). This type is more suitable for city giving large abilities for smooth and 

easy interchanges, offering the possibility of vertical connection of different methods of transport, 

without impeding the city network (5). 

Figure 3,Pass-trough type of railway station concept; longitudinal and cross section showing vertical 

content superposition 

Different modalities of this station type offer different possibilities of shaping – from the design of the 

entrance zone to an underground station only, to the formation of a single arch over an over ground 

railroad terminal building 

Among the list of pass-trough type terminal advantages we recognise the most important ones: 

- Vertical superposition of content provides easy transition from one method of transportation to 

another, as well as independent surfaces for movement for individual transportation systems; 

- Avoidance of conflicts with urban matrix 

- Reduces the occupancy of city property and easily fits into a unique architectural form. 

- The accessibility from different sides and levels makes better propulsiveness for great number of 

users; 

Time and exploitation have selected high-quality, functional schemes of station premises, rejecting 

outdated terminus station type, developing subtypes of pass-through stations. Improved concepts of 

these stations do not use pedestrian bridge-access and under halls anymore, but multipurpose halls 

and vestibules instead. 

4. FUNCTIONAL AND SHAPE CRITERIA TO BE APPLIED 

Today, railroad terminals are a part of integrated city structure, so that the basic constitutive elements 

of the station, the station square, the main hall, the platform space, are sometimes the infrastructure 

on which new objects are built. Thus, the station square, station building and platform areas are not 

Belgrade, 2012 168



the only parts of railroad stations any more. The often new constitutive elements are commercial and 

business contents or other public spaces created within the station, which give the final imprint on the 

station with their size and expression. Thus, the station merges with the urban mechanism, not only 

with its infrastructure, but with its suprastructuree, as well (Figure 4). 

Figure 4. Tiburtina station in Rome, 2001, „bridge“ station as city boulevard with shopping mol 

connecting two separated parts of town 

The quantity of traffic within a station is also defined mostly depending on its place and importance 

within the railroad network system. The chosen or, in many cases, imposed location of the station is 

related to the city, the city suburbs, new commercial centers, intersections of regional routes, or airport 

terminals. All these locations have their determining factors, which are, more or less, spaces that are 

already built and thus dictate the search for compromise solution. Furthermore, demands for the 

shaping of stations within a city, an airport terminal, or a commercial centers etc. are different. 

Although we classify stations from a few aspects: according to their importance and purpose in the 

system of the railroad network, according to the type of traffic within them, according to their size, it is 

possible to establish the factors that determine the architecture of all of them. 

The analysis of these fresh, modern solutions reveals radical ideas in design approach, thus opening 

new fields of research. Special attention is given to the platform area, as it is the most distinctive 

characteristic of a station building, thus presenting a challenge to architects-constructors. Wide span 

platform constructions, as representatives of revolutionary spirit of the most inventive century of 

modern times, attracted the best engineers of the time to a competition in using new materials to 

create the most dramatic and impressive spans of pure arches, which are very impressive . Solutions 

range from modified and sophisticated use of the traditional platform arch, to complete disappearance 

of the station building architecture, when it simply becomes a part of city infrastructure (6). 

It is possible to distinguish certain common determinants and new experiences as well as some 

practice criteria that new terminals should offer : 

- The design should emphasize the interchange`s role as a portal into different transport modes, 

provide a welcoming environment for the traveler and create interest by emphasis of the arrival and 

departure points. 

- The architectural expression of the terminal should reflect the culture of the century and the 

technology of contemporary travel. 

- The architecture, technology and facilities should work together to provide a coherent whole. 

Belgrade, 2012 169



- Design should be `timeless` yet of its time. Robust design should give the terminal a sense of 

permanence. High –quality construction should ensure that railway stations are desirable places to 

visit for a long time. 

- Modern stations prioritize technology, movement and speed, thus making these characteristics a 

visible and active part of modern urban life. This stage is a constitutive, sometimes basic architectural 

motive, observable through different layers. The dynamics of station premises, the train design, station 

and platform commotion are present and visible in the life of a city (7). The importance of architectural 

prevalence as part of the ambiance and the city as a whole, makes movement and speed active part 

of modern urban life. 

- Specific features regarding the quality and comfort of terminals concerning good orientation, the 

presence of natural light, climate conditions of big voluminous spaces… 

An interchange should be designed with good sight lines. 

Spaciousness is important, especially since many people are prejudiced against enclosed and 

underground stations because these spaces have been cramper in the past. 

- Unlike the first railroad terminals, which were in the service of the needs of large train formations, 

new sophisticated concepts are entirely in the service of a great number of customers. Special 

attention is given to proper orientation, shortest possible routes, as well as pleasant stay and 

movement through a space full of different views. Fluxes of great numbers of people were studied, 

entrances were cleared, parking spaces provided along with easy access from different methods of 

transportation. 

- From the aspect of ecology and environment protection, the effects stations have on their immediate 

surrounding, as well as microclimatic conditions within the station itself, are especially analyzed today 

(8). The pressure is on to make public transport attractive, with the long term effect of improving 

quality and mobility and saving depleting energy resources. 

- Removal of barriers for customers, abundance of daylight, a space filled with views, easy orientation 

and safe passage through space are only some of the stated imperatives. 

Figure 5. New Waterloo Station in London, platform movements as active part of urban life, being 

memorable landmark of the city 

Belgrade, 2012 170



- The abundance of natural light is characteristic of all new railroad station examples. Natural daylight 

creates a sense of well-being and reduces a sense of enclosure. Even in cases of trenched routes, 

designers find solutions to provide a deep penetration of daylight (Figure 6). This imperative of proper 

lighting further contributed to the possibilities of grandiose modern arches, light constructions, mostly 

steel, with special covering and multilayered structure. 

Figure 6. Stuttgart New station, pedestrian city square above tracks with lantern day lighting 

platforms; 

As before, big investments and different expert organization are mobilized, the most eminent experts 

are taking part in the construction of these systems of traffic infrastructure, which are visual and vital 

landmarks of cities, new centers offering various contents, and which will only in time be fully affirmed 

and perceived in the context of an entire period of society and architecture. 

5. CONCLUSION 

Global outstanding architectural production appears as consequence of fast comprehensive 

technological and economical improvement. 

Traffic infrastructures also run out the transition and rationalization all over the world. The all kind of 

traffic is going to be integrated in unique system improving all their advantages, minimizing their 

drawback. According to those tendentious becomes revival of railway traffic as well as importance of 

city railway terminals, the key check points in whole railway network. 

Modern station facilities are adopted to the continual railroad network, as well as other forms of public 

transport, thus creating the traffic interchange. These interchanges make traveling more efficient, 

more comfortable, offering various services to users. 

Contemporary railway terminals use pass-through station concept exploiting vertical content 

superposition. This concept allows continuity of urban matrix, reduces the occupancy of city property 

thus leaving possibilities for more suitable land-use (9). These terminals provide better accessibility as 

well as great propulsivness through station itself. 

Stations of a newer date fulfill the aspect of sustainable development and environmental protection 

reducing pollution and noise and making new city centers. 

New city terminals consider several design and urban integration challenges including: 

- integration with different transport, making multi-modal interchange; 

Belgrade, 2012 171



- functional advantages of the pass-trough type of station towards urban matrix; 

- energy efficient solutions for these mega city hubs; 

- commercial developments into new city centers; 

- site responsive design 

Finally the renaissance of railway terminals offer certain specific features regarding the quality and 

comfort concerning good orientation, the presence of natural light, climate conditions of big 

voluminous spaces… 

These modern terminals are opening a glorious new chapter in the history of railroad terminal 

architecture. 

Great demands and funds which are being invested into these buildings, gathered the most prominent 

architects and constructors, offering a display of modern terminals, which combine the static and 

dynamic character of the building into a unified whole, celebrating new technologies and speed and 

opening a new glorious chapter in the history of railroad terminal architecture. 

REFERENCES 

[1] Blow Christopher, Transport Terminals and Modal Interchanges, Architectural Press, Oxford, 

2005. 

[2] Maletin Mihailo, Gradske saobracajnice, Gradjevinski fakultet u Beogradu, 1996. 

[3] Ross Julian, Railway Stations-Planning, Design & Management, Architectural Press, 

[4] Oxford 2000. 

[5] 4 Ventura Paolo, Citta e Stazione Ferroviaria, Firenze University Press-EDIFIR, 2004 

[6] Stevanovic Ksenija, Renesansa zeleznickih terminala, Zaduzbina Andrejevic, Beograd, 

[7] 2008. 

[8] Binney Marcus, Architecture of rail, Academy Edition, London 1995. 

[9] Ferrarini Alesssia, Railway Stations, Electa architecture, 2005 

[10] 8 Richards Brian, Future transport in cities, Spon Press, London 2001 

[11] 9. Stevanović Ksenija , Renesansa terminala na prelasku dva veka, “Arhitektura i 

[12] 10. Renaissance of Railway Stations, Bund Deutcher Architekten, Deutche Bahn, Deutches 

Arc 11. 11, Edwards Brian, The Modern terminals, Spoon, London, 

Belgrade, 2012 172



PROVIDING CO-MODALITY OF PUBLIC PASSENGER TRANSPORT 

THROUGH A STANDARDIZED UNIFIED ELECTRONIC TICKETING 

SYSTEM IN SLOVENIA 

Primož Kranjec, Prometni institut Ljubljana,Ljubljana, Slovenia 

Dušan Fajfar, IGEA, Ljubljana, Slovenia 

Aleksander Đurić, Logiteh, Maribor, Slovenia 

Marko Samec, Dinocolor,Vojnik, Slovenia 

Vladimir Tkalec, CENT.SI, Celje, Slovenia 

Abstract 

In 2007 Ministry of infrastructure and spatial planning launched a framework project on integrated 

public transport in Slovenia aiming at establishment of an integrated public transport service based on 

co-modality of railway, regional and city bus transit. This paper gives an overview of implemented 

subprojects within the framework casting focus on the results of the “Elaboration of standard for 

unified electronic ticket in Slovenia” subproject that was completed at the end of 2011. Electronic 

ticketing systems and solutions are presented in the scope of public transport in Slovenia where 

several custom-designed electronic ticketing systems already exist and operate. Currently applied and 

state-of-the-art technologies and conceptions of card-based electronic ticketing systems world-wide 

are given, with special attention to contactless cards, NFC mobile phones and bank cards and other 

RFID technologies. Provided technology and economic analyses of different ticketing technologies 

and concepts an open CI system based on MIFARE DesFIRE contactless card technology has been 

proposed to be adopted as a nation-wide Slovenian standard of unified electronic ticket. Possibilities 

of supporting technologies like the novel NFC and bank card ticketing have been studied to make the 

system user friendly and all-encompassing. A proposal of Slovenian standard based on ISO 1545 and 

ISO 15320 international standards is depicted in terms of preferences and weaknesses still to be 

solved. The new ticketing system is also estimated in terms of implementation and up-keeping costs of 

SW and HW and system organisation. 

Key words: integrated public transport, co-modality, electronic ticketing system, contactless cards, 

MIFARE, NFC, bank cards, ISO 1545, ISO 15320, cost analysis 

Belgrade, 2012 173




This paper gives overview of the results of the project “Elaboration of Slovenian standard for unified 

electronic ticket [1]” that was realized in 2011 and is part of umbrella project of integrated public 

transport in Slovenia started in 2007 by Ministry of transport. The goal of the integrated public 

transport project is to establish unified electronic ticket and harmonized time-table for bus and railway 

traffic. 

In Slovenia electronic ticketing systems are in use by almost all public transport operators. The 

problem is that the implemented ticketing systems are not interoperable in terms of technology, data 

models, product definitions, validation rules, missing business agreements, etc. With the elaboration of 

Slovenian standard for electronic ticketing the goal was to set up general conditions for interoperability 

of different electronic ticketing systems. The given project covers many aspects of electronic ticketing 

systems starting from technology of contactless smart cards overview, including a survey of different 

implementations of electronic ticketing systems for public transport in the Europe and worldwide, 

analysis of systems’ implementation at Slovenian transport operators and electronic ticketing system 

technology providers, research of possibilities to use new technologies like NFC and bank cards, 

analysis of technological and data model standards with detailed description of SIST EN 15320:2011 

and finally to different SWOT analyses and implementation cost estimations of interoperable electronic 

ticketing system. 

The project was primarily technologically oriented and results give a proposal for a unified technology 

platform and a unified data model as basis for a Slovene national standard for electronic ticketing 

systems implementation. The project did not deal with problems regarding unique tariff model, zone 

model vs. distance model, check in vs. check-in/check-out system, product definition, validation rules, 

business and clearing model, data exchange between different systems, organization, business 

agreements, etc. 

2. TECHNOLOGY OF ELECTRONIC TICKETING SYSTEMS 

Electronic ticketing technologies are generally classified according to the way they are used. The 

closer the card is to the terminal, the more reliable the transaction is, but the more constraining it is for 

the user. 

Contact-based technologies that are generally not used in public transportation are mainly based on a 

standardized communication between user devices (only memory or smart cards) and access systems 

compliant to the ISO 7816 standard [2]. 

Contactless cards operate on the principle of inductive loops and data are transferred by means of 

alternating magnetic fields generated by the reader. Basically there are 3 available contactless smart 

cards standards [3]: ISO/IEC 10536 (Close-coupling), ISO/IEC 15693 (Vicinity-coupling) and ISO/IEC 

14443 – Type A/B (Proximity-coupling). The most widely used standard in public transportation is 

ISO/IEC 14443 [4] which in general describes how contactless cards and terminals should work to 

ensure industry-wide compatibility. Beside public transport sector this standard is also used in identity, 

security, payment and access control applications. Avery standard ensuing from ISO/IEC 14443 is 

also NFC (Near Field Communication) standard. Actually NFC is a set of standards where 

communication protocols and data exchange formats are based on ISO/IEC 14443. 

Public transportation is one of the most suitable sectors for use of contactless technology. The 

reasons lie primarily in the ease of use for the passenger, speed of the transactions and controlled 

payment services. The most important technology implementations that we encounter in the world are 

as follows: 

CALYPSO [5] is a standard for electronic public transport ticket, which was developed by a group of 

European partners in the following cities: Brussels, Lisbon, Konstanz, Paris and Venice. 

A Calypso portable device was historically a microprocessor smart card, but as technology moves on, 

new devices like JAVA contactless cards, NFC mobile phones, USB key with a contactless 

communication interface are also supported. Calypso is an open technology, free from any 

manufacturing monopoly making it both economical and adaptable to evolving future technology 

changes. 

Belgrade, 2012 174



With more than 52 million Calypso cards and 260.000 readers at the beginning of 2010, Calypso is the 

largest microprocessor based smart card technology ticketing system. The number of Calypso users is 

constantly increasing all over the world. Calypso is currently presented in Belgium, Canada, China, 

France, Israel, Italy, Portugal, United Kingdom, etc. 

FELICA [6] is a contactless smart card by Sony, which was originally intended to pay fares for public 

transport in Hong Kong. Due to its functionality and ease of use is now being extended for payment of 

products in all kinds of shops and vending machines. There was an attempt to specify FeliCa as "ISO 

14443 Type C", but this initiative did not end up in the final standard. 

FELICA is “the facto” standard in Japan and it is used in many industry areas. FeliCa is used in 

transportation tickets for railways and buses in Japan and many other countries in Asia [6]. 

MIFARE [7] is a registered trademark of NXP semiconductors for a series of chips in contactless smart 

cards. It is the most widely used technology in the world (according to some estimates MIFARE cards 

account for 80% of the market of public transport - more than one billion cards issued since 1994). 

MIFARE covers different kinds of contactless cards whereby in public transportation are mostly used 

MIFARE Classic (memory card), MIFARE Plus (security upgrade to MIFARE Classic), MIFARE 

Ultralight (inexpensive memory card) and MIFARE DESFire (microprocessor smart card). 

MIFARE technology is used in many industry areas while in public transportation this technology is 

applied in more than 650 cities all over the world. Currently more than 50 countries adopted MIFARE 

technology. MIFARE technology is also the only technology used in the electronic ticketing systems in 

Slovenian public transport. 

3. NEW TECHNOLOGIES IN PUBLIC TRANSPORT 

Throughout the world, public transportation is "smart," and getting smarter. Transit authorities want to 

go away from proprietary-based systems and into new, open standards and open fare payment 

technologies. By using open standards, transit authorities can procure fare collection equipment from 

multiple vendors and rely on it to work together seamlessly. Open payment systems allow use of smart 

cards and similar devices that passengers already have, rather than requiring them to use a card 

dedicated to a specific transit authority. In an open payment system, riders can use the existing 

contactless credit and debit cards (like MasterCard PayPass and Visa PayWave) to pay their fare 

directly, by tapping the card on a fare-gate or bus fare-box. Other contactless smart cards, such as 

university, government, and corporate IDs, and mobile phones (NFC), can also be used in open 

payment systems, as well, allowing transit users to pay their fare using cards and devices they already 

dispose of. 

NFC and contactless payment cards are already available and very promising for use with transport 

applications. 

Near Field Communication (NFC) [8] is a standards-based, short-range wireless connectivity 

technology that enables simple and intuitive two-way interactions between electronic devices. With 

NFC technology, consumers can perform contactless transactions, access digital content and connect 

NFC-enabled devices with a single touch. NFC simplifies setup of some longer-range wireless 

technologies, such as Bluetooth and Wi-Fi. It is also compliant with the global contactless standards 

(ISO 14443 and/or ISO 18092), which means transport agencies that have already deployed 

contactless programs enjoy a built-in advantage, as their equipment may readily interact with NFCenabled 

mobile devices and provide richer services. 

The NFC Forum has identified three basic use cases for NFC: connection, access, and transactions. 

All three have application in public transport. For example, an NFC-enabled phone can connect with 

an NFC-enabled kiosk to download a ticket, or the ticket can be sent directly to an NFC-enabled 

phone over the air (OTA). The phone can then tap a reader to redeem that ticket and gain access. 

Belgrade, 2012 175



Figure 1: Public transport ticketing with NFC phones [8] 

There are three options for storing the ticket securely on the phone, each of which may have a 

different provider: 

A handset manufacturer can provide NFC-enabled phones with embedded secure elements 

SIM manufacturers can provide the SIM cards, via the mobile network operators, needed to store 

ticket applications 

Secure Digital card manufacturers can offer SD cards, when the ticket is stored in a pop-out card 

There are many players who need to be involved in developing an NFC transport system. In most 

cases, the requirements will be driven by the transport operator, who will be looking to integrate NFC 

applications into an existing structure for travel and customer service, ticketing, access control, and 

payment. This may or may not already include contactless acceptance capability. 

Contactless payment cards are very suitable to be used in public transport, too. The transit and bank 

card payment industries have historically taken different approaches to processing payments and 

managing risk. However, as bank card issuers offer contactless credit, debit and prepaid cards and 

institute new programs for low-value transactions, transit agencies can take advantage of these 

programs to directly accept contactless bank cards for fare payment at the point of entry where the 

fare media is ordinarily presented. This can yield significant benefits for transit fare collection vs. other 

non-cash approaches. 

MasterCard PayPass [9] and Visa PayWave [10] use contactless technology based on ISO 14443 and 

are designed for low-value payments well suited for use in trafficked areas (café, kiosks, vending 

machines and transport). There are many pilot projects where payment card is used as fare media 

(ticketing application added on payment card) or as payment method (single journey payment) for 

public transport. There are also live mass roll out project (Slovakia, Turkey, London…) where public 

transport operators and financial institutions find the suitable business model for all parties involved. 

The new technology are developing very quickly and in the near future the NFC technology will be 

integrated in almost all mobile phones and we will have contactless payments cards in the pocket (or 

even on mobile phones), so the technology will not be a problem. The challenge is to develop right 

business model and agreements between public transport operators, public transport authorities, 

financial institutions, telecommunication operators, etc. They all need to work together to ensure that 

any ticket can be bought with payment card or NFC mobile phone and also stored within this media 

and used in every public transport anywhere. 

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4. ORGANISATION OF PUBLIC TRANSPORT IN SLOVENIA 

Public passenger transport in Slovenia is characterised by transported passenger volume not 

exceeding one in a big metropolitan agglomeration on one hand, while on the other scattered 

population in numerous smaller settlements can’t bear a true comparison to a city passenger transit. 

Two modes of public transport – bus and train score together app. 65 million vehicle kilometres and 

nearly 90 million passenger journeys on a yearly basis. Only few population centres in the country 

make a proportion of 1.200 vehicles in regional bus and train services vs. 300 in city transport far in 

favour of long-distance or inter-urban transport. 

Organization of public transport can be analysed through entities and processes playing role in 

management, planning, financing and determining of the price of public transportation products. 

Unification of a ticketing system implies also unification of entities and processes in the overall system. 

In Slovenia today city public transport is entirely covered by bus lines and managed by municipalities. 

Currently, city transport services are organized in 11 municipalities, operated by several transport 

operators (concessionaires). With one exception these operators also provide regional bus services. 

The regional bus public transport is managed by the Ministry of Transportation and operated by 39 

transport operators (concessionaires). Passenger rail transport is managed by the Public Agency of 

the Republic of Slovenia for Railway Transport, entrusted for publishing of "network statement" and 

train paths allocation. Passenger rail transport services are operated by Slovenian Railways as a 

single service provider. 

Figure 2: The management of public transport in the Republic of Slovenia [1] 

Involvement of different managing authorities in public passenger transport entails diversification of 

public transport funding and subsidizing and thereby diversification of implementation of planning and 

provision of services as well as development policies among ministry, state and municipality bodies as 

well as operators. 

Planning of city public transport is done exclusively by municipalities imposing the plans to the bus 

operators. In regional bus service, on the contrary, planning is done by concessionaires trying to 

answer and balance the needs of municipalities, passengers and private sector, thus letting the 

Ministry of transport only the minor role. Planning initiative in railway transport is born by Slovenian 

Railways being also entrusted for compliance with international timetables. The Agency of the 

Republic of Slovenia for Railway Transport only endorses the timetables. 

Belgrade, 2012 177



Figure 3: Planning of public transport in Slovenia [1] 

Tariff policy follows similarly diversified scheme as planning. Here Slovenian Government pops up as 

an additional player to adopt the tariffs proposed by the railway company. Municipalities dictate the 

tariffs in city services while Ministry of transport imposes fares and discounts for single bus tickets in 

regional bus transport. Other products (tickets) in regional bus service or in railway transport are 

entirely in the domain of respective operator. 

This diversification of entities and processes calls for system unification. 

5. ELECTRONIC TICKETING IN SLOVENIAN TRANSPORT 

In Slovenia the electronic ticketing system is already used by almost all of the public transport 

companies. 3 different systems are implemented: Margento company [11] with URBANA [12] card 

covers city bus transport in Ljubljana, Princ company [13] covers Veolia transport and MARPROM 

transport operators and company Četrta pot [14] with product e-karta [15] covers Slovenian railways 

and all other bus operators. 

Electronic ticketing systems are mostly used for regular passengers with monthly tickets, except in 

capital of Ljubljana, where electronic ticketing system is part of city card system and is also used for 

single journeys. 

The existing electronic ticketing systems in Slovenia are not interoperable. They are all based on the 

same technology MIFARE, so the used equipment is compatible except in the small part where older 

generation of MIFARE Classic cards and appropriate equipment is used. 

Company 

num. of validators and 

mobile terminals 

num. of sales 

points 

Četrta pot 1550 130 180.000 

Margento 440 270 600 000 

Princ 330 19 75.000 

SUM 2320 419 855.000 

num. of contactless 

card 

Table 1: Dimension of implementation of electronic ticketing systems in Slovenia [1] 

Company MIFARE Classic MIFARE Plus DESFIRE EV1 SUM 

Četrta pot 100.000 30.000 50.000 180.000 

Margento / / 600 000 600.000 

Princ 75.000 / / 75.000 

SUM 175.000 30.000 650.000 855.000 

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Table 2: Number of electronic tickets of different types [1] 

Company / Card 

type 

Četrta pot Margento Princ SUM 

MIFARE Classic 560 / / 560 

MIFARE Plus / / / / 

DESFIRE EV1 1120 710 350 2180 

SUM 1680 710 350 2740 

Table 3: Number of terminal equipment of different types (validators, mobile terminals, sales points) 

[1] 

The upper numbers show that Mifare DesFire card is used in more than 75% and almost 80% of 

terminal equipment is compatible with this technology. Regarding this and directions from general 

overview of electronic ticketing technology the Mifare DesFire technology is proposed to be used for 

implementation of integrated ticketing system in Slovenia. Existing differences in equipment can be 

easily overtaken by replacing some older terminal equipment and contactless cards. 

Also we analyzed compatibility of existing equipment with the new technologies. Only small part of 

equipment supports NFC technology for using NFC mobile phones for electronic ticketing and there is 

no support for EMV standard that enables using standard bank cards for electronic ticketing. While 

these are technologies of the near future the proposal is that the new terminal equipment that will 

replace the exploited one should support these technologies. In this way in few next years the 

equipment in Slovenia will be prepared for oncoming technologies. 

Special attention was put to consider possibility of using bank cards for electronic ticketing. Beside 

analyze of word developments and implementations of bank cards in public transport the meetings 

with Slovenian banks were done. The first limitation found was that at the moment there are no 

contactless bank cards in mass use, just a few pilot projects. With participation of banks in public 

transport system there will be new players and consequently new organization and business models 

should be prepared. While all this cannot be solved in short time, the suggestion is, that the electronic 

ticketing system in Slovenia in the first phase should be implemented without bank cards, but the 

equipment should be step by step prepared to be capable to include bank cards in the system. For 

that time we also expect that world standards for using bank cards in public transport will be 

developed by word players in this field like MasterCard and Visa. 

6. DATA MODEL OF INTEGRATED PUBLIC TRANSPORT 

A problem to achieve interoperability of existing systems is principally not a matter of different HW 

technology (card and terminal equipment technology) but rather of divergent data models underlying 

terminal and back-office applications at ticketing system providers. Not a single data model used in 

existing Slovenian ticketing systems complies with the international or national standards; actually 

they are custom designed and developed from the scratch in consideration of particular transport 

operators’ needs. As a consequence, all technology providers consider their data model and its 

implementations a business secret and are not willing to share their model with each other. 

Overview of the world standards on ticketing systems’ interoperability additionally supports the above 

conclusion for data models being the core problem [16]. Since interoperability is a problem in all 

systems a variety of standards was developed focusing on data models. Low level is dealt with in EN 

1545 standard [17] dated in 2005 which defines elementary data types, code lists and data elements. 

This standard is accepted worldwide but it only defines data elements without reference to data model 

itself. The most recognized public transport interoperability standards are ITSO [18] in United 

Kingdom, Calypso [5] in France and Belgium, SDOA [19] in Netherlands, VDV Kernaplikation [20] in 

Germany and APTA [21] in USA. All these standards put the data model in focus and all of them 

support compatibility with EN 1545. 

Europe wide interoperability is subject of Interoperable Fare Management Project (IFM) [22] that 

started in 2008 where the majority of European organizations involved in national standards for public 

Belgrade, 2012 179



transport development were engaged. The objective of the IFM Project is to provide passengers with 

shared types of contactless media throughout Europe. These can be used to hold multiple transport 

products (“tickets”) in different geographic areas and for sustainable modal switching, such as the use 

of “Park and Ride”. Short term (priority lane) goals of the IFM project are to use multi-application 

platform, provide a portal to load remote multiple IFM applications onto a single locally-issued media 

and update existing EU IFM standards. But the final goals are to develop a common EU-IFM 

application, develop a common product template and develop common fare collection processes. 

Proposal of common Slovenian data model for interoperable public transport, which was developed in 

the late 2011 is based on EN 15320:2007 standard: Interoperable Public Transport Applications – 

Framework [1],[23]. This EN standard defines a technology neutral environment for an Interoperable 

Public Transport Application within the confines of the definition of identification card systems. 

Figure 4: Overview of standards for electronic ticket media in public transport [24] 

This European standard (EN 15320:2007) describes the minimum requirements for an interoperable 

transport application that may exist on a Machine Readable Card, either alone or together with other 

applications, and is therefore a description of datasets and formats at the logical level. The standard 

doesn’t describe the actual format of the data held on the card. This format may be derived from a 

mapping of the data to the card using an ASN.1 encoding rule. Mapping on a card may take many 

forms dependent upon the card architecture and encoding: memory cards, processor cards; MIFARE, 

CALYPSO… 

This standard doesn’t provide rules for physical implementation in terms of different technologies but 

forms a foundation for interchange of details concerning how this standard has been physically 

implemented. 

This standard makes the basis for interoperable tickets to be used across the public transport network 

in Europe: 

- different operators within one network: multioperator and multimodal system, 

- different networks in one country, 

- different countries 

in order not to inhibit commercial competition. 

Belgrade, 2012 180



Figure 5: Interoperable Fare Management System [23] 

Figure 5 shows components and relations of an interoperable fare management system. The EN 

standard describes the components of the application necessary to support an interoperable 

environment: 

- accessing the Interoperable Public Transport Application, 

- data structure and presentation, 

- sizing and enumeration of data, 

- data access methodology, 

- security and access considerations and 

- dealing with legacy systems. 

The standard specifies sets of data in a structured form as well as the rules for dealing with those data 

to enable products such as tickets to be written and used on Machine Readable Card in a manner to 

minimize the amount of data to be held on a card. 

Associated with the data is the set of processes which applies to the data within the application. The 

inclusion of process provides for similar data to be treated in a similar way by all external services and 

terminals leading to true interoperability. 

Standard EN 15320 builds data model from data elements primarily originated in EN 1545. Data 

elements are grouped together in data structures of different types: mandatory (always presented), 

additional (data written at creation of product) and logging (changing data and log data). Data 

structures are combined to create 5 different types of data group: application environment, products, 

holder, event log and wrapper (intended specifically for migration of legacy systems). Using these 5 

data groups with 4 fundamental products (Stored travel rights, Charge to account, Customer 

entitlement, Ticket) all functionality of ticketing in public transport can be covered. 

The proposed common data model is very extensive and use of optional data elements and data 

structures in the processes define typical implementation of a ticketing system. While the EN 15320 

represents just a frame the final data model for the implementation can only be prepared after the 

common products and pertaining rules and processes have been defined by the public transport 

network manager. 

Using EN 15320 we must be aware that despite standardization of data elements, data structures and 

data groups the standard still allows partially different implementations due to optional data groups 

and data elements ensuing from its wide conception. 

At the moment there is no commercial implementation based on the EN 15320 standard but there is a 

long term commitment for the existing ticketing systems in Europe to migrate to EN 15320. For all 

these reasons we propose that Slovenia should apply the EN 15320 standard as a basis for 

interoperable ticketing system in public transport. 

Belgrade, 2012 181



7. IMPLEMENTATION ANALYSIS OF TICKETING SYSTEM 

Before analysis of country wide use of an interoperable electronic ticket other implementations of 

country ticketing system were considered. Scattered population settlement with small urban centres 

and many isolated hilly regions don’t allow implementation of a mass transit ticketing conception. To 

solve an imposing problem of sporadic passengers from remote areas with usually weak technology 

skills, also parallel use of paper-based or ultra-light tickets was examined. 

Use of parallel systems makes an impact to the overall ticketing costs. Use of ultra-light tickets (chippaper 

ticket like MIFARE Ultralight) allows good integration of sporadic passengers in the system. 

Ultra-light tickets permit transaction monitoring on the account of additional costs induced by 

maintenance of parallel systems and keeping selling post and ticket stock at the driver in the vehicle. 

Introduction of ultra-light tickets seems irrational also in terms of upcoming technologies like NFC and 

debit/credit cards that should cover single journey passengers. 

The logical solution is to keep the existing paper tickets to provide a soft transition and serve for the 

sporadic passengers without a plastic card. This system partially loses integration of transaction 

management but with incentives on chip card use the amount of paper ticket users is expected to be 

negligible low. Good attitude of users towards chip card was additionally proved in a public survey. 

Coming back to the standard electronic ticket, we are faced by two feasible options bearing quick and 

country-wide implementation. The first option is to extend one of the existing ticketing systems now 

scoping on a city use and footing on a custom designed solution. The second option refers to a 

completely new system that needs to be developed from the scratch, based on a national standard. 

An option with bank cards was ruled out as a single one since it excludes a population share without 

their own bank account (e.g. children). It is only regarded as a supporting solution in the future. 

Adoption of the existing ticketing system by one provider and its extension to the whole country is 

favourable for its quicker implementation but on the other hand entails a dependency on a single 

provider imposing its own standard and development pace. It also brings big problems (and costs) in 

integration of new ticketing systems with existing back-office systems of transport operators. Such a 

closed solution may result in long-term costs rise due to exercising of a monopoly status. 

Standardized electronic ticketing makes an optimal solution allowing competency of all providers on 

the market and thereby easier integration of new technologies, better control of operation, 

maintenance and development costs and impact on system adaptation. This solution induces higher 

costs in the implementation phase for more implementation steps to be made, but the aforementioned 

facts make it long-term highly sustainable in long-term phases of maintenance, adaptation and HW 

and SW development. 

Ticketing system implementation costs for a transition from the existing paper based ticketing to 

electronic ticketing are broken down in a table 4. 

SW/HW/certification Option 1 Option 2 

HW terminal equipment & electronic cards 1.651.600 1.651.600 

Terminals and back-office SW for transport operators 3.070.000 3.120.000 

Central transactions and clearing information system 900.000 900.000 

Implementation of a certification centre / 500.000 

Total 5.621.600 6.171.600 

Table 4: Breakdown of ticketing system implementation costs (in EUR) [1] 

The costs are based on assumption that the electronic ticketing technology adopted by public 

transport management is based on MIFARE DESFIRE card. The costs of HW terminal equipment 

(validation, purchase, mobile terminals, SAM modules) and electronic cards are the same in both 

options [25]. Operators’ back-office software needs to be upgraded and connected to the central 

Belgrade, 2012 182



transaction and clearing system. The standardized solution (Option 2) also requires an implementation 

of a certification centre. 

As evident from the table 4 the total implementation cost of Option 2 is app. 10% higher than of Option 

1. Provided equal cost basis an analysis of operating and maintenance costs was also conducted. The 

discrepancy of costs is not substantial. Difference in costs in favour of Option 1 is relatively small in 

consideration of the long-term advantages positive cost impact it entails. 


The project gave an answer to the question about the proposed technology: unified platform is based 

on MIFARE DesFire technology while applied common data model of interoperable public transport 

system in Slovenia should be compliant with the EN 15320 standard. Only having a unified technology 

doesn’t itself guarantee to achieve ticketing interoperability. In the figure 6 a general scheme of 

necessary components for interoperability of public transport in Europe are depicted. The same 

scheme also applies for Slovenia. 

Figure 6: Interoperability in public transport [24] 

The unification of technology is a qualifying condition but it doesn’t make the actual problem since it is 

covered by the standards. The core problem to be addressed are system organization and business 

agreements that should include issues of unique tariff model, zone model vs. distance model, check in 

vs. check-in/check-out system, product definition, validation rules, business and clearing model, data 

exchange between different systems, organization, etc. These agreements should involve all entities 

and stakeholders referred to in the previous topics (public bodies, operators...). 

Speaking about interoperability the first step is decision how deep the integration of public transport in 

Slovenia penetrates. There are two opposite implementation possibilities: 

- multi-application environment: partners are obligated to use a unified technology while products, 

tariff system, etc. remain in exclusive competence of each partner, 

- integrated public transport: Along with the unified technology partners also define a unique tariff 

system, common products, clearing, etc. 

In the first case the user only benefits to use the same electronic card for all public transport. The card 

is able to hold many tickets, but ticket in use is valid just for specific operator operating the purchased 

service. Implementation of this system is primarily a technological project and can be realized in 

relatively short time. The advantage of this approach is step by step implementation: generally less 

problematic technological unification is implemented first while further integration depends on the 

Belgrade, 2012 183



interests of partners and business agreements between them. A weak point of this approach is small 

progress steps: the only advantage the passengers get is a single card. Additionally, the final 

implementation costs are expected to be higher comparing to the second case (possibility). 

In the second case the user can use his ticket on all buses and trains at any operator. Implementation 

of this system is primarily matter of a management and organization project that requests longer 

implementation time. An indispensable precondition for implementation is a concluded business 

agreement between all the subjects in the public transport (managing organizations, operators, local 

communities, government, etc.) regarding unique tariff system, common products, clearing, etc. This 

process can be very hard and time consuming on account of presumably many iterations. It is 

important to point out a risk of the whole interoperable ticketing system project failure in case the 

business agreement cannot be achieved. 

The question is: what is the best way to take in Slovenia with respect to the current situation. If the 

integrated public transport is long term goal it should undergo step by step implementation. The most 

feasible solution is to take the first step in unification by migration to MIFARE DesFire technology on 

regional bus service integration. The Ministry of Transportation as a managing authority for 39 

operators should lay down a unique tariff system, common products and processes in life cycle of 

each product and clearing. While at the moment just two technology providers provide ticketing 

systems to regional bus operators only this two systems must be adapted to the new model based on 

EN 15320 standard. This partial approach is the simplest and can be regarded as learning process for 

the future steps when other modes and operators are to be involved. 

Integration of regional bus service should be followed by integration of public railway transport where a 

single manager, single operator and one technology provider (already involved in support of regional 

bus service) don’t make a substantial problem. 

City transport is proposed to further remain independent in the framework of municipality 

management. A care should be taken with implementation of unified ticketing system on a regional 

level in order for the common Slovenian products to be operable also on city buses. Normally this 

requires new business agreements regarding clearing and needed upgrade of existing city ticketing 

systems to accept common products. The agreements of the state with city transport seem to be a 

challenging work to do in the future. 

Belgrade, 2012 184



REFERENCES 

[1] IGEA, Prometni institut Ljubljana, Logiteh, Oblikovanje standarda za enotno elektronsko 

vozovnico (Elaboration of standard for unified electronic ticket), final report, Ministry of transport, 

Ljubljana 2011, 

[2] ISO/IEC 7816 Standard 

[3] Klaus Finkenzeller, RFID Handbook, 2010 

[4] ISO/IEC 14443 standard 

[5] Calypso Networks Association, http://www.calypsonet-asso.org/ 

[6] Sony, www.sony.net/Products/felica/ 

[7] NXP, http://www.nxp.com 

[8] NFC Forum: NFC in Public Transport, January 2011, http://www.nfc-forum.org 

[9] Mastercard, http://www.mastercard.com 

[10] Visa, http://www.visa.com 

[11] Margento, http://www.margento.com/ 

[12] Urbana, http://www.jhl.si/holding/urbana 

[13] Princ, http://www.princ-card.com/ 

[14] Četrta pot, http://www.cetrtapot.si/ 

[15] e-karta, http://www.e-karta.si/about_e-karta/ 

[16] Recommendations for a standardisation of intermodal information and ticketing services, KITE, 

Deliverable D17, 6 th Framework Programme, April 2009 

[17] SIST EN 1545-1:2005 and SIST EN 1545-2:2005 Standards 

[18] ITSO, www.itso.org.uk 

[19] Translink, http://www.translink.nl 

[20] VDV, www.vdv.de 

[21] APTA, www.apta.com 

[22] IFM, http://www.ifm-project.eu 

[23] SIST EN 15320:2011 Standard 

[24] Klaus PHILIPP, Electronic Fare Management, Europe and Interoperability, presentation, 

Elektronicke platby v doprave Conference, Praga, 21.2.2008 

[25] Tender documentation “Nakup infrastrukture za delovanje sistema enotne mestne kartice (EMK) 

mestne občine Ljubljana in izvajanja storitev centra za upravljanje”, Portal javnih naročil, Uradni 

list RS št. objave: JN4087/2008 z dne 23.05.2008, vir: 

www.enaročanje.si/Dokumentacija/2008/5/4698- 

73968777031584/Razpisna_dokumentacija_EMK(JN_02-2008-OP).zip 

Belgrade, 2012 185



COST ANALYSIS FOR INTRODUCTION OF NEW INTERMODAL 

TRANSPORT SERVICES IN ALPINE REGION 

Mojca Tomšič, Prometni institut Ljubljana d.o.o., Ljubljana, Slovenija, 

mag. Blaž Jemenšek, Prometni institut Ljubljana d.o.o., Ljubljana, Slovenija, 

Summary : 

At the beginning the article contains a short presentation of issues related to the area of the Alps, in 

particularly, the environmental sensitivity of tight valleys, which are more and more burdened through 

the increasing volume of transport. A short presentation of technologies of intermodal transport of 

goods, suitable for the transport through the area of the Alps, follows. 

Further the identification and analysis of cost elements of road and rail transport follow, together with 

the identification of costs in case of introduction of new products of intermodal transport in the Alpine 

region; in particular, accompanied and unaccompanied mode of intermodal transport. Costs are 

analyzed according to categories and types of intermodal transport modes; in addition, the comparison 

between individual modes of transport and the comparison between transport only by road and only by 

rail, is also prepared. Mutual comparisons of costs show that accompanied intermodal transport 

(RoLa) is not economically feasible without specific stimulation measures of the state, while 

unaccompanied intermodal transport is cheaper than the alternative road transport. 

Key words: Alps, intermodal transport, rail, road, costs 

ANALIZA STROŠKOV UVEDBE NOVIH INTERMODALNIH PREVOZOV NA OBMOČJU ALP 

Povzetek: 

V članku je uvodoma kratko predstavljena problematika območja Alp, in sicer okoljska občutljivost 

ozkih Alpskih dolin, ki so s povečanjem obsega prevozov blaga vedno bolj obremenjene. Sledi kratka 

predstavitev tehnologij intermodalnega prevoza blaga, primernih za prevoz preko območja Alp. 

V nadaljevanju so identificirani in analizirani elementi stroškov cestnega in železniškega prevoza nato 

pa so identificirani stroški uvedbe novih produktov intermodalnega prevoza na območju Alp, in sicer 

spremljenega in nespremljanega načina intermodalnega prevoza. Stroški so analizirani po kategorijah 

in po vrstah intermodalnih načinov prevoza, poleg tega je pripravljena tudi primerjava med 

posameznimi načini prevoza ter primerjava med prevozom samo po cesti in samo po železnici. 

Medsebojne primerjave stroškov kažejo, da spremljani intermodalni prevoz (RoLa) brez posebnih 

stimulativnih ukrepov države ni ekonomsko vzdržen, medtem ko je nespremljani intermodalni prevoz 

cenejši od alternativnega cestnega prevoza. 

Ključne besede: Alpe, intermodalni prevoz, cesta, železnica, stroški 

1. INTRODUCTION - CHARACTERISTICS OF ALPINE SPACE 

The Alps are one of the greatest natural and geographical spaces in Europe where approximately 14 

million people live. In accordance with a delimitation which has been determined within the framework 

of the Alpine convention, the Alps cover an area of 190.959 km² which measures 1,200 km in length 

and 300 kilometres in width. The Alpine arc extends across eight European countries of which 3.6% of 

the entire surface of the Alps stretches across the border of Slovenia. The greatest shares of the 

Alpine area are located in Austria (28.7%), Italy (27.2%) and France (21.4%), followed by Switzerland 

(13.2%), Germany (5.8%), etc. 

The accelerated economic development within and outside the region of the Alps, in the past decades 

has given rise to issues and questions in the fields of settlement and transport which cannot be solved 

only by means of common endeavours of the Member States of the Alpine Convention. The problem 

particularly refers to a high level of growth of passenger and freight transport, the orientation towards 

Belgrade, 2012 186



urbanisation of numerous Alpine valleys and increasingly greater disagreements regarding limited 

natural surfaces within the Alpine region. Owing to limited trends of development, the requirements for 

the protection of the nature have been strengthened which also include the regulation of traffic flows 

and mobility inside and outside the region of the Alps (The Permanent Secretariat of the Alpine 

Convention, 2011). 

Increased traffic volume in Alpine space should not endanger nature and to the detriment of the 

population of the Alpine areas. Intermodal transport is environmentally friendlier and thus the 

instruments for its development in the Alpine region should make intermodal transport more 

competitive. 

Through the Alps also Pan-European Corridor X. is running. One of the important intermodal freight 

generators for the area of the Alps and Central and Eastern Europe is the Port of Koper, connecting 

different destinations throughout Europe. The study is dealing with costs analysis among two 

intermodal types of freight transport (technologies “A” and “C”, railway part) comparing to costs with 

road transport, taking into account also external costs which are much more higher in road transport 

and are not paid yet by the operator. 

2. TECHNOLOGIES OF INTERMODAL TRANSPORT 

When discussing the technologies of intermodal transport across the Alps, it is necessary to focus on 

three types of technologies representing a connection between road and rail transport: the so-called A 

technology, B technology and C technology. They are distinguished with regard to which part of a 

goods road motor vehicle is carried by rail. One of the main differences between these technologies is 

the relationship achieved between the weight of a vehicle and the weight of a wagon against the net 

weight of the useful load. This relationship determines the productivity of the method of transport and 

the following table shows relationships for different technologies. 

Table 2-1: Relation between the weight of a vehicle and the weight of a wagon and the net 

weight of the useful load according to the individual type of technology 

Relation between the weight of a vehicle and 

Type of technology 

the weight of a wagon and the net weight of 

the useful load 

A technology 74:26 

B technology 38:42 

C technology 12:88 

Source: Zelenika, 2001. 

2.1 TECHNOLOGY “A” 

The technology A is also called the Piggy-back, “Ro-La transport” or “rolling motorway”. It presents the 

carriage of trucks by rail as whole, i.e. articulated vehicles with semi-trailers and trucks with trailers. In 

this case we also talk about accompanied transport since the drivers drive the vehicles over the 

loading ramp onto the wagons and then accompany them on the same train in a special passenger 

car. Vehicles are loaded on wagons according to the “first in – first out” system which means that the 

vehicle which has driven onto the wagon first, also drives off it first. 

The floor of wagons for the transport of trucks is lowered and the wagons are connected between 

each other in a manner that enables the driving of the trucks along the wagons during their loading or 

unloading. The height of road vehicles may, depending on the type of the railway tracks, amount to 3.6 

to 4 m. Trucks with trailers may be up to 4 m high which is harmonised with the road traffic regulations. 

The gross weight of a train is approximately 1.000 tonnes and its greatest speed is limited to 120 

km/h. 

Belgrade, 2012 187



Figure 2-1: An example of the technology “A” (unloading) 

Source: Hungarokombi, 2012 

2.2 TECHNOLOGY “B” 

Intermodal transport of the B technology presents the carriage of trailers and semi trailers by rail 

without the articulated vehicle and drivers of trucks. 

Loading and unloading of wagons can be carried out in two ways (Zelenika, 2001): 

horizontally (by means of a special articulated vehicle, semi trailers and trailers are driven 

in reverse over the loading ramp onto intermodal spine wagons) and 

vertically (by means of a container grappler lift with a special gripper bar onto special 

pocket wagons). 

The vertical system of handling is more often used as it has certain advantages over the horizontal 

technique, which are the following: 

it is not necessary to equip wagons with additional devices; 

the dead load of a train is lower; 

handling is faster (horizontal handling of a semi trailer: 10 minutes; vertical: 4 minutes); 

independence between the delivery and conveyance and loading on wagons – shorter 

waiting time for the articulated vehicles, and 

minimum tyre wear in the case of vertical handling. 

The abovementioned advantages of the vertical handling are most noticeable when using uniform 

pocket wagons with a dead load which is for 8 tonnes lower than the one of the intermodal spine 

wagons. In addition to trailers and semi-trailers they also enable the carriage of swap bodies and 

containers. The undisturbed transport of trailers and semi-trailers by rail depends on track gauge and 

types of wagons. Intermodal spine wagons for horizontal loading are slightly higher than pocket 

wagons for vertical loading. So, the “piggy-back” semi-trailers may be higher by 8 to 10 cm when 

carried by pocket wagons on the same track gauge than when carried with spine wagons. 

Belgrade, 2012 188



Figure 2-2: Loading of a semi-trailer (B technology) onto a railway wagon (vertically technique) 


2.3 TECHNOLOGY “C” 

In the case of systems of the C technology, swap bodies (upper structures of trailers or semi-trailers 

without the under body (chassis)) and containers are carried and handled. The swap container is a 

loading unit adjusted to the dimensions of a road vehicle and fitted with struts underneath to change or 

“swap” between the road and railway transport mode. It is typical for the combined transport of C 

technology that the system “lift and drop” by means of mobile cranes is used for loading and 

unloading. Wagons for the transport of swap bodies and containers may be special pocket wagons, 

spine wagons or flat wagons of a standard construction. These wagons are mostly without sides or 

these are very low; they have a flat floor which can bear high loads. Because it is possible to carry 

higher consignments the floor of wagons is as close to the upper edge of the track as possible. Air 

bags must be fitted into the road cargo vehicles so that swap containers may be discharged on 

specially incorporated struts/legs and the user loads or unloads goods as he wishes. The length of 

swap bodies is between 6.35 m and 13.5 m, but the most frequent length is 7.15 m with a constant 

width of 2.5 m and height of 2.6 m. The four-axle flat wagon with a loading length of 14.6 metres and a 

load bearing capacity of 45 tonnes is the most suitable for the transport of swap bodies. Its loading 

length enables the transport of two swap bodies with a length of 7.15 m with the full utilisation of the 

loading length. This wagon also enables the carriage of a combination of swap containers, swap 

bodies and containers. 

Figure 2-3: An example of the technology “C” (a swap body - tank container loaded on a wagon) 


Belgrade, 2012 189



3 ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF COSTS 

In the intermodal mode of transportation costs arise from several modes of transport used. In the 

present case, these are transport by road and by rail. 

The costs 20 can be divided into costs that are independent of the path length (e.g. purchase of road 

vehicles, the rental of railway wagons, wagon maintenance, cleaning passenger coach for intermodal 

road-rail transport, ....) and the costs, which depend on the path length (fare , toll, ...). At the end all 

costs can be converted or calculated on the level of the unit, which may be the path length (in 

kilometres), tonne of transported goods (per tonne), or whole transported truck, container or wagon 

(the transport unit). 

These transport costs are, on the other hand, the revenues of the operator together with addition of 

the reasonable profit, from these reason incomes are not treated as a separate category. For 

unaccompanied transport, rail transport is cheaper than road transport alternative thus we estimate 

that there is a real possibility of creating new services. When accompanied intermodal transport costs 

are compared with alternative road transport are quite high, we estimate that under current market 

conditions there is less (no) chances of setting it up without additional transport policy measures. In 

addition to the analysis of direct costs or. price of new intermodal services we also indicate below the 

social benefits from the creation of new intermodal services for the country, which is reflected in the 

amount of lower external costs and provide an incentive for the state to take steps to transport policy 

strengthens and supports such new services. 

3.1 COST ANALYSIS OF ROAD TRANSPORT 

In road transport costs can be divided into the following categories: 

- The cost of purchase of the vehicle, 

- Insurance, 

- Taxation of vehicles, 

- Tire wear, 

- Cost of fuel (diesel), 

- Maintenance of vehicles, 

- Tolls, 

- Labour costs (driver). 

For higher utility value all costs of road transport were recalculated per kilometre, i.e. we used 40-ton 

truck costs. Costs were recalculated based on the following assumptions: 

- The price of purchase of the vehicle - 40 ton truck (semi-tractor) is 130,000 EUR, the 

prescribed annual depreciation rate is 14.3% (depreciation period of seven years); 

- Insurance - included are damages caused to third parties, truck insurance (damage on the 

truck) and damage to cargo caused by driver behaviour; 

- Tire wear: 6 x 2 tires were considered and the price of EUR 500 per tire, it was considered 

that the truck tires lasts 250.000 kilometres and 350.000 kilometres on the trailer; 

- Fuel price: it was taken into account that the fuel consumption is 35 litres per 100 km, the 

price for a litre of diesel fuel is 1,344 EUR (April 2012), it was also taken into account the 

statutory reimbursement of excise duty to carriers; 

- Toll: for the Slovenian toll road it was taken into account amount of 0,27 EUR / km, that in 

average 80% of the journey is made by toll roads (taking into account day and night rates, and 

the average EURO standard vehicles), it was taken into account also the annual fee for road 

use that is payable upon registration of the vehicle; 

- Vehicle maintenance: costs estimated in the amount of half of the depreciation costs; 

- Labour costs: estimated labour costs on the annual level are assessed in the amount of 

22.800 EUR (2nd gross wage inclusive of employer's contributions and paid absences, such 

as annual leave and sick leave). 

20 In the calculations we took into account the prices applied in Slovenia; costs that are independent of the path 

length were recalculated using the relation between the length of certain part of journey to the whole journey. 

Belgrade, 2012 190



Table 0-1: 

Costs of road transport per kilometre in EUR 

Cost categories 

Costs per km in EUR 

for year 2012 

1. Cost of purchase of the vehicle 0,186 

2. Insurance 0,100 

3. Tire wear 0,036 

4. Cost of fuel (diesel) 0,459 

5. Vehicle maintenance 0,093 

6. Tolls 0,215 

7. Labour costs 0,228 

Total costs per kilometre 1,317 

3.2 COSTS ANALYSIS OF RAIL TRANSPORT 

Similar costs categories as in road transport appear also in rail transport, only it is more difficult to 

estimate the level of individual categories. Problems come from the method of recording and 

displaying the costs of railway companies. Therefore, we focused on use of available data. The data 

was obtained from the transport operators and Slovenian Railways. 

On the basis of the available data following cost categories that incurred in transport by rail were 

identified: 

- Rental costs for freight wagons for accompanied combined transport, according to operators 

information are between 50 and 65 EUR / day, the lease agreement is usually concluded for 

one year, the wagons in Europe are owned by Ökombi; 

- Rental costs for freight wagons for unaccompanied combined transport are 26 EUR / day, the 

lease agreement is concluded for one year; 

- Rental costs of hiring passenger coaches for accompanied combined transport as estimated 

by operators are between 300 and 350 EUR / day, lease is usually for one year; 

- Current maintenance of freight wagons (capital maintenance is already covered under the 

lease and is not paid separately), according to the relevant technical services of Slovenian 

Railways costs are between 530 and 639 EUR per year and per wagon; 

- Current maintenance of passenger coaches (capital maintenance is already covered under 

the lease and is not paid separately), according to the relevant technical services of Slovenian 

Railways costs are 350 EUR per coach per day or 12.665 EUR/ month; 

- Cleaning of passenger coaches; 

- Transport fare: 

- fare for unaccompanied transport for Slovenian course is 420 EUR per wagon; 

- average fare for accompanied transport for Slovenian course in international traffic is about 

20 EUR per train kilometre; 

- Handling (loading / unloading at terminals), price manipulation in Slovenia (terminals of 

Slovenian Railways) is 24 EUR per transport unit. 

The costs of the rail transport, which are independent of the path length (e.g. rental of wagons, ..), 

were recalculated using the relation between the length of certain part of journey (Slovenian) to the 

whole journey. 

3.3 ANALYSIS AND COSTS ESTIMATION 

3.3.1 Unaccompanied intermodal transport 

Costs for unaccompanied intermodal transport on the destination Koper Luka – Ljubljana – Jesenice – 

München (Bavaria)/ Stuttgart (Baden Wuerttemberg) arise just from railway transport. Total length of 

journey is 840 km of which the Slovenian part is 226 km. 

Belgrade, 2012 191



In costs estimation the following assumptions were considered: 

- To carry out such a transport one train (one set) with 19 wagons would be needed, namely 18 

for the realization of transport and one for a reserve (due to maintenance); 

- The number of trips in one year would be 250; 

- It was considered that in one trip it would be transported 18 20' and 18 40', a total of 36 

containers or 54 TEUs. On one car, it is possible to load different combinations of containers 

(e.g. 3x 20 ', 1x 20' and 1x 40 '), 

- 20' container is loaded on average with 16 tons and 40' with 26 tons of cargo, all together 756 

tons of goods per train. 

Transport costs can be divided into the following categories: 

- Rental costs for freight wagons for the transport of containers (26 EUR /wagon / day); 

- Current maintenance of wagons (639 EUR/wagon/month); 

- Transport fare for Slovenian course (420 EUR/wagon/trip); 

- Costs of handling (loading/unloading) on terminals (24 EUR/operation). 

On the basis of above mentioned presumptions the following costs were calculated for Slovenian 

course. 

Table 0-2: Unaccompanied combined transport costs for destination Koper Luka – Ljubljana CT - 

Jesenice state border. 

Cost categories in EUR per year in EUR per trip 

Rental costs of freight wagons (18+1) 48.511,98 194,05 

Current maintenance of freight wagons 2.063,06 8,25 

Handling on terminals 216.000,00 864,00 

Transport fare 1.890.000,00 7.560,00 

Total 2.156.575,03 8.626,30 

Based on this calculation, and data on the costs of road transport, we calculated the cost per unit and 

comparison between road and rail. In addition, we recalculated the rail equivalent transport by road, 

namely, we considered that the trucks are loaded 26 tons (due to limitations on the total weight of 40 

tons), the transport would take 36 trucks. The results are shown in the following table. 

Table 0-3: Comparison of transport costs for the destination Koper Luka – Ljubljana CT - 

Jesenice state border: 

Average per TEU in 

EUR 

Average per ton of 

goods in EUR 

Rail transport 159,75 11,41 38,17 

Road transport 297,64 11,91 1,317 

Rail equivalent transport 

by road 

Average per km in 

EUR 

239,62 11,41 1,06 

All costs of transport by road (36 trucks) for one run on this route amounted to 10.715,11 EUR, which 

is 2.088,81 EUR more than by rail. Rail transport is cheaper, even if we look at the costs per TEU or 

per tonne of goods it is significantly higher only if we look at the cost per kilometre. 

In the case of unaccompanied intermodal transport on this route it can be concluded that the rail 

transport is cheaper than transport by road and the operators can add their reasonable profit 

(revenue). 

Freight transportation by rail as an alternative to road transport also means lower external costs from 

the social point of view. External costs include negative impacts of transport on the environment and 

society that are not paid by user of transport services but by the society. The main categories of 

external costs of transport in the Alps are noise, traffic accidents, air pollution as well as traffic 

congestion. Cost comparison of unaccompanied intermodal transport and road transport, taking into 

account the external costs is shown in section 3.4. 

Belgrade, 2012 192



3.3.2 Accompanied combined transport 

Costs for introduction of accompanied combined transport on the route Cervignano – Maribor Tezno 

arise from road and rail transport. Total length of the route is 318 km, from that 44 km on Italian and 

274 km on Slovenian side. According to intermodal operators opinion the total length of the route is on 

the border of acceptability for accompanied combined transport. 

In assessing costs the following assumptions were considered: 

- To carry out such transport one train (one set) with 21 wagons would be needed, namely 20 

for the realization of transport and one for a reserve (due to maintenance); 

- Passenger coach is needed for accompanied combined transport for accommodation of truck 

drivers; 

- The number of trips in one year would be 250; 

- It was considered that in one trip it would be transported 20 trucks. It is possible to load only 

one truck on one wagon, overall length is limited by the maximum allowed length of the train; 

- Each truck is loaded with 25 ton of goods. 

Rail transport costs can be divided into the following categories: 

- Rental costs of freight wagons for piggyback transport (60 EUR/wagon/day), 

- Current maintenance of freight wagons (530 EUR/wagon/month), 

- Rental costs of passenger coach (330 EUR/coach/day), 

- Current maintenance of passenger coach ( 350 EUR/coach/day), 

- Cleaning costs for passenger coach (100 EUR/trip), 

- Transport fare on Slovenian course (20 EUR/train kilometre), 

- Handling costs on terminals (24 EUR/operation). 

On the basis of above mentioned presumptions the following costs were calculated for Slovenian 

course. 

Table 0-4: Transport costs of accompanied combined transport for course Sežana state border – 

Maribor Tezno 

Cost categories in EUR per year in EUR per trip 

Rental costs of freight wagons 20+1 459.900,0 1.839,6 

Current maintenance of freight wagons 11.130,0 44,5 

Rental costs of passenger coach 120.450,0 481,8 

Current maintenance of passenger coach 127.750,0 511,0 

Cleaning of passenger coach 25.000,0 100,0 

Transport fare 1.370.000,0 5.480,0 

Total 2.114.230,0 8.456,9 

Transport fare by rail for Slovenian part of the trip (without handling costs on terminals) is 422,85 EUR 

for truck, or 446,85 EUR per truck if handling costs are included. 

Transport fare by rail for Slovenian part of the trip is 1,63 EUR per truck per kilometre, 11,17 EUR 

per ton (whole truck 40 ton) or 17,87 EUR per ton of goods (if just weight of goods is considered). 

Despite the fact that the combined transport service is performed by rail also costs associated to road 

transport incurred, namely: 

Belgrade, 2012 193



Table 0-5: 

Categories of costs of road transport in the piggyback transport in EUR per kilometre 

Costs per km in EUR 

Cost categories 

For year 2012 

1. Cost of purchase of vehicle 0,186 

2. Insurance 0,100 

3. Maintenance of vehicle 0,093 

4. Labour costs 0,228 

All costs per kilometre 0,607 

Table 0-6: Estimated costs of accompanied combined transport on course Sežana state border – 

Maribor Tezno 

Par truck in 

EUR 

Per truck per 

km in EUR 

Per ton of 

goods in EUR 

Rail transport costs 446,85 1,63 17,87 

Road transport costs 115,35 0,42 3,85 

Total 562,20 2,05 21,72 

Table 0-7: 

Estimated transport costs just by road on course Sežana state border – Maribor 

Tezno 

Par truck in 

EUR 

Per truck per 

km in EUR 

Per ton of 

goods in EUR 

Road transport costs 360,89 1,32 14,44 

On the basis of the calculated estimated costs can be concluded that the transport of intermodal 

accompanied transport on the route is 115,35 EUR per truck or 26 % more expensive comparing to 

road transport. The costs per truck per kilometre also differ by 55% (also in favour of road transport). 

The cost per net tonne are also lower in road transport for 7,28 EUR, or almost 50%. 

Based on calculations of costs estimates on this route it can be argued that the transport of rolling 

motorway service is in such conditions (without subsidies) not feasible because the costs are too high. 

It should be noted that these are just the transportation costs and costs of operators and theirs 

reasonable profit should be added. 

3.4 COST COMPARISON OF INTERMODAL AND ROAD TRANSPORT WITH EXTERNAL 

COSTS INCLUDED 

Costs of road and intermodal transport, discussed in the previous sections, were recalculated to the 

unit of 1000 tonne-kilometres, to facilitate comparison with external costs. To the aforementioned 

costs also external costs were added, which include costs of accidents, emissions, noise pollution, 

impacts of climate change, congestion, etc.. that carriers of transport services do not pay, but they are 

paid by the society or state (Table 3-8). 

Belgrade, 2012 194



Table 3-8: 

Costs comparison of road and intermodal freight transport including external costs 

Cost category 

Road 

transport 

Intermodal transport 

Accompanied 

rail transport 

(RoLa) 

Unaccompanied 

rail transport 

Costs per 1000 tonne km (EUR) 56,0 87,3 50,5 

External costs per 1000 tonne km 

(EUR) (CE Delft, Infras, Fraunhofer ISI) 21 52,0 6,6 6,6 

Total per 1000 tonne km (EUR) 108,0 93,9 57,1 

In the case of adding external costs of transport to rail piggyback transport and to road transport costs 

(52 EUR/1000 tkm for heavy-duty road vehicles and 6,6 EUR/1000 tkm for rail freight), the price of 

piggy-back transport including external costs would be cheaper than the alternative road transport, the 

total cost on the studied route would amounted to about 94 EUR/1000 tkm and 108 EUR/1000 tkm for 

road. 

Unaccompanied intermodal transport (rail part) compared to the road is in already cheaper, but if 

adding external costs to both the unaccompanied (container) transport would be almost half cheaper 

and would amount to around 57 EUR/1000 tkm on studied course. 

4 CONCLUSION 

Efficient and environmentally friendly transport system is one of the most important elements and 

factors for the successful operation and development of the economy. This is especially important in 

space and environmentally sensitive areas, which include the Alpine area. Alps occupy a significant 

proportion of our country, so we have much greater obligation to promote transport systems and 

technologies that follow the precepts of sustainable development. 

Intermodal transportation modes certainly are among the transport systems and technologies that 

follow the guidelines of sustainable development. The world and especially Europe have seen a large 

increase in the use of these modes, which are also found in this study. We have also found that there 

is the potential for even greater volume of these modes of transport 

Slovenian public railway infrastructure is currently at least on major routes suitable for intermodal 

transport of all three techniques, problems or restrictions for such modes represent the maximum 

permissible length and weight of trains. Bottleneck on the public rail network represents a single-track 

railway line Divača - Koper, which currently reduces the potential for the greatest Slovenian generator 

of intermodal transport (Luka Koper) for greater throughput of cargo to rail transport system. As we 

have seen in other studies it is necessary to pay attention to the dual-track single-tube tunnel 

Karavanke to improve direct links over Alps. The tunnel present specified technical barrier to the 

transport of intermodal transport units, as in the tunnel at the same time cannot meet certain type of 

passenger and freight trains. In addition to these measures, it is necessary for the development of rail 

transport in general, as well as the further development of intermodal transport, the double-track lines 

to ensure mutual trains, tracks equipped with signalling devices, which will allow train running in 

harness, electrification of non-electrified lines, increasing line speed of existing lines , upgrade traffic 

and provide remote control of train traffic. 

In the cost analysis, we found that the accompanied combined transportation is significantly more 

expensive than road transport and therefore little used. It is spread primarily in connection with the 

Republic of Austria due to the limitations of transport by road and because of the large financial 

incentives from the state. As market category of interest is only product of short-rail trains in the 

21 European average, CE Delft, Infras, Fraunhofer ISI, 2011. Congestion costs included, in rail transport electric 

traction was taken into consideration. 

Belgrade, 2012 195



Brenner pass between Italy and Austria. These trains are always fully booked because it is much 

shorter route of transport, drivers avoid bad weather, but it is also affordable. In road transport, the 

route mentioned means large fuel consumption and tire wear - high altitude, steep road that must be 

overcome trucks, consequently, longer transport time. 

If we take into account transport costs together with external costs of transport (the average in the EU 

amounted to 52 EUR/1000 tkm to HGVs and 6,6 EUR/1000 tkm 22 for rail freight transport (electric 

traction) the accompanied combined transport would be cheaper from the road, the same applies to 

unaccompanied, which is cheaper in the first place, i.e. without taking into account external costs. 

Cost analysis for unaccompanied intermodal transport (transport of containers) found out that rail is 

cheaper. The obstacles are mainly in infrastructure quality and frequency of service. 

It was found out that the development of intermodal transport is emphasized by the development 

documents, both on the national as international level, but the existing measures offered by the 

applicable national law, proved to be insufficient. To improve the attractiveness of this form of 

transport would be required to introduce at the implementation level new and innovative measures that 

have already proven as a form of good practice. 

The government should, from our point of view, at least in the early stages until the product is fully 

enforced, financially encourage such modes. By shifting trucks from road to rail reduction of traffic (at 

the Corridor V the density of traffic, especially trucks is very large) and thus the number of accidents 

would be achieved. This would likely also reduce the costs of maintenance of roads, that are mostly 

just destroyed by trucks. In addition, the reduction of pollution would be achieved also. 

If we conclude in short: 

- Advantages of intermodal transport: 

- - Less trucks on roads 

- - Lower density of traffic, 

- - Increased safety on the roads 

- - Less pollution 

- Disadvantages of intermodal transport: 

- - Poor availability of wagons for piggyback transport (in Europe are owned by Ökombi) 

- - The necessary co-financing by the State 

- Options / opportunities for intermodal transport: 

- - Future changes in behavior in the freight sector, 

- - The improvement of regional and local infrastructure, 

- - New jobs 

- Risks for intermodal transport: 

- - The availability of financial sources, 

- - Inadequate railway network, 

- - Difficulties in the maintenance of rail networks and 

- - Cost of services (high). 

Proposals for state measures to encourage intermodal transport mode: 

- Financial encouragements, such as: 

- Modernization of terminals, 

- Construction of new terminals, 

- Direct financial encouragement for each shifted truck, 

- Cross financing. 

- Changes in the regulation of road transport, in particular towards the internalization of external 

costs, such as 

- - The increase in tolls for heavy goods vehicles 

- - The introduction of parking fees for heavy trucks on highways 

- - Restrictions on road traffic in sensitive areas - shift the transport of dangerous 

- goods on the train. 

22 CE Delft, Infras, Fraunhofer ISI, 2011. 

Belgrade, 2012 196



Most important findings are: 

- Restrictions from the infrastructure point of view are especially in the railway infrastructure; 

- Great obstacle or restriction for accompanied combined are transport costs; 

- Without financial incentives, and changes in the regulation of road transport changes will 

not occur. 

REFERENCES 

[1] AMZS, Fuel prices. Found online at: http://www.amzs.si/default.aspx. 

[2] DARS, Tolls. Found online at http://www.dars.si/Vsebina/Cestnine.aspxid_menu=44. 

[3] Direkcija RS za ceste. Traffic counting (2010). Found online at: http://www.dc.gov.si/si/promet/. 

[4] CE Delft, Infras, Fraunhofer ISI, External Costs of Transport in Europe, Update study for 2008, 

Final report, Delft, 2011. 

[5] International Union of combined Road-Rail transport companies. (2010). Annual Report. 

[6] International Union of combined Road-Rail transport companies. (2010). Statistics. 

[7] Internal sources Adria Kombi. (2012). 

[8] Luka Koper, Terminali in tovor. Kontejnerski in ro-ro terminal. Found online on 23.4.2012 at 

http://www.luka-kp.si/slo/terminali-in-tovor/kontejnerski-in-ro-ro-terminal. 

[9] Ministry of finance, Customs office RS. Refund of excise duty for commercial purpose. Found 

online 

at: 

http://www.carina.gov.si/si/ostale_dajatve/trosarine/vracilo_trosarine/vracilo_trosarine_za_kome 

rcialni_namen/. 

[10] NAPA North Adriatic Ports Association. Found online at: http://www.portsofnapa.com/aboutnapa. 

[11] Data of Slovenian Railways, Unit Cargo Transport (2012). Combined transport SŽ. 

[12] Adria Transport data, 2012. 

[13] Adria Terminali data, 2012. 

[14] »Study on development of piggy-back transport in the Republic of Slovenia«; Final report, 

Ljubljana, Prometni institut Ljubljana d.o.o., July 2010. 

[15] »A study on the possibilities of improving intermodal transport through the Alps for the project 

TRANSITECTS«, Final report, Ljubljana, Prometni institut Ljubljana d.o.o., October 2011 

[16] »Analysis of options and the development needs of public infrastructure in the Republic of 

Slovenia «, Final report, Ljubljana, Prometni institut Ljubljana d.o.o., March 2011. 

[17] UIC. (2009). DIOMIS: Evolution of intermodal rail/road traffic in Central and Eastern European 

Countries by 2020 (Slovenia). 

[18] Zelenika, R. (2001). Prometni sustavi, Tehnologija – organizacija – ekonomika – logistika – 

Menadžment. Rijeka: Ekonomski fakultet u Rijeci. 

Belgrade, 2012 197



COMPUTER AIDED SUPPORT FOR MODELLING OF RAILWAY 

CAPACITY CONTAINED IN UIC 406 LEAFLET 

Damijan Žagavec, Prometni institut Ljubljana d.o.o, Ljubljana, Slovenia 

Klemen Ponikvar,Prometni institut Ljubljana d.o.o, Ljubljana, Slovenia 

Abstract: 

UIC – international union of railways published a new UIC leaflet 406 in the year 2004, which explains 

the methodology for the calculation of railway tracks capacity. The paper deals with the development 

of a methodology for determination of railway line capacity. The methodology was adapted to suit the 

Slovenian railway infrastructure and traffic operations. The methodology is based on a new UIC 406 

method. 

A paper describes a mathematical model for estimation of track occupation and calculation of train 

reclassifying capacity as well as for rail line. The model includes a definition of all time-based items 

needed for description of a holdover time of a rail vehicle on a track and gives a calculation of maximal 

capacity in trains (number of trains) in a given time period. The model has been verified and evaluated 

for the selected rail line on a Slovene railway network. 

The above mentioned methodology of the calculation for railway line capacity of the chosen railway is 

implemented in the program tool RailSys. The article contains an accurate description of the computer 

based model for the calculation of railway line capacity. 

Conclusion of the article includes results of railway line capacity of the chosen railway, calculated with 

the program tool RailSys. 

Keywords: transport, railway transport, line capacity, railway line, RailSys 

RAČUNALNIŠKO PODPRT MODEL ZA OCENO PREPUSTNE ZMOGLJIVOSTI ŽELEZNIŠKIH 

PROG V SKLADU Z ZAHTEVAMI OBJAVE UIC 406 

Povzetek: 

Mednarodna železniška unija (v nadaljevanju UIC) je leta 2004 izdala objavo št. 406, s katero želi 

poenotiti metodologijo za izračun izkoriščenosti železniških prog. V članku so predstavljeni povzetki 

omenjene metode, predvsem njihove prednosti, ter njihova uporaba na Avstrijskih (OEBB) in Nemških 

(DB) železnicah. 

V prispevku je opisan predlog metodologije, ki zadostuje zahtevam objave UIC 406 hkrati pa je 

prilagojena slovenski železniški infrastrukturi in odvijanju prometa na njej. Poudarek je na določitvi 

elementov, ki predstavljajo vhodne parametre za omenjen izračun zmogljivosti prog, ter upoštevajo 

obstoječe stanje železniške infrastrukture in voznega parka tirnih vozil v Republiki Sloveniji. 

Omenjena metodologija izračuna prepustne zmogljivosti je implementirana v programskem orodju 

RailSys. Tako je v članku natančno opisan računalniško podprt model za izračun prepustne 

zmogljivosti železniškega omrežja 

V zaključku prispevka so predstavljeni rezultati prepustne zmogljivosti izbrane proge, izračunani s 

podporo programskega orodja RailSys 

Ključne besede: promet, železniški promet; zmogljivost, proga, postaja, vozni red, vozni čas. RailSys 

Belgrade, 2012 198




This paper describes the relatively new UIC 406 method for calculating capacity consumption on 

railway lines. The UIC 406 method is an easy and effective way of calculating the capacity 

consumption, but it is possible to expound the UIC 406 method in different ways which can lead to 

different capacity consumptions. This paper describes the UIC 406 method and how it is expounded in 

Slovenian. 

The UIC 406 leaflet from year 2004 [1] describes a simple, but fast and effective way to evaluate the 

capacity utilization of railway lines. The capacity analyses carried out during the last years using the 

UIC 406 method have been presented in a number of papers (e.g. [3], [5] and [7]). However, it is 

possible to expound the UIC 406 method in different ways which can lead to different results. In spite 

of that fact, hardly any analyses of the differences have been carried out. 

Any railway-infrastructure evaluation, in order to be generally valid, must be underpinned by a 

common definition of capacity among railway infrastructure managers (IM). Due to the different 

concepts and procedures concerning capacity and the resulting calculations applied by IMs, a 

comparison is not feasible and general conclusions are not possible, which means that a unique 

procedure must be developed. 

2. DEFINITIONS 

This paper uses terminology usually used in the railway literature. However, since the terminology 

differs from country to country, an overview of the terminology used in this paper is provided in table 1. 

Table 1: Short description of terminology [5] 

term 

explanation 

block occupation 

time 

buffer time 

headway 

distance 

headway time 

running time 

supplement 

secondary delay 

line 

nodes 

stations 

junctions 

line sections 

The time a block section (the length of track between two block 

signals, cab signals or both) is occupied by a train 

The time difference between actual headway and minimum allowable 

headway 

The distance between the front ends of two consecutive trains 

moving along the same track in the same direction. The minimum 

headway distance is the shortest possible distance at a certain travel 

speed allowed by the signalling and/or safety system 

The time interval between two trains or the (time) spacing of trains or 

the time interval between the passing of the front ends of two 

consecutive (vehicles or) trains moving along the same (lane or) track 

in the same direction 

The difference between the planned running time and the minimum 

running time 

A delay caused by a delay or cancellation of one or more other trains 

A link between two large nodes and usually the sum of more than 

one line section 

Points of a network in which at least two lines converge. Nodes can 

be stations or junctions. 

Points of a network where overtaking, crossing or direction reversals 

are possible, including marshalling yards 

Point of a network in which at least two lines converge and neither 

overtaking, crossing nor direction reversals are possible 

The part of a line, in which the number of trains and the infrastructure 

and signaling conditions do not change fundamentally. 

Belgrade, 2012 199



The block occupation time is presented in the following figure. 

Figure 1: Elementary occupation time [1] 

3. RAILWAY CAPACITY 

The capacity of any railway infrastructure is the total number of possible paths in a defined time 

window, considering the actual path mix or known developments respectively and the IM's own 

assumptions. 

Railway capacity is relatively easy to determine the capacity on roads – the capacity is normally just 

determined as vehicles per hour. Capacity on railways is, however, more difficult to determine since 

the capacity depends on both the infrastructure and the timetable. 

The reason that it is difficult to define railway capacity is that there are several parameters that can be 

measured. The parameters seen in figure 2 (Number of trains, stability, heterogeneity and average 

speed) are dependent of each other. 

Figure 2: The balance of railway capacity [1] 

Figure 2 shows that capacity is a balanced mix of the number of trains, the stability of the timetable, 

the high average speed achieved and the heterogeneity of the train system. It is for instance possible 

to achieve a high average speed on a railway network by having a high heterogeneity – a mix of fast 

and slower trains serving all stations. However, the cost of having high average speed with a high 

heterogeneity is that it is not possible to run as many trains with a high stability (punctuality) than if all 

trains ran with the same speed. If it is wanted to run more trains it is necessary to run with less mixed 

traffic and thereby have a lower average speed as it is known from e.g. the suburban railway network 

in metro systems. 

Belgrade, 2012 200



In this qualitative model (figure 2), an axis for each parameter is drawn from a unique origin. A 

chord links the points on the axes, corresponding to the value of each parameter. The length of the 

chord represents the capacity. Capacity utilisation is defined by the positions of the chord on the four 

axes. Increasing capacity means increasing the length of the chord. 

3.1 Number of trains 

If the capacity is measured as the number of trains per hour, the capacity in a cross section can be 

calculated as [3]: 

q n 

K 

max 

where: 

K – the capacity; 

q max – the maximum traffic intensity [trains/h]; 

n – the number of train paths. 

When running many trains per hour it is not always possible to combine trains stopping at all 

stations and faster through going trains. This is due to the fact that the faster trains will catch up with 

the slower trains, which causes conflicts. Hence fast trains catch up with slower trains all trains will 

have the same stopping pattern when close to the maximum capacity – the timetable will be 

homogeneous. 

3.2 Heterogeneity 

A timetable is heterogeneous (or not homogeneous) when a train catches up another train. The 

result of a heterogeneous timetable is that it is not possible to run as many trains as if the timetable 

was homogeneous – all trains running at the same speed and having the same stopping pattern. 

SSHR - Sum of Shortest Headway time Reciprocals – describes both the heterogeneity of the 

trains and the spread of trains over the hour [3]: 

SSHR 

N 

1 

h 

i 1 t , i 

where: 

h t,I – the shortest headway time observed between two trains; 

N – the number of trains in the cycle observed. 

Since fast trains can be caught behind a slower train it is important to have enough headway time 

at the arrival at the end of the line section to avoid secondary delays. 

The SAHR – Sum of Arrival Headway time Reciprocals – describes the spread of trains over the 

hour at the arrival station [3]: 

SAHR 

N 

1 

A 

i 1 

h t , i 

where: 

h A t,i – the headway time observed between two trains at the end of the line seciton; 

N – the number of trains in the cycle observed 

SAHR will always be smaller than or equal to the SSHR. The SAHR is only equal to SSHR in case 

of a homogeneous timetable and the difference will increase the more heterogeneous the timetable is. 

A measurement of the homogeneity can therefore be found by combining SSHR and SAHR [3]: 

Homogeneity 

SAHR 

SSHR 

N 

1 

A 

i 1 

ht 

, i 

N 

1 

h 

i 1 t, 

i 

The homogeneity is then equal to 1 when the timetable is completely homogeneous and opposes 0 

when the heterogeneity increases. 

Belgrade, 2012 201



3.3 Average speed 

A train consumes a different amount of capacity at different speeds. When a train stands still, the 

train consumes all the capacity since it occupies the block section for an infinite amount of time. When 

the train speeds up the train occupies the block section for shorter time whereas more trains can pass 

the same block section – more capacity is gained. However, when increasing the speed also the 

braking distance is increased which means that the headway distance – and headway time – is 

increased whereas capacity is lost. 

When both fast and slower local trains are running on the same railway line it is possible to achieve 

a high average speed. However, if the railway line has lack of capacity it might not be possible for the 

fast trains to run at the maximum speed. 

3.4 Stability 

When discussing railway capacity it is important to look at the stability of the railway system too. 

The stability of the railway system is difficult to work out as such. The punctuality of the trains is, 

however, derived from the stability. 

It is difficult to evaluate the stability – or punctuality – of a planned timetable not yet put in 

operation. Experienced planners might, however, have an idea of how changes in a timetable or the 

infrastructure might affect the punctuality. It is only possible to estimate the punctuality of smaller 

changes in the timetable or infrastructure using the experience. If the punctuality of larger changes in 

the infrastructure and/or timetable have to be estimated it is necessary to use simulation tools. Even 

though it is difficult to predict the future punctuality a general rule of thumb is that the punctuality will 

drop when the capacity utilization increases. 

Even though it is possible to achieve higher capacity utilization on a railway line it is often said that 

there is no more capacity if the punctuality drops below a certain limit. Changing the timetable for the 

railway line examined may increase the punctuality so that it is possible to have higher capacity 

utilization before dropping below the punctuality level where it is said that there is no more capacity. 

4. DETERMINATION OF CAPACITY ACCORDING TO THE UIC 406 METHOD 

Capacity consumption on railway lines depends on both the infrastructure and the timetable. 

Therefore, the capacity calculation according to the UIC 406 method is based on an actual timetable. 

The capacity calculation is based on the compression of timetable graphs on a defined line or line 

section. All single train paths are pushed together to the minimum headway time, so that no buffer 

times are left. The compression of the timetable graph has to be done with respect to the train order 

and the running times. This means that neither the running times, running time supplement, dwell 

times or block occupation times are allowed to be changed. Furthermore, only scheduled overtakings 

and scheduled crossings are allowed!! 

To evaluate the capacity utilization it is necessary to know both the infrastructure and the timetable. 

Therefore, the first steps of evaluating the railway capacity are to build up the infrastructure and 

create/reproduce the timetable. To evaluate the railway capacity according to the UIC 406 method, the 

railway network has to be divided into line sections. For each line section the timetable has to be 

compressed so that the minimum headway time between the trains is achieved. 

When the timetable has been compressed it is possible to work out the capacity consumption of the 

timetable by comparing the cycle times. The workflow of the capacity evaluation can be seen in figure 

3. 

Figure 3: Workflow of the UIC 406 method 

Belgrade, 2012 202



5. RAILSYS – COMPUTER AIDED SUPPORT FOR CALCULATION OF RAILWAY CAPACITY 

5.1 About RailSys software 

RailSys software is integrated management of timetable paths and infrastructure data for the entire 

planning and operations process. RailSys software has the following system components: 

- Infrastructure data management 

- Timetable construction/slot management 

- Track possession planning “run and construct” 

- Simulation 

- Print, evaluation and documentation 

Timetable design and construction: Complete train patterns for entire days are easily created with the 

Timetable Manager. The train routes are interactively specified within a network graph. RailSys 

automatically calculates and evaluates the running times, block occupation and conflicts with other 

trains networkwide as soon as a train is entered or edited. 

Assessment of the operational quality: The timetable works in theory No day is like another one in 

real life. Small and large perturbations cause delays. The Simulation Manager simulates a variety of 

operational days with realistic and individual delay characteristics. The Evaluation Manager supports 

the assessment of the simulation results. Various statistics provide dependable information about 

delays, resulting punctuality, or the quality of connections within the network, lines or stations. 

Infrastructure planning: The Infrastructure Manager is designed for accurately capturing, editing and 

managing all infrastructures of any size. Infrastructure can be entered as a draft. The comfortable 

editing functions allow for easy updates. Changing infrastructure designs are captured in multiple 

variants. The variants are used for timetable construction, possession planning, simulation and 

operational comparison of different planning stages with the Timetable and Simulation Manager. 

Belgrade, 2012 203



Operational planning for track work: Building new or maintaining existing infrastructure often causes 

deteriorated conditions for train operation. The Timetable Manager evaluates and precisely locates the 

resulting conflicts. The user can interactively alter the train schedule in accordance with the track work, 

or reroute trains within the network. Any time penalties as well as the remaining train path options are 

displayed in tabular or graphical form for trouble-free operations planning during track work. 

5.2 Capacity Management (UIC code 406) 

Capacity Management (UIC) enables you to calculate capacities in accordance with UIC code. For a 

given timetable, a line section is chosen for which a compression of train paths should be performed. 

The compression of the train paths within a line section is undertaken for a specified time period. Both 

the line section and the time period are user definable. RailSys automatically compresses the utilised 

train paths with consideration of the minimum headways. The result is the infrastructure occupation 

time within the specified time period. Additional buffer time can be added for specifying a requested 

operational quality. The occupation time and the buffer time add up to the over all time requirement 

within the specified period. The quotient of the over all time requirement and the investigation period is 

the relative capacity consumption. The capacity consumption represents the utilisation level of the 

infrastructure and provides an indication of capacity constraints. 

The remaining useable capacity of the line section can be identified by adding additional paths until 

the specified time period is saturated with train paths and buffer times. 

Capacity management for long time planning: The capacity calculation in accordance with the UIC 

leaflet 406 is based on a timetable. However, most of the time the infrastructure providers can only 

estimate the future traffic volume based on vague prognostic information. This information might be 

insufficient for the creation of a timetable. 

5.3 The compression of the train paths 

The compression of the train paths within a line section is undertaken for a specified time period. Both 

the line section and the time period are user definable. RailSys automatically compresses the utilised 

train paths with consideration of the minimum headways. 

By the "Method for train selection" it is possible to choose between the so-called DBmethod and the 

ÖBB-method for the calculation of the interlinked level of occupation. 

DB-method (see figure 4): 

Start of the interlinked level of occupation: 

- The train which entering time of the calculation step coincides as minimum with the 

starting time of the defined calculation period is the first train. The timetable graph inside 

of the calculation step must be completely within the calculation period (see in figure train 

number 3). 

- In the process of compression the first train (train number 3) is changed to the starting 

time when entering the calculation step. 

End of calculation period: 

- The last train entering the section before the calculation period is over. The remaining 

timetable graph may be outside of the calculation period (see fig. train number 4). 

- The first train which is relevant for the calculation is copied and set behind the last train as 

"Dummy train" (see in figure train D) 

- When the process of compression has finished the occupation time is the result of the 

difference between the starting time of the calculation period and the time beginning of the 

first block section occupation of the "Dummy train". 

Belgrade, 2012 204



ÖBB-Method (see figure 4): 

Start of the interlinked level of occupation: 

- All trains which timetable graphs, also partially, extend into the defined calculation period 

(see fig. train 1-3). 

- The trains entering the calculation step before the starting time are not changed in the 

process of compression (see at train number 1 and 2). 

- In the process of compression the first train entering the calculation step after the starting 

time (train number 3) is pushed to the train ahead until the first block section occupation is 

equal to the starting time. 

End of the calculation period: 

- The last train entering the section before the calculation period is over. The remaining 

timetable graph may be outside of the calculation period (see fig. train number 4). 

- When the process of compression has been finished the occupation time comes to the 

result of the difference between the starting time of the calculation period and the finishing 

time of the first block section occupation belonging to the last train. 

Figure 4: DB- and ÖBB-method for calculation of the interlinked level of occupation [8] 

After the program determines which train passes are to be compressed, the timetable compression 

begins with 

the first train that travels the entire calculation step in the calculation period (2.a.) (ÖBB- and 

DB-method) or 

the first train that starts in the calculation step after the calculation period has begun and 

passes a portion of the line (2.b.) (ÖBB- and DB-method) or 

Belgrade, 2012 205



the train that starts before the calculation period begins, but then proceeds to pass part or all 

of the calculation step in the calculation period (2.c.) (only in ÖBBmethod, in DB-method this 

train is discarded). 

Figure 5: Path compression [8] 

In cases 2.a. and 2.b., the start of the block section occupation in the first block section of the 

calculation step is moved to the start of the calculation period. In example 2.c., the train path remains 

in the same position. When condensing the timetable the following train is pushed to the block section 

occupation of train ahead, but the starting time of this train inside of the calculation step is maximum 

adjusted up to the start of the calculation period, so that gaps between the block section occupations 

may occur. Compression always begins at the start of the calculation period. Timetable compression 

stops upon reaching the train whose first occupation is fully within the calculation period and is 

performed until its final occupation inside of the calculation step. 

5.4 The resulting infrastructure occupation (line Pragersko-Ormož) 

The resulting infrastructure occupation time is measured at the beginning of the calculation step. The 

infrastructure occupation time is defined as the time from the start of the calculation period to: 

the end of the first occupation of the final train in the ÖBB-method, 

the beginning of first block section occupation of the "Dummy-train" in the DBmethod 

The results of the compressed paths for line Pragersko-Ormož are displayed in the figure below. 

Figure 6: Calculating the infrastructure occupation 

Belgrade, 2012 206



Results of analysis of capacity of the line Pragersko-Ormož: 

•Capacity utilization time: 

•Average headway: 

•Capacity: 

Tog*=1.111 min 

tsm* = 17,6 minutes for each train; 

82 trains per day 


The paper has described the capacity theory for railway lines and how the capacity consumption can 

be evaluated for railway lines. Furthermore, quantitative methods to evaluate (and compare) capacity 

consumptions on railway lines in a fast and easy way have to be developed. 

When there is a quadruple track available, it has been decided that the track occupations of the actual 

timetable should be used. If there is no actual timetable the timetable with the minimum number of 

conflicts should be examined instead. It is furthermore only allowed to move a train from one track to 

another if there is an unequal utilization of the tracks. 

Even though the capacity analysis shows that it is possible to run more trains in the section analyzed, 

it is not always possible. The analysed line section can be too short to see that it is not possible to run 

more trains (e.g. due to capacity restrictions outside the analysis area) – the so-called network effects. 

Using the UIC 406 capacity method it is easy to make annual capacity statements on maps showing 

the capacity utilization on the railway network. Using the UIC 406 capacity method to make capacity 

statements it is important to use the same line sections each year to avoid the paradox that an extra 

train or an unwanted overtaking results in less capacity utilization. 

The software RailSys includes the compression of sequential timetable train paths within one 

calculation step. This produces the interlinked level of occupation for the section under review. To use 

the UIC capacity approach, it will require a timetable that includes either the entire network or at least 

several lines. After the train paths are compressed, more paths can be added to the timetable as a 

means of determining the remaining infrastructure capacity. 

The capacity utilization on railway lines is very responsive to the network examined. Therefore, the 

capacity utilization should only be compared relatively. 

Belgrade, 2012 207



REFERENCES 

[1] International Union of Railways: UIC Code 406: Capacity; 1st edition; September 2004 [A 

reference to the UIC] 

[2] Landex, A et al; The UIC 406 capacity method used on single track sections, Centre for Traffic 

and Transport ATKINS, Denmark, 2007, pp. 2-10. 

[3] Klahn, V.: Rail Delft, Implementation of the UIC 406 Capacity Calculation at Austrian 

Railways; 2006; pp. 4-7 

[4] Žagavec, D. et al: Določitev metodologije za izračun prepustne zmogljivosti železniških prog, 

Prometni institut Ljubljana d.o.o., Ljubljana, 2007, pp. 19-51 

[5] Anders H. Kaas et al: Evaluation of railway capacity, Centre for Traffic and Transport, 

Denmark, 2007; pp. 5 

[6] Kokot V.: Uskladitev parametrov železniške proge z dinamiko vožnje vlaka, doktorska 

disertacija, Fakulteta za gradbeništvo in geodezijo Univerze v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, 2002, 

pp.104-156 

[7] Wahlborg, M., Banverket experience of capacity calculations according to the UIC capacity 

leaflet. Proc. of the 9th International conference on Computers in railways, eds. C.A.- J. Allan, 

C.A. Brebbia, R.J. Hill, G. Sciutto & S. Sone, pp. 665-673, 2004 

[8] RailSys: User Manual, May 2012, pp. 366-378 

Belgrade, 2012 208



CONCEPTION OF TRAIN OPERATION TECHNOLOGY ON 

LJUBLJANA RAILWAY STATION DURING EXECUTION OF 

CONSTRUCTION WORKS SUPPORTED BY RAILSYS ENGINEERING 

SOFTWARE 

Damijan Žagavec, Prometni institut Ljubljana d.o.o, Ljubljana, Slovenia 

Primož Kranjec, Prometni institut Ljubljana d.o.o, Ljubljana, Slovenia 

Klemen Ponikvar,Prometni institut Ljubljana d.o.o, Ljubljana, Slovenia 

Abstract: 

The planned construction activities at the Ljubljana station will bring about traffic disruption (e.g. train 

delays) on the entire railway network. A well-selected and planned construction technology and 

according traffic operation technology conception during the construction works at the Ljubljana station 

is essential for control and limitation of traffic disruption. Major construction works are planned at the 

Ljubljana station, which will increase station and traffic flow capacities and allow implementation of 

supplementary passenger services at the station area (shopping mall). The works will be phase-run, 

each putting some restriction of exploitation of available station transport infrastructure; therefore it is 

necessary to conceive a train operation phase-wise. 

The paper presents a methodological approach to the train operation conception and its 

implementation on a selected case phase. Methodology describes spatial and technical limitations to 

be considered as well as procedure for elaboration of train operation microsimulations implemented in 

Railsys engineering software. The results show resolving of delays, conflicts between the train paths 

and track occupancy during the construction works. 

Key words: transport, railway traffic, train operation technology during construction works, traffic 

technology, railway station, RailSys, simulation, resolving of conflicts 

ZASNOVA TEHNOLOGIJE ODVIJANJA PROMETA NA ŽELEZNIŠKI POSTAJI LJUBLJANA V 

ČASU IZVAJANJA GRADBENIH DEL S PODPORO PROGRAMSKEGA ORODJA RAILSYS 

Povzetek: 

Načrtovani gradbeni posegi na postaji Ljubljana bodo povzročali motnje v prometu in širitev motenj 

(npr. zamude vlakov) na celotno železniško omrežje. Dobro načrtovana in izbrana gradbena 

tehnologija in ustrezna zasnova tehnologije odvijanja prometa vlakov v času gradbenih del na postaji 

Ljubljana je ključnega pomena za nadzor in omejevanje motenj v prometu. Na postaji Ljubljana se 

načrtujejo večja gradbena dela, s katerimi se bodo povečale postajne kapacitete ter pretočnost 

postaje, hkrati pa se bodo na postajnem območju uvedle dodatne dejavnosti za potnike (večji 

nakupovalni center). Predvidena dela bodo potekala v več fazah, ki bodo različno omejevale postajno 

prometno infrastrukturo, zato je potrebno zasnovati odvijanje prometa vlakov za vsako posamezno 

fazo. 

V članku je predstavljen metodološki pristop k zasnovi odvijanja prometa vlakov za izbrano fazo 

nadgradnje postaje Ljubljana, pri čemer so opisane prostorsko-tehnične omejitve, ki jih je potrebno 

upoštevati, ter postopek za izdelavo mikrosimulacije odvijanja prometa vlakov, ki je izdelan s 

programskim orodjem RailSys. Predstavljeni rezultati mikrosimuacije kažejo reševanje zamud, 

konfliktnih situacij med voznimi potmi in tirno zasedenost v času gradbenih del. 

Ključne besede: promet, železniški promet, tehnologija prometa v času izvajanja del, železniška 

postaja, RailSys, simulacija, razreševanje konfliktnih situacij. 

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Ljubljana railway station is located at the crossing of X. and V. Pan-European corridors passing 

through the territory of the Republic of Slovenia. All railway lines linking North, South, East and West 

of Slovenia pass through the Ljubljana station. Disruptions of traffic ensuing from a construction work 

at the Ljubljana station have impact on traffic flow on the entire Slovenian railway network and beyond. 

Additionally, disruptions affect the capacity of corridors meeting at the node (station). The planned 

construction activities at the Ljubljana station will bring about traffic disruption (e.g. train delays) on the 

entire railway network. A well-selected and planned construction technology and according traffic 

operation technology conception during the construction works at the Ljubljana station is essential for 

control and limitation of traffic disruption. Major construction works are planned at the Ljubljana 

station, which will increase station and traffic flow capacities and allow implementation of 

supplementary passenger services at the station area (shopping mall). The works will be phase-run, 

each putting some restriction of exploitation of available station transport infrastructure; therefore it is 

necessary to conceive a train operation phase-wise. 

Conception of train operations during the infrastructure possessions or planned slow runs is generally 

supported by several software tools. RailSys is one of them that excelled in several notable transport 

studies. The tool is comprised of several modules and functions. A micro-simulation module that we 

will discuss in the paper allows design and simulation-tests of train operation during restrictions 

entailed by planned possessions or downtime in specific infrastructure elements in order to provide 

optimal train operations in terms of set criteria. The results show level of resolving of delays and 

conflicts between the train paths as well as optimal track occupancy during the construction works. 

2. ELABORATE ON RAILWAY TRAFFIC OPERATIONS DURING CONSTRUCTION WORKS 

Construction works on railway infrastructure under operation impacts change of regular trains’ 

operation. Design of trains’ operation is elaborated in the “Elaborate on railway traffic operations 

during constructions works” Contents of this elaborate are governed by Slovenian legislation: 

- technical and organisational measures, 

- costs induced by delays of passenger and freight trains, 

- costs of alternative transportation, 

- costs of organisation of infrastructure possessions, 

- costs of additional man-power requirements, 

- other costs. 

All indicated and required information can very effectively and precisely be produced using RailSys 

simulation software as described in the following. 

“Elaborate on railway traffic operations during constructions works” is an integral part of design and 

technical documentation that is required for acquisition of building permit. 

3. RAILSYS – TRAIN OPERATION SIMULATION SOFTWARE TOOL 

3.1 About RailSys software 

RailSys software provides integrated management of timetable paths and infrastructure data for the 

entire planning and operations process. RailSys software has the following system components: 




- Infrastructure data management 

- Timetable construction/slot management 

- Track possession planning “run and construct” 

- Simulation 

- Print, evaluation and documentation 

Timetable design and construction; Complete train patterns for entire days are easily created with the 

Timetable Manager. The train routes are interactively specified within a network graph. Automatic 

calculation and evaluation of running times, block occupation and resolution of conflicts with other 

trains network-wide is provided as soon as a train is entered or edited. 

Assessment of the operational quality; Does the timetable work in theory No day is like another one 

in real life. Small and large perturbations cause delays. The Simulation Manager simulates a variety of 

operational days with realistic and individual delay characteristics. The Evaluation Manager supports 

the assessment of the simulation results. Various statistics provide dependable information about 

delays, resulting punctuality, or the quality of connections within the network, lines or stations. 

Infrastructure planning: The Infrastructure Manager is designed for accurately capturing, editing and 

managing of all infrastructures of any size. Infrastructure can be entered as a draft. The comfortable 

editing functions allow easy updating. Changing of infrastructure designs are captured in multiple 

variants. The variants are used for timetable construction, possession planning, simulation and 

operational comparison of different planning stages with the Timetable and Simulation Manager. 

Operational planning for track work: Building new or maintaining existing infrastructure often causes 

deteriorated conditions for train operation. The Timetable Manager evaluates and precisely locates the 

resulting conflicts. The user can interactively alter the train schedule in accordance with the track work, 

or reroute trains within the network. Any time penalties as well as the remaining train path options are 

displayed in tabular or graphical form for trouble-free operations planning during track work. 

Optimisation of train operations due to track possessions in terms of blockage or downtime can be 

planned by using two RailSys modules “Possession planning” and “Alternative tracks” – giving the 

information of alternative paths in case of track blocking or downtime. 

3.2 Possession planning by software RailSys 

There is an increasingly common need for performing maintenance and/or retrofitting and installing 

extensions 'on the fly', that is, during ongoing operations. The costs for alternative transportation or 

downtimes must be kept at an absolute minimum. The purpose of possession planning is to determine 

how to best ensure a timetable free of conflicts. Questions such as "When will trains be running 

according to schedule again if a switch is down for several hours", or "Is it worth implementing 

additional infrastructure, because in the case of a locomotive failure the remaining traffic cannot flow 

smoothly", can be answered by putting in the rail sections that will be blocked for a specific period 

into the RailSys software. [1] 

We can create: 

- speed restriction or 

- track blocking. 

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Figure 1: Dialogue box Create temporary speed restriction – Calendar [1] 

First, a name for the new temporary speed restriction or the new track blocking should be entered then 

defined a time period. We must also define a maximum speed for the temporary speed restriction and 

complete the information by specifying the relevance for the scheduled timetable and/or the simulation 

as the reduction of speed directly affects the running time calculation. 

3.3 Alternative tracks 

Alternative tracks can be specified in RailSys in order to run multiple simulations. This means if the 

scheduled track is occupied, the train can then switch over to a free adjacent track during the 

simulation. 

Alternative tracks are determined graphically by using the existing track layout (initial layout without 

specified possessions). The tracks are defined in terms of train types and in terms of specified origin 

(previous) and destination (next) stations – directions. The alternative tracks are used for train 

dispatching in simulation process. 

Figure 2: RailSys - Dialogue box “Edit alternative tracks for dispatching [1] 

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4. SIMULATION OF TRAIN OPERATIONS ON LJUBLJANA STATION DURING EXECUTION OF 

CONSTRUCTION WORKS 

4.1 Input of infrastructure elements to RailSys tool 

Exact definition of station infrastructure and valid time-table are two pre-conditions for simulation of 

train operations. Infrastructure parameters are entered via “Infrastructure Manager” module, already 

described above (division. 3.1). 

Station infrastructure must be defined very precisely via several data: 

- length, 

- track speed (up to 10 profiles), 

- gradient, 

- radius, 

- electrification, 

- loads per axle, 

- mileage, 

- super elevation, 

- tunnel cross section, 

- M/P-Signalling system with PZB 90 and overlaps, 

- automatic Train Control (ATC), 

- multiple aspect signalling, 

- moving block (absolute breaking distance). 

The figure below depicts Ljubljana railway station area layout as produced in “Infrastructure Manager” 

module. 

Figure 3: Microscopic network of Ljubljana station [2] 

All feasible station routes (block sections) leading to/from or through the station for all origin and 

destination stations need to be defined. The next figure shows optional station routes for selected exit 

signal (destination). 

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Figure 3: Block sections for the selected signal [2] 

4.2 Construction (input) of timetable 

Apart from having infrastructure data before running track possession simulation the timetable in force 

(valid) need to be entered. RailSys uses “Timetable Manager” module for creation of the valid 

timetable. 

The first step is to define locomotives, railcars and train compositions in terms of tracking force 

diagrams, resistance curves, train length, weight etc. 

Based on a station route and regime a timetable train path is calculated for each train by the program 

producing results in tabular and graphical view. 

Train path needs to be defined for all trains in existing timetable. This is shown in the figure below. 

Figure 3: Selected train route [2] 

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Figure 5: Timeble of a selected train (the observed and neighbouring stations) [2] 

The column “Platform in the figure above lists the station tracks occupied by the respective train. 

Graphical presentation of timetable of trains operating in the selected time frame is given in the next 

Figure. 

Figure 3: Timetable graph between 8a.m. and 10 a.m. [2] 

Frames encompassing train paths depict time occupation of block sections (block occupation). In case 

the frames have overlapped a conflict among train path occurs implying the timetable is not feasible 

and should be changed. 

4.3 Simulation of current train operations at the station 

After having entered the required data to the »Infrastructure Manager« and »Timetable Manager« 

modules a train operation simulation process can be started. Simulation is run in »Simulation view« 

module where intermediate and final simulation results are monitored. Trains’ operation results can be 

examined at predefined points on the station track layout given in »Infrastructure Manager« module. 

Belgrade, 2012 215



Each simulated train can be examined in terms of its position and current speed as depicted in the 

figure below. 

Figure 4: Simulation view – section of Ljubljana station [2] 

4.4 Definition of station track possession 

Infrastructure possession can be defined for a single station track or even track segment or linking 

track (between two switches). Definition of track possession in “Infrastructure Manager” module has 

been described in division 3.2 of the paper. 

Figure 5: Definition of time period of track possession 

Track possession should be defined exactly in terms of time the possession as well as location that 

has been blocked (define tracks and track segments). This action is graphically supported; the user 

just marks the possessed tracks. 

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Figure 6: Possession of Track 5 on Ljubljana station [2] 

The alternative routes that have been defined at timetable construction are also assigned priorities. In 

case of track possession the tool takes the alternative based on the priority list. The priorities are 

assigned respectively for different types of trains as well as train directions (O-D). To give an example: 

priority of station routes is set differently for passenger train arriving from Kranj (origin) to Ljubljana 

station (destination) to the same passenger train type arriving to Ljubljana from Postojna direction – 

we have different origins. 

4.5 Simulation of station track possession 

Intention of the user is to simulate train operations at the stations in case of track possessions. The 

user needs to find alternative station routes to bring the train to the station where some tracks are 

closed. Simulation can start after track possessions as well as alternative routes’ priorities have been 

defined. 

Track possession simulation can be analysed in graphs and tables: 

- track occupation diagram, 

- timetable chart showing delays of train paths, 

- tabular timetable showing calculated delays 

- inspection of train delays propagated on track layout 

- delay analysis of train types 

- calculation of total propulsion energy before and after track possession. 

In the following some interesting results of track 5 possession simulation at Ljubljana station will be 

shown. 

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Figure 6: Simulation view after track close and delay of the selected train [2] 

The chart above reveals impact of station track possession to train 38022 having 15 min and train 

2402 having 17 sec of delay, respectively. 

The table below gives comparison of actual valid timetable and the timetable resulted due to track 

possession. 

Figure 7: Timetables before and after travck possession including – delays and stopovers 

The second line in the table above gives run times and simulated delays at Ljubljana station showing 

that stopover time should be shorter in order for the train to be dispatched from the train in time 

(13:55). 

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Figure 8: Comparison of train paths before and after track possession (timetable chart) 

The bold line in the figure depicts train path (time) before the application of track possession while the 

thin one the train path after the track has been closed. The figure shows train 3112 arriving delayed to 

the Ljubljana station. 


Analysis of impacts traffic disruptions caused by track possessions or downtime is very important for 

efficient train operation concept in order to limit unnecessary propagation of negative effects to train 

schedule. The train operation concept must be developed in the “Elaborate on railway traffic 

operations during constructions works”. 

Correct and precise planning of railway traffic operations during track possessions or planned slow run 

can be performed aided by engineering software tools that are capable of calculation transport 

production parameters, as delay, line capacity, run-time etc., underlying calculation of costs resulting 

from traffic disruptions. 

Delays, required alternative transportations, additional operation staff that ensue from software tool 

analyses make trustworthy and reliable basis to produce a sound planning and evaluation of railway 

infrastructure investments. 

6. REFERENCES 

[1] RailSys: User Manual, May 2012, pp. 366-378 

[2] Tehnologija odvijanja prometa na postaji Ljubljana v času izvajanja del v okviru projekta 

Emonika, Prometni institut Ljubljana d.o.o, Ljubljana, 2012 

Belgrade, 2012 219



RESEARCH SOME AERODYNAMICS PHENOMENON OF HIGH- 

SPEED TRAINS IN LOW-SPEED WIND TUNNEL 

Mirjana Puharić, Ph.D, Institute Kirilo Savić, , Belgrade, Serbia 

Vojkan Lučanin, M.Sc., Faculty of mechanical engineering, Belgrade University, Serbia 

Suzana Linić, B.Sc, Institute GOŠA, Belgrade, Serbia 

Dušan Matić, B.Sc, Institute GOŠA, Belgrade, Serbia 

ABSTRACT 

This paper describes the use of low-speed aerodynamic tunnel testing of phenomena that occur 

during movement of trains. 

The first part of the study include experimental research of model trains, carried out in low speed wind 

tunnel. Model train, which was made in scale 1:20, was tested. The aerodynamic pressure on the train 

model, which is generated by the movement of the train, was measured. Velocity of the train has been 

180 km/h. Research contains measurement of the pressure distribution on the train model using holes 

for measuring pressure and pressure sensors. Pressure sensors are connected with multiplexer 

pressure type Scanivalve using plastic pneumatic tubes. 

The second part of this study includes numerical calculation using methods CFD - Computational Fluid 

Dynamics - Fluent. The numerical calculation is based on the finite volume technique. Fluent was 

used to predict the parameters of the flow field of high-speed train. 

The results of the experiment and pressures predicted by CFD for the same conditions were 

compared. 

Keywords: high-speed train, aerodynamic, wind tunnel, Fluent, pressure scanning system, differential 

pressure gauge, sensors for measuring pressure 

ISTRAŽIVANJE NEKIH AERODINAMIČKIH FENOMENA VOZOVA VELIKIH BRZINA U 

AERODINAMIČKOM TUNELU MALIH BRZINA 

U ovom radu opisana je primena aerodinamičkih tunela malih brzina u ispitivanjima fenomena koji se 

javljaju pri kretanju vozova. 

Prvi deo studije obuhvata eksperimentalna istraživanja modela voza, koja su izvršena u 

aerodinamičkom tunelu malih brzina. Ispitivan je model voza, izrađen u razmeri 1:20. Na modelu voza 

je meren aerodinamički pritisak nastao prolaskom voza. Brzina voza je 180 km/h. Istraživanja 

obuhvataju merenje raspodela pritisaka na modelu voza, pomoću rupica za merenje pritisaka i davača 

pritiska. Davači pritiska su pneumatskim cevčicama povezani sa multiplekserom pritisaka tipa 

Scanivalve. 

Drugi deo ovog ispitivanja obuhvata numerički proračun pomoću CFD metode, kompjuterska dinamika 

fluida – Fluent. Numerički proračun je zasnovan na tehnici konačnih zapremina. Fluent je korišćen za 

određivanje parametara strujnog polja kod voza velikih brzina. 

Rezultati eksperimenta su poređeni sa pritiscima dobijenim CFD metodom za iste uslove. 

Ključne reči: vozovi velikih brzina, aerodinamika, aerotunel, Fluent, sistem za merenje pritisaka, 

diferencijalni davač pritiska, senzori za merenje pritisaka 

Belgrade, 2012 220




The aerodynamic resistance becomes ultimate with the increase of the train speed, because it is 

changed with the speed square. Aerodynamics engineers, engaged with cars, and especially with 

airplanes, found themselves in an unusual situation. The first reason has been the large length of the 

vehicle. The length of the car (automobile) is 2.5 to 2.7 times larger than the width. As for the railway 

cars, the length and width ratio is 6 or 7, whereas with regard to longer trains, it is 50, 100, or more. 

The aerodynamic drag coefficient is given based on the cross-section area of the cars or airplanes, 

which would be unnatural for trains. As for the trains, this coefficient is given based on the length or 

number of the cars. The trains have to move equally in both directions, which is not required for the 

airplane, whereas the aerodynamic quality is not required for cars when moving in reverse direction. 

The conditions are different for the aerodynamics engineers, studying the airplanes, because the train 

is moving constantly in the presence of the ground, adjacent installation and persons as well as 

through the tunnels. 

a) b) 

Figure 1: Various train models for testing in wind tunnels [5] 

One of the significant problems, which emerged with the increase of speed, is non-stationary 

phenomenon related to the air pressure effect, i.e. pressure waves occurring in passing other trains on 

open track and when passing through the tunnel, with or without passing by other trains. The pressure 

alteration in such cases causes fatigue of window and door glass, as well as additional structural 

loading. Passing trains with each other in the tunnel cause such pressure alterations, which are also 

conveyed to the passenger’s eardrum, causing unpleasant feeling. Special types of the tunnels may 

reduce the pressure wave power, created by the train, and therefore improve the passenger’s comfort. 

As a result from the initial studies, nose shape replacement and development of the sealed vehicles 

have occurred, as well as the development of fitting elements providing additional sealing for existing 

passenger railroad cars. Entrance tunnel portals, adjacent installations and bodies of small 

dimensions, being in the vicinity of the railway are subject to pressure wave resulting from movement 

of high-speed trains [1, 2, 3, 4]. 

Experimental studies are used for explanation of the aerodynamic phenomenon, occurring in highspeed 

trains movement and verify its theoretical calculations. Figure 1 illustrates two train models, 

positioned on the on the platform for ground simulation. Figure 1a) illustrates the model positioned on 

the base, simulating the embankment [5]. 

2. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES IN AERODYNAMICS OF HIGH-SPEED TRAINS 

CONDUCTED LOW SPEED WIND TUNNEL T-35 IN MILITARY TECHNICAL INSTITUTE - 

MTI 

Testing of train models were performed in low speed wind tunnel T-35. T-35 is continuous, closed 

circuit wind tunnel with three closed test section of octagonal cross-sections, width 4.4 m, height 3.2 m 

and area of 11.92 m 2 . The test section length is 9 meters, 6m with constant cross section shape. 

Belgrade, 2012 221



Mach number range is 0.1 to 0.6 with running only by fan, and 0.6 to 0.8 with fan and injector included. 

Reynolds number is up to 2.3 million/m, and stagnation pressure is in range from 1.0 to 1.52 bar. Run 

time is unlimited with fan power only, and up to 120s with injector system included. 

The wind tunnel is equipped with: six-component external TEM balance, Multi-component internal 

strain gauge balances of VTI, FFA and ABLE production, Pressure scanning system: five S3 or D9 

Scanivalves (230 pressure taps), Dynamic stability derivatives rigs for pitch/yaw/roll, Air intake testing 

rig, data acquisition system, Data acquisition computer, Control computer, Data reduction computer. 

Main goal of testing runs is to determine the pressure distribution on the high-speed train model in the 

configuration of single drive on open track. 

2.1 Model description 

The train model, illustrated on Figure 2, has been designed and manufactured for special purpose test 

runs by means of heaving two mutually back connected locomotives. Model construction was made of 

dural in 1:20 scale. Gross geometry measures are, in order: total model length 2.056m, width of 0.15m 

and height 0.18m. 

The holes for measurement of pressure distribution on the model should be small, with possibility to 

be connected with a pressure-regulating device. The edges of the holes should be sharp, and the hole 

axis should be normal to the local tangent overlay surface. Typical diameters of the holes for pressure 

distribution range from 0.35 mm to 1.5 mm, and their position should be in accordance with size and 

particular requirements of a given model. These requirements are most easily met using metal plugs, 

as shown in Fig. 2c). They should be put into the hole that has already been bored on the model 

surface, and subsequently glued with two-component glues. On cap support, metal tube should be 

glued, wtubes other end is connected with a plastic pneumatic tubes connecting measuring point with 

a sensor for pressure measurement. Cap-metal insert hole on surfaces should be bored vertically to 

tangent line at that point. 

In the train-model body, measurement points are connected with two devices for multiplexing of 

pressures of Scanivalve type, at active side of a differential pressure-indicator [4]. 

The train model has been positioned on the support, enabling the alteration of slip angle , i.e. 

simulation of speed direction alteration, at height of 40 mm from the platform, simulating the trainrelated 

ground effect. Two gaps (slots) have been made on the platform, perpendicular to the flow 

direction, for boundary layer exhaust. 

Holes for measuring pressure 

distribution 

a) 

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b) c) 

Figure 2: Model with holes for measuring pressure distribution a), coordinate system, position of 

measuring sections and measuring points on the train model b), c) shape of the holes for measuring 

pressure distribution 

2.2 Testing procedure 

Measurement of the pressure distribution on the train model has been done by two 

scanivalves, located within the train body. The differential pressure gauges are located within them (of 

Druck type), for measuring the pressure difference from active and reference side. The static pressure 

from Pitot tube, fitted on the platform, was a reference pressure. Static pressure from model surface 

holes is applied to the active side. Scanivalve is connected with the holes on the model using plastic 

pneumatic tubes [8, 9, 10]. 

Testing has been made for speeds of 30, 50 and 70 m/s, for angles of slip β = -10 0 up to 10 0 

with decrement of Δβ = 2 0 . 

2.3. Measuring results of train model pressure distribution 

Figure 3 gives the pressure distribution around front locomotive section within the horizontal 

plane on the largest locomotive width. Non-dimensional pressure coefficient Cp is directly 

proportionate to pressure deference p – p 0 [6]: 

C p 

p 

p 

1 2 v 

0 

2 

0 

(1) 

Figure 3. Pressure distribution around front locomotive section within the horizontal plane 

on the largest locomotive width 

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Figures 4 and 5 give the pressure distribution along train length, for cross-section 1 and pressure 

distribution in the train’s plane of symmetry for the speed of 50 m/s. 

As it can be seen from the obtained results, pressure distribution on the train cross-section is 

symmetric related to the train’s plane of symmetry by slip angle of =0 o . 

Figure 5 represents the pressure distribution for the points of the front train section and top, in the 

train’s plane of symmetry and slip angles of = -10 o , 0 o and 10 o . The figures illustrate that the 

stagnation point in the plane of symmetry is on the spot where Cp has maximum positive value. Flow 

separation occurs in the spots where the curve moves away from abscissa. The figure illustrates that 

this is behind the stagnation point and behind the section 6 (figure 2b) [7,8,9,10]. 

Figure 4: Pressure distribution along train’s cross-section 1 

The stagnation point is moved from the train’s plane of symmetry to the windy lateral side, whereas 

the flow speed of front top edge and front lateral edge on the windy side is increased. The curve 

distance from abscissa in the zone of points 4, 5 and 6 is increased by increasing the slip angle . 

That dimension represents the pressure fall on the top surface. The flow separation occurs near point 

7, resulting in repeated flow approaching after that. 

a) 

b) 

Figure 5: Pressure distribution in the train’s plane of symmetry a), and along train length b) 

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3. FLOW SIMULATIONS BY FLUENT 

Flow simulations were made by use of ANSYS Fluent 12.1 software, for half-model train. Flow space 

around the half-model was discredited by the tetrahedral mesh. Boundary conditions were defined 

over the boundaries of the numerical flow model. In the near space all over the train body, the 

appropriate mesh elements were placed in the zone of the boundary layer. Largeness of the boundary 

layer mesh element was defined upon the condition of y + = 30 for the first mesh element row close to 

the train body, with adequate 20% mesh element scale increment for every other mesh element row. 

Number of mesh elements for the train was 5 millions. Numerical flow simulations were performed for 

train velocities of 180 km/h. Boundary conditions at the flow space input and output, in which 

simulations were done, were defined by pressures at those actual positions. All other boundary 

conditions were defined by the flow symmetry. 

Flow around the train was simulated as steady-state flow of the viscous incompressible fluid. The k – ε 

Realizable model of turbulence was applied with standard wall functions. The average number of 

iterations, needed for reaching of the result convergence was about 300 [10,11]. 

3.1. Results derived by numerical simulation 

Figures 6 give the pressure distribution on the train half-model for velocity 50m/s (180km/h). The 

maximum value of pressure is at the front of the train nose, near the stagnation point. Afterwards 

stagnation point, the streamlines are accelerating and thus velocity appreciation caused pressure 

drop. On the left side of the figure 6, on a scale is showing that maximum value of pressure is 1520 

Pa. 

Figure 6: Pressure distribution on the train half-model obtained using Fluent 

for the speed v=50 m/s 

Measurements in wind tunnel was obtained non-dimensional pressure coefficient Cp=0,55, 

which corresponds to the pressure 1680 Pa. The figures show good agreement of the results. 


Testing of train models in low speed wind tunnel are giving the pressure distribution on the train model 

and the pressure distribution around the train model in the configuration of single drive on open track. 

The diagrams of pressure distribution for the points of the front train section and top, in the train’s 

plane of symmetry and slip angles of = -10 o , 0 o and 10 o , illustrate that the stagnation point in the 

Belgrade, 2012 225



plane of symmetry is on the spot where Cp has maximum positive value. Flow separation occurs in the 

spots where the curve of pressure distribution moves away from the abscissa. 

Measurement results are compared with the results obtained by numerical simulation. The results 

obtained by flow simulation of the train for velocity 50m/s (180 km/h) using Fluent, show good 

correspondence with experimental one for scale 1:20. Fluent is advisable for use in aerodynamical 

research of trains, because of its ability to decrease research costs. At the very beginning of design 

process, model manufacturing costs are decreased, aerodynamical laboratory costs and human 

resources costs are decreased as well as research times. 

Acknowledgments 

The authors would like to thank the Ministry of Science and Technological Development of Serbia for 

financial support under the project number TR 35045. Scientific-technological support to enhancing 

the safety of special road and rail vehicles, 2011-2014. 

REFERENCES 

[1] MartyP., AutruffeH., Etudes aerodynamiques instationnaires liees a la circulation des trains a 

grande vitesse, Revue generale des chemins de fer, 1993. 

[2] Arth P., Ergebnisbericht zur Untersuchung des sonic boom phanomens auf HGV-strecken, 

Munchen, 1997. 

[3] Anderson, J. D., FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS, McGraw-Hill, Inc, 1996. 

[4] Puharić M., Adamović Ž., ISPITIVANJE BRZIH VLAKOVA U PODZVUČNOM AEROTUNELU, 

Strojarstvo, ZX470/1339-1343, broj 3., Vol. 50, str 151-160, svibanj-lipanj 2008. 

[5] LOW SPEED WIND TUNNEL TESTING, Internal edition, Military Technical Institute of Yugoslav 

Army, September, 1997. 

[6] Pope, A. WIND-TUNNEL TESTING, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1954. 

[7] Puharić M., Theoretical and experimental research of aerodynamics problems for high-speed 

trains, M.A. paper, Mechanical Faculty, Belgrade, 2000. 

[8] Mirjana Puharić, Suzana Linić, Dušan Matić, Vojkan Lučanin, DETERMINATION OF BRAKING 

FORCE OF AERODYNAMIC BRAKES FOR HIGH SPEED TRAINS, Transaction of Famena, 

ISSN 1333-1124, UDC 629.4.56, UDC 629.4.077, oktobar 2011., 

[9] Holmes S., Schroeder M., "Aerodynamic Effects of High-Speed Passenger Trains on Other 

Trains", DOT/FRA/ORD-01/12, April 2002. Puharić M., Application of aerodynamic tunnels in 

testing of high-speed trains, cum. Science Technical Inform., 2002. 

[10] H.K.Veersteg, W. Malalasekera: An Introduction to computational fluid dynamics – The finite 

volume method, Longman, 1995. 

[11] J. Blazek: Computational Fluid Dynamics – Principles and Applications, Elsevier, 2001. 

Belgrade, 2012 226



ROLLING CONTACT FATIGUE OF RAILS 

Zdenka Popović, Faculty of Civil Engineering in Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia 

Vlatko Radović, Faculty of Civil Engineering in Podgorica, Podgorica, Montenegro 

Abstract: 

Rolling Contact Fatigue is a serious hazard to rail traffic and a major problem for railway infrastructure 

managers across the world. Increased traffic density, axle loads and speed as well as lubrication of 

rails are contributors to this problem. In contrast to this, correct track geometry, correct wheel/rail 

contact patch geometry, improved maintenance (appropriate inspection, rail grinding) can reduce 

problems due to rolling contact fatigue. This paper presents maintenance problems due to the 

appearance of rail defects known as: head check, squat and belgrospi. Unfortunately, the mentioned 

rail defects are not covered by Directive 339 on common criteria for control of the state line on JŽ 

network, which is still in official use in the Republic of Serbia and Montenegro. The aim of this paper is 

to improve maintenance of rails and to implement the conclusions in the new technical regulations for 

the railway infrastructure maintenance in the Republic of Serbia and the Republic of Montenegro. 

Key words : Railway infrastructure, rolling contact fatigue, head checking, squat, belgrospi. 

ZAMOR ŠINSKOG ČELIKA U DODIRU SA TOČKOM 

Rezime: 

Širom sveta, zamor čelika u dodiru točak/šina ugrožava bezbednost železničkog saobraćaja i 

predstavlja veliki problem upravljačima infrastrukture. Stvaranju ovog problema doprinose rastuće 

saobraćajno i osovinsko opterećenje, porast brzina, kao i podmazivanje šina. Suprotno tome, korektna 

geometrija koloseka i geometrija dodira točak/šina, zajedno sa odgovarajućim održavanjem mogu da 

doprinesu redukovanju ovog problema. Ovaj rad prikazuje probleme održavanja izazvane šinskim 

defektima koji su poznatim pod nazivima: head check, squat i belgrospi. Nažalost, pomenuti defekti 

nisu obuhvaćeni Uputstvom 339 o o jedinstvenim kriterijumima za kontrolu stanja pruga na mreži JŽ, 

koje je još uvek u zvaničnoj upotrebi u Srbiji i Crnoj Gori.Cilj rada je unapređenje održavanja šina i 

primena zaključaka u novoj tehničkoj regulativi za održavanje železničke infrastrukture u Srbiji i Crnoj 

Gori. 

Ključne reči: Železnička infrastruktura, zamor šinskog čelika, head checking, squat, belgrospi. 

Belgrade, 2012 227




The rail rolling contact fatigue (RCF) phenomenon threatens the traffic safety and increases the cost 

of rails maintenance across the world. This serious problem can lead to expensive rail grinding, 

premature removal of rails and complete rail failure. Experience indicates that the standard life cycle of 

rails can be reduced to only 2-3 years due to RCF, if the adequate effective maintenance is not taken 

at the time [1, 2]. 

The major occurrence of the RCF rail defects are: "head checkings" (HC) and "squats", as well as 

"belgrospi". Unfortunately, all three types of RCF defects can be observed on the Serbian Railways 

and the Railways of Montenegro. Nevertheless, the Serbian Railways and the Railways of Montenegro 

have no management strategy against RCF rail defects and technical regulations for the infrastructure 

maintenance do not include the aforementioned rail defects. 

The Railways of Serbia and the Montenegro railways are part of the European railway network. Two 

European traffic corridors pass through the Republic of Serbia: The Danube waterway Corridor VII and 

the road-railway Corridor X, as well as three European routes: the Route 4, the Route 10 and the 

Route 11 (Figure 1). Also, the Route 4 and the Route 2 pass through the Republic of Montenegro 

(Figure 1). 

FIGURE 1. European corridors and routes in the Republic of Serbia and the Republic of 

Montenegro [3] 

Realization of interoperability of European railway system demands for infrastructure managers in 

Serbia and Montenegro to have maintenance plans for the infrastructure subsystem for each 

conventional railway line [4]. Also, this plan should include inspection and strategy against head 

checking. Maintenance strategy should provide extension of rail service life, reduce in overall rail 

maintenance costs and improve safety of railway traffic. This paper figures out the importance of 

grinding strategy against head checking rail defect. It also points on necessity of preventive activities 

(such as rail care), removal of more or less severe defects (corrective activities) and cyclical 

(controlled) activities during the rail service life. Every infrastructure manager needs to adjust 

maintenance strategy to local conditions in order to achieve improvement in traffic safety. 

2. DEFECTS DUE TO ROLLING CONTACT FATIGUE 

The term rolling contact fatigue is generic in nature and used to describe a range of defects that are 

due, basically, to the development of excessive shear stresses at the wheel/rail contact interface. 

Rolling contact fatigue is a process of gradual destruction due to the creation and development of an 

Belgrade, 2012 228



initial crack, until the rail breaks under the influence of variable traffic load, which is transferred to the 

rail via a small wheel/rail contact surface. 

Generally, a fracture surface due to rolling contact fatigue has a characteristic figure. Two visually 

different surfaces can be distinguished: fatigue area and rail break area (Figure 2). 

FIGURE 2. Characteristic look of a steel surface after break caused by rolling contact fatigue 

Rolling contact fatigue cracks on the rail can be classified into those that are subsurface-initiated and 

surface-initiated. Subsurface-initiated cracks are normally a consequence of high vertical loading in 

combination with material imperfections. The subsurface-initiated cracks occurred more frequently in 

the past. The development of steel making technology has reduced rolling contact fatigue defects 

associated with material imperfections (Figure 3). 

FIGURE 3. Example of cracked oxide/silicate inclusion which can act as an 

initiation site for shelling and transverse defects [5] 

On the other hand, most surface initiated cracks are the result of wheel/rail interaction (Figure 4) and a 

high load transfer over the small wheel/rail contact patch (Figure 5). The contact patch is elliptical in 

Belgrade, 2012 229



shape and relatively small: the longer longitudinal axis may be 10-12 mm, while the shorter transverse 

axis may be 5 - 8 mm. This small patch supports the whole wheel load. 

FIGURE 4. Rolling contact fatigue for wheel and rail [6] 

FIGURE 5. High wheel/rail contact stress (left) and the structure of the contact patch (right) [5, 7] 

The major occurrence of the surface-initiated RCF rail defects are: "head checkings" (Figure 6), 

"squats" (Figure 7), "belgrospis" (Figure 8) as well as shelling (Figure 9). 

FIGURE 6. Typical head checkings pattern on gauge corner (railway line Beograd - Zemun, the 

right track, the outer rail in a curve) 

Belgrade, 2012 230



FIGURE 7. Typical appearance (left) and severe stage of squat (right) development on running 

surface (railway line Podgorica - Bar, 2012) 

FIGURE 8. Typical belgrospi pattern on running surface (railway line Podgorica - Bar, 2012) 

FIGURE 9. Severe stage of shell development 

Rolling contact fatigue cracks are initiated by the high shear stresses that can develop at the wheel/rail 

contact region when such stresses exceed the allowable limits for the rail steel. A number of factors 

can influence the high shear stresses, including: 

The nominal, dynamic and impact wheel loadings (Figure 10), and the factors that influence 

wheel loadings (rail cant, track geometry, rail and wheel vertical irregularities, bogie 

characteristics, etc. 

The radii of the wheels and rails at their contact area (Figure 11). 

The radius of the wheels (smaller radius results in higher stress). 

The traction/creep forces: as the traction level increases, the maximum stress also increases 

and its location moves closer to the wheel/rail contact surface (Figure 12). 

It is evident that at the lower values of traction coefficient (T/N up to about 0.2) the maximum shear 

stresses are obtained at some depth from the rail contact surface, which corresponds to the region in 

which shelling develops (Figure 12). Higher axle loads increase the normal forces N and may reduce 

the T/N values, which in turn would enhance sub-surface crack initiation (Figure 9). 

Belgrade, 2012 231



In contrast to this, the higher values of traction coefficient which are obtained in relatively sharp 

curves, or relatively shallow curves and tangent track (due to adverse vehicle dynamics, such as 

hunting) or at lower axle loads, lead to considerable increases in the resultant maximum shear stress 

and also a shift in the location of the maximum shear stress closer to the rail surface, where the 

checking cracks initiate (Figure 12). 

There are differences in the general growth characteristics of the checking and shelling cracks. The 

main reason for the difference is the work hardening of the rail steel which occurs due to the plastic 

deformation of the rail material, particularly at the higher axle loads (Figure 13). 

FIGURE 10. Influence of wheel load on contact shear stresses [5] 

FIGURE 11. Influence of rail crown radius on contact shear stress [5] 

Belgrade, 2012 232



FIGURE 12. Influence of traction on the contact shear stress [5] 

(Note: T/N is the traction coefficient or the ratio of tangential to normal forces) 

Figure 13 shows that the work hardened layer can be up to 8-10 mm in depth from the rail contact 

surface. The plastically deformed steel in the work hardened layer exhibits high compressive residual 

stresses. Such stresses inhibit fatigue crack growth, and prevent the growth of the much shallower 

checking cracks (up to 8-10 mm) into the rail head. On the contrary, the deeper shelling cracks may be 

able to penetrate through the compressive work hardened layer and continue growing on a transverse 

plane. The shelling cracks can being developed into transverse defects by the action of other stress 

environments, including rail bending, thermal stresses, and residual stresses due to rail manufacture. 

FIGURE 13. Hardness distributions in standard carbon rails 

in tangent track at 30 to 35 tones axle loads [5] 

Also, it is possible that the checking cracks may be able to advance into the rail head. This 

phenomenon occasionally leads to the unexpected rail failures under lower axle load, high speed 

passenger track, since such conditions would lead to a very limited (if any) work hardened 

Belgrade, 2012 233



compressive layer, especially in new or newer rails that are exposed to adverse wheel/rail contact 

conditions by poor track geometry, wheel geometry irregularities, bogie characteristics, etc. 

It is especially important to note that under poor wheel/rail contact conditions (due to excessive shear 

stresses), new higher strength rails may be more susceptible to the growth of checking cracks into the 

rail head. The new higher strength rails are more resistant to plastic flow and hence work hardening 

and the development of a deep compressive residual stress layer. This must be taken into account 

when using the new higher strength rails. 

Unfortunately, the very effective lubrication of the outer rail in curves (used on railways in order to 

decrease lateral rail wear of the outer rail and wheel flange wear) stimulates a growth of head 

checking rail defect. Lubricant penetrates in to the fissures (together with impurities and atmospheric 

water) and the pressure from the wheel on fissure walls lead to faster advancement and dilatation of 

fissures (Figure 14). For example, the visual inspection on Serbian railways shows a progressive 

development of HC defects due to the penetration of lubricant mixed with impurities and water in the 

fissures on gauge corner. Also, lubricants have a negative influence on visual inspection, especially in 

tunnels because of reduced visibility and disable the use of penetrates. 

FIGURE 14. Fissure propagation due to lubricant penetration 

It is of particular importance to note that some controlled rail wear is preferable to having no wear. 

Consequently, the factors that reduce rail wear (reduced track curvature, very effective lubrication, - 

higher hardness/strength steel, wheel and rail profiles designed to reduce wear) contribute to the 

growth of the fatigue cracks. 

3. TREATMENT OF DEFECTS DUE TO ROLLING CONTACT FATIGUE 

The rail infrastructure managers have to correctly choose the quality of rail steel. A key parameter in 

this selection of rail steel grades is the procurement and maintenance cost of the rails. It is important 

to consider whether the higher capital costs of 350 HT, 350 LHT and 320 Cr grades are offset by 

longer service life and/or lower maintenance outlay [8]. Figure 15 shows the recommendations for use 

of normal and hard steel grade rails in accordance with [8]. 

Belgrade, 2012 234

annual tonnage in MT 



Hard rails 

Normal or 

hard rails 

Normal 

rails 

curve radius in m 

FIGURE 15. Recommendations for use of steel grade in accordance with [8] 

Maintenance policy (rail lubrication and grinding) has a significant impact on the service life of rails. It 

is important to note that local parameters influence the development of wear and rolling contact fatigue 

defects. Consequently, the rail infrastructure managers should adjust the maintenance policy to the 

railway local parameters, including: curve radius, tonnage carried (daily or annual mega gross tonnage 

- mgt) in the zone under consideration, the impact of falling and rising gradients, speed, cant on 

curves, axle load and type of rolling stock. 

Lubrication and grinding help combat the wear and rolling contact fatigue phenomena and applying 

these maintenance methods appropriately can reduce costs maintenance. 

Regularity and precision of application of a lubricant are of paramount importance. Account must be 

taken of the influence of weather conditions (e.g. temperature, humidity) on the results of lubrication. 

Use of a harder steel grade does not resolve the problem of lateral rail wear if the rail is not lubricated. 

At best, the use of a harder steel grade may delay the lateral rail wear. In addition, the fact that 

damaged metal is removed less rapidly may cause rolling contact fatigue to develop more quickly. 

It is very important to detect rail defects in a track as early as possible. The defects due to rolling 

contact fatigue can mask the ultrasonic signal during routine inspection and hence prevent the 

detection of larger and deeper defects that may be present within the rail head, including any such 

defects that may have developed from the shallower initial cracks. In praxis, it is important to combine 

several detection methods in order to increase possibility of early detection of the defect: visual 

inspection, optical testing method, ultrasound testing and eddy current testing. 

The removal of severe defects in rail gauge corner and running surface entails extensive and 

expensive rail maintenance (grinding). The appropriate grinding may prolongs rail service life by 

preventing the emergence of defects or by delaying their development. Therefore, it is important to 

apply the grinding strategies against HC defects as follows: preventive activities ("rail care"), corrective 

activities (the removal of more or less severe defects), and cyclical (controlled) activities during the 

whole rail service life. 

Belgrade, 2012 235



Preventive grinding is designed to improve the quality of the running surface of newly-laid rails. 

Unfortunately, in Serbia and in Montenegro the rail grinding is still not applied after the laying of new 

rails in track before work acceptance, although the experience of others points on necessity of this 

measure and confirms its cost effectiveness through extension of rail service life. Besides that, more 

often is in use head-hardened rail whose consequence is longer adjustment of rail to the geometry of 

wheel. Aim of preventive grinding is to provide optimal conditions in wheel-rail contact at the beginning 

of exploitation, and also to remove usual irregularities that appeared during the track laying (for 

example, fine unevenness on rail welds). 

However, the effect of grinding is not permanent. After a while fissures due to rolling contact fatigue 

occurs again and new cycle of rail grinding is necessary. Corrective grinding is designed to remove rail 

defects that have already developed by reprofiling the rail to optimize wheel/rail contact. 


Rolling Contact Fatigue is a serious hazard to rail traffic across the world and a major problem for 

railway infrastructure managers. That hazard is more distinct on railways without adequate 

maintenance strategy. Increased traffic density, axle loads and speed as well as lubrication of rails are 

contributors to this problem. In contrast to this, correct track geometry, correct wheel/rail contact patch 

geometry, improved maintenance (appropriate inspection and rail grinding strategy) can reduce 

problems due to rolling contact fatigue. 

Appropriate maintenance strategy should provide extra rail service life and should reduce overall rail 

maintenance costs. Unfortunately, a visual inspections that are conducted on the Serbian Railway and 

the Montenegro Railways present examples of sporadically conducted maintenance and its negative 

consequence. Realization of interoperability of European railway network demands from infrastructure 

managers in Serbia and Montenegro to have for each conventional line an appropriate maintenance 

plan for the infrastructure subsystem in accordance with European technical regulation. Additionally, 

the infrastructure managers have to adjust maintenance strategy to local conditions in order to 

improve traffic safety. It is clear that this maintenance plan has to include inspection and strategy 

against rail defects due to rolling contact fatigue. 

This paper emphasizes the importance of grinding strategies against RCF rail defects. It also points on 

the importance of preventive activities ("rail care"), removal of more or less severe defects (corrective 

activities) and cyclical (controlled) activities during the whole rail service life. 

Anyway, the authors recommend combining several non-destructive testing methods for efficient rail 

testing: visual inspection, optical inspection by camera, ultrasound testing and eddy current testing. 

Realization of the conclusions of this paper requires an urgent harmonization of technical regulations 

in the field of railway infrastructure maintenance. 

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 


the research project No. 36012: “Research of technical-technological, staff and organisational capacity 

of Serbian Railways, from the viewpoint of current and future European Union requirements”. 

Belgrade, 2012 236



REFERENCES 

[1] Popović, Z., Brajović, Lj., Lazarević, L., Puzavac, L.: Rail Defects Head Checking – 

Phenomenon and Treatment, Proceedings EURO – ZEL, University of Žilina in collaboration 

with CETRA - Centre for Transport Research, Žilina SK, 2012. 

[2] Grohmann, H.D.: Beschädigungsarten an der Schiene verursacht durch den Betrieb, 

Internationales Symposium Schienenfehler, Interdisziplinärer Forschungsverbund 

Bahntechnik Fachhochschule Brandenburg Technische Universität Berlin, Brandenburg, 

2000.Railway applications – Electromagnetic compatibility - Part 3-1: Rolling stock - Train and 

complete vehicle EN 50121-3-1:2006 

[3] Center for Strategic & International studies and Hellenic Centre for European Studies. Relinking 

the Western Balkans - The transportation dimension. Athens, 2010. 

[4] European Commission: Technical Specification for Interoperability – Subsystem Infrastructure, 

Official Journal of the European Communities, 2011, p.68.Railway applications – 

Electromagnetic compatibility - Part 4: Emission and immunity of the signalling and 

telecommunications apparatus EN 50121-4:2006 

[5] Australian Rail Track Corporation: Rail Defects Handbook, Engineering Practices Manual Civil 

Engineering, 2006. 

[6] European Commission: Final report on Root Causes of Problem Conditions and Priorities for 

Innovation, Project no. TIP5-CT-2006-031415 INNOTRACK, 2009. 

[7] Dollevoet, R.P.B.J.: Design of an Anti Head checking profile based on stress relief, PhD 

Thesis, University of Twente, 2010. 

[8] UIC - International Union of Railways: Recommendations for the use of rail steel grades – UIC 

Code 721, Paris, 2005. 

Belgrade, 2012 237



RAIL INSPECTION BY EDDY CURRENT METHOD 

Popovic Zdenka, Faculty of Civil Engineering of the University in Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia 

Brajović Ljiljana, Faculty of Civil Engineering of the University in Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia 

Lazarević Luka, Faculty of Civil Engineering of the University in Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia 

Abstract 

Management of rail defects includes appropriate methods for their detection and monitoring their 

growth under conditions of undisturbed traffic flow. 

This paper points out the importance of early detection of the rail defects for the effective rail defects 

management. Early detection of rail defects can minimize track maintenance cost and improve rail 

traffic safety. The extensive research and development in highly sensitive eddy current sensors and 

instruments over the last sixty years indicates that eddy current testing is currently a widely used 

inspection technique. This paper presents the possibility of applying the eddy current testing for the 

detection of subsurface rail cracks (which are not observed by visual inspection), surface cracks and 

rail roughness (which is not visually observed). In conclusion, the authors recommend combining 

several non-destructive testing methods for efficient rail testing: visual inspection, ultrasound testing 

and eddy current testing. 

Key words : Railway, rails, rail defects, inspection, eddy current testing, maintenance. 

INSPEKCIJA ŠINA METODOM VRTLOŽNIH STRUJA 

Apstrakt 

Upravljanje šinskim defektima uključuje odgovarajuće metode za njihovu detekciju i praćenje 

napredovanja u uslovima neometanog odvijanja železničkog saobraćaja. Ovaj rad ukazuje na značaj 

ranog otkrivanja defekata za efikasno upravljanje njihovim razvojem. Rano detektovanje šinskih 

defekata smanjuje troškove održavanja i unapređuje bezbednost železničkog saobraćaja. Obimna 

istaživanja, razvoj osetljivih senzora i uređaja za ispitivanje pomoću vrtložnih struja tokom poslednjih 

šest decenija omogućila su praktičnu primenu metode ispitivanja pomoću vrtložnih struja. Ovaj rad 

prikazuje mogućnosti primene metode ispitivanja šinskog čelika pomoću vrtložnih struja u detekciji 

površinskih šinskih defekata. Za efikasno upravljenje šinskim defektima, u zaključku rada autori 

preporučuju kombinovanje više nedestruktivnih metoda: vizuelnu inspekciju, ispitivanje ultrazvukom i 

vrtložnim strujama. 

Ključne reči : Železnica, šine, šinski defekti, inspekcija, vrtložne struje, održavanje. 

1. UVOD 

Šine su neizostavan i skup element konstrukcije koloseka. Njihova uloga je višestruka. One 

obezbeđuju površ po kojoj se kotrljaju točkovi železničkog vozila, vode i usmeravaju točkove, 

prihvataju i prenose opterećenja od točkova, prenose sile kočenja i pokretanja vozila, kao i podužne 

sile od temperaturnih promena, provode povratne i signalne struje. 

Porast brzina, osovinskog i saobraćajnog opterećenja na prugama doprinosi skraćenju životnog veka 

šine u koloseku. Jedan od najčešćih uzroka skraćenja životnog veka šina je zamor šinskog čelika. 

Nepravilno održavanje šina u uslovima izraženog zamora šinskog čelika može da skrati životni vek na 

Belgrade, 2012 238



samo 2 godine u odnosu na normalno očekivani vek (10-15 godina, tj. 300-1000 miliona bruto tona 

[9]). Ovo dugoročno drastično povećava troškove odžavanja, naročito u uslovima neadekvatne 

primene skupog brušenja, prerane zamene šina ili ugrožene bezbednosti saobraćaja [10]. 

Važan preduslov za efikasno upravljanje održavanjem šina je rano otkrivanje šinskih defekata i 

praćenje njihovog razvoja između uzastopnih ciklusa održavanja. Ovo ukazuje na značaj odabira 

pogodne metode za detekciju šinskih defekata. Nažalost, za sada ne postoji jedinstvena metoda 

nedestruktivnog ispitivanja šina u koloseku koja daje egzaktne podatke o tipu i lokaciji šinskog 

defekta. Zbog toga se preporučuje kombinovanje više metoda detekcije. UIC Kod [11] preporučuje 

metod inspekcije šina pomoću vrtložnih struja kao dopunu inspekcije pomoću ultrazvuka, nakon 

obavljene vizuelne inspekcije u skladu sa [12]. 

U ovom radu se predstavljaju osnovne postavke metode ispitivanja šinskog čelika pomoću vrtložnih 

struja. Ukazuje se na moguću oblast primene i ograničenja ove metode u defektoskopiji šina u 

koloseku pod saobraćajem i kontroli brušenja glave šine. Cilj rada je stvaranje osnove za 

harmonizaciju domaćih podzakonskih akata za oblast održavanja šina i koloseka i uvođenje metode 

vrtložnih struja u održavanje šina na Železnicama Srbije u skladu sa [11, 12]. 

2. OSNOVNI POJMOVI O METODI ISPITIVANJA ČELIKA VRTLOŽNIM STRUJAMA 

Kada se probni kalem kroz koji protiče naizmenična struja približi ili dodirne površinu metalnog 

materijala (šinski čelik), menja se fluks magnetnog polja kroz površinu materijala u toku vremena i 

samim tim prema zakonu elektromagnetske indukcije u materijalu se stvaraju zatvoreni tokovi 

naelektrisanja, tj. električne struje koje teku po različitim zatvorenim putanjama unutar materijala i one 

se nazivaju vrtložne struje. Kao posledica toka vrtložnih struja nastaje njihovo magnetno polje, koje je 

suprotnog smera od polja probnog kalema i koje povratno indukuje struju u probnom kalemu. Ova 

povratno indukovana struja menja induktivnost probnog kalema. Intenzitet i prostorni raspored 

vrtložnih struja zavisi jako od osobina metalnog materijala, pa dobijena promena induktivnosti probnog 

kalema može da se koristi za ispitivanje tog materijala. 

Blok šema koja prikazuje osnovnu strukturu aparature koja se primenjuje kod metode vrtložnih struja 

je prikazana na slici 1. Ona se sastoji od probnog kalema ili sonde, izvora vremenski promenljivog 

napona i indikatora koji prikazuje promenu induktivnosti probnog kalema na neki način. 

u ~ 

vrtložne 

struje 

I 

smer vekt. mag. 

polja probnog 

kalema 

smer vekt. mag. 

polja vrtložnih 

struja 

Slika 1. Osnovna struktura aparature koja se primenjuje kod metode vrtloznih struja 

Kada je sonda kroz koju protiče naizmenična struja daleko od provodnog materijala ona ima 

induktivnost L 0 koja zavisi od broja navoja, prečnika i dužine kalema, kao i od toga da li su navoji 

namotani oko feromagnetnog ili neferomagnetnog jezgra. Kada se ista sonda nalazi u blizini 

provodnog materijala usled pojave vrtložnih struja, njena induktivnost se menja i ima neku novu 

Belgrade, 2012 239



vrednost L. Kako je sonda u obliku kalema načinjenog od metalne žice, ona pored induktivnosti ima i 

svoju otpornost R koja zavisi od dužine, prečnika i specifične otpornosti namotane žice. Tako da se 

sonda električno predstavlja rednom vezom kalema induktivnosti L i otpornika otpornosti R, i određuje 

se njena impedansa Z koja je jednaka 

2 

2 2 2 2 2 

Z R ( 2 f L) 

R ( L) 

R ( X L ) 

(1) 

gde je: f - frekvencija naizmenične struje kroz kalem, 

otpornost ili reaktansa kalema, tj. ove sonde. 

- kružna frekvencija te struje, a X L - induktivna 

Trenutne vrednosti naizmeničnih napona na ovom kalemu L i otporniku R su međusobno fazno 

pomerene za /2 rad kada kroz njih protiče naizmenična struja, pri čemu je napon na otporniku R u 

fazi sa strujom, a napon na kalemu joj prednjači. Zato se javlja fazna razlika između ukupnog 

napona na sondi U i struje I koja kroz nju protiče. Efektivna vrednost napona na sondi je srazmerna 

efektivnoj vrednosti struje I i jednaka 

U Z I 

(2) 

U oblasti naizmeničnih struja naponi, struje i impedanse električnih kola se predstavljaju vektorskim ili 

fazorskim dijagramima, pa se impedansa sonde predstavlja dijagramom na slici 2. Na vertikalnoj osi 

se prikazuje vektor koji odgovara reaktansi X L , a na horizontalnoj osi se prikazuje vektor koji odgovara 

otpornosti sonde R, a rastojanje od koordinatnog početka je jednako dužini vektora, koji odgovara 

impedansi sonde Z. Ugao , koji zaklapaju vektor koji predstavlja impedansu i horizontalna osa, 

predstavlja faznu razliku ukupnog napona i struje na sondi i određuje se kao 

X 

arctan L 

(3) 

R 

A 

X L 

Z 

Slika 2. Vektorsko predstavljanje impedanse sonde 

Na osnovu dijagrama se zaključuje da se pri promeni induktivnosti sonde usled vrtložnih struja 

menjaju i njena impedansa Z i fazna razlika . 

R 

Magnetno polje koje se stvara kada se kroz idealni kalem propušta naizmenična struja je najviše 

skoncentrisano unutar kalema i ima pravac ose kalema, a znatno je slabije izvan kalema, (na sl.1 

zelene isprekidane linije predstavljaju linije magnetnog polja kalema). Jačina vektora magnetnog polja 

Hz, duž ose kalema (z-osa) na rastojanju z od centra kalema može se predstaviti izrazom 

Belgrade, 2012 240



N 

I 

H z (4) 

2 2 3 / 2 

2 ( r z 

r 

) 

gde su : r -poluprečnik kalema, N - broj navoja, I -jačina propuštene naizmenične struje kroz kalem i f - 

frekvencija struje. Prema izrazu (4) jačina magnetnog polje znatno opada sa rastojanjem z, i jako 

zavisi od dimenzija kalema. Fluks ovako nastalog magnetnog polja sonde kroz neku zamišljenu 

konturu od provodnog materijala je promenljiv u vremenu i dovodi do indukovanja struje u toj konturi. 

Za komad metala možemo smatrati da se sastoji od velikog broja takvih provodnih kontura, pa se u 

njemu javljaju vrtložne struje, čiji su tokovi predstavljeni crvenim krugovima na sl.1. Gustina ovih 

struja, u slučaju kalema čija je osa normalna na površinu, je najveća ispod namotaja kalema, a opada 

prema oblasti ispod centra kalema i izvan površine navoja. Takodje, vrtložne struje su najgušće na 

površini i neposredno ispod površine provodnog materijala, pa je samo u tim oblastima moguća 

njihova primena za ispitivanje materijala. Naime, gustina vrtložnih struja po dubini materijala zavisi od 

frekvencije pobudne struje f, kao i od specifične otpornosti i permeabilnosti ispitivanog materijala. 

Ako je frekvencija veća, dubina na kojoj se prostiru vrtložne struje je manja. Ova pojava je poznata 

kao skin, ili površinski efekat. Standardna dubina prodiranja, tj. dubina na kojoj je gustina vrtložnih 

struja opala na 1/e ili na 36,8% u odnosu na njihovu površinsku gustinu je data izrazom 

f 

(5) 

i služi za određivanje optimalne frekvencije pri merenju. 

Za detekciju defekata u materijalu pomoću vrtložnih struja je idealno da njihov tok pri ispitivanju bude 

normalan na pravac prostiranja defekta, tj. da defekti presecaju (prekidaju) tok vrložnih struja i menjaju 

oblik njihovih putanja. Na slici 3 a) prikazana su tri karakteristična položaja defekta. Ako je kraća 

pukotina direktno ispod centra navoja sonde, ona ne remeti tok vrtložnih struja, a i ako je pukotina 

približno paralelna toku vrtložnih struja, ona ih neznatno remeti, pa se ovi defekti praktično ne mogu 

detektovati. U slučaju da je pukotina normalna na pravac prostiranja vrtložnih struja, ona znatno 

remeti njihov tok i slabi ih i tada je osetljivost detekcije značajna. Kako površina navoja sonde 

određuje i površinu na kojoj se javljaju vrtložne struje ispod nje, na osetljivost detekcije značajno utiče 

i odnos dužine defekta i površine navoja sonde. Na slici 3 b) je prikazano da ako je defekt po 

dimenzijama približan prečniku sonde, tada je osetljivost detekcije mnogo veća, nego u slučaju da je 

znatno manja od njega. 

Slika 3. Uticaj: a) orijentacije i položaja pukotine na osetljivost detekcije, 

b) dužine defekta i dimenzija sonde na osetljivost detekcije 

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Indukovane vrtložne struje stvaraju magnetno polje po pravcu normalno na ravan njihovog prostiranja, 

čija jačina zavisi od gustine i oblika putanja vrtložnih struja, kao i od permeabilnosti ispitivanog 

materijala. Smer ovog polja je supotan smeru prvobitnog polja sonde, što menja ukupni magnetni fluks 

kroz sondu i menja njenu induktivnost i impedansu. Kod feromagnetnih materijala (čelik) zbog njihove 

visoke permeabilnosti fluks magnetske indukcije vrtložnih struja je veći od početnog fluksa sonde, pa 

dolazi do povećanja induktivnosti sonde kada se približi feromagnetnom materijalu, dok je kod 

neferomagnetnih obrnuto. 

Na prostiranje vrtložnih struja u materijalu i na njihovu detekciju utiče veliki broj faktora: provodnost i 

permeabilnost materijala koji se ispituje, frekvencija naizmenične pobudne struje, rastojanje probne 

sonde od površine materijala, geometrija sonde i ispitivanog materijala, rukovanje sondom i vrsta i 

raspored defekata u materijalu. 

Da bi se ovaj metod koristio za detekciju defekata potrebno je da se prvih šest faktora ne menjaju ili 

da se neznatno i po mogućstvu kontrolisano menjaju. 

Uređaji za ispitivanje materijala na bazi vrtložnih struja vrše detekciju promene induktivnosti sonde na 

neki način i to prikazuju u obliku koji je pogodan za tumačenje rezultata. Jednostavno određivanje 

promene impedanse sonde merenjem promene njenog napona (izraz 2) nije dovoljno osetljivo, već se 

sonda mora vezivati u merni most tipa naizmeničnog Vitstonovog mosta čija je jedna varijanta 

prikazana na slici 4. 

Z 1 (R 1 ) 

Z 2 (R 2 ) 

U 

I R 5 

~ A B 

Z 

3(R 3 ) 

merna sonda 

impedanse Z 

C 

R 

L 

Slika 4. Merni most za određivanje promene induktivnosti sonde 

Sonda koja ima impedansu Z se vezuje u jednu granu mosta koji se napaja naizmeničnim naponom 

efektivne vrednosti U. U ostalim granama nalaze se električne komponente koje imaju impedanse Z1, 

Z2 i Z3 i koje mogu da se sastoje od kalemova, kondenzatora i otpornika u opštem slučaju. Njihove 

impedanse mogu da se menjaju najčešće promenom otpornosti u granama, ali i drugih elemenata u 

zavisnosti od složenosti mosta. Pre početka merenja sonda se postavi na površinu, ili na malo 

rastojanje iznad materijala koji se ispituje, ali na mesto koje nema defekte i promenom impedansi u 

granama mosta, on se dovede u ravnotežu, tj. podesi se da napon u dijagonali mosta (grana AB na 

slici 4) bude jednak nuli 0. Tada su impedanse u pojedinim granama povezane izrazom 

Z 

Z 

Z 

2 

3 Z1 

(5) 

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pri čemu se ova jednakost ostvaruje izjednačavanjem i otpornih i reaktivnih delova impedansi grana. 

Na ovaj način se pre merenja eliminišu parametri koji utiču na impedansu sonde, a koji se ne menjaju 

tokom merenja kao što je provodnost i permeabilnost materijala, rastojanje sonde od podloge i slično. 

Kada se posle uravnoteženja mosta sonda koristi za detekciju defekata, dolazi do pojave napona u 

dijagonali mosta kao posledice promene induktivnosti sonde usled nailaska na defekt. Kako bi se 

povećala osetljivost detekcije, sonda je nekad povezana sa kondenzatorom promenljive kapacitivnosti 

C, čija je uloga da se most podesi da radi na rezonantnoj učestanosti i da je izuzetno osetljiv na 

promenu induktivnosti. 

Amplituda dobijenog napona u dijagonali mosta, njegovo fazno kašnjenje u odnosu na struju i u 

odnosu na napon napajanja mosta zavise od karakteristika defekta. Ovako dobijeni napon se dodatno 

pojačava i obrađuje kako bi bio pogodno prikazan na izlazu mernog uređaja, a radi što bolje 

identifikacije defekta. 

Kod ručne i pojedinačne identifikacije defekata koristi se impedansni način prikazivanja izlaznog 

signala, a kod automatizovanog merenja najčešće se neke od ovako dobijenih komponenti napona 

prate u vremenu, vrši se njihova akvizicija i naknadna obrada. 

2.1 Impedansni metod prikazivanja promene induktivnosti sonde 

Na ekranu uređaja se u ovom slučaju prikazuju naponi srazmerni reaktansi i otpornosti sonde u obliku 

vektorskog dijagrama sa slike 2, tj. na y-osi se predstavlja vrednost reaktanse sonde, a na x-osi 

otpornost sonde. Kada se sonda nalazi u vazduhu, daleko od površine ispitivanog materijala, ona ima 

reaktansu L 0 i neku otpornost R i na dijagramu se to predstavlja tačkom A, kako je prikazano na slici 

5 levo. Položaj ove tačke ne zavisi od osobina materijala već samo od karakteristika kalema i 

frekvencije napona napajanja, pa tačka A predstavlja referentnu tačku za dati kalem. Kada se isti 

kalem približava površini feromagnetnog provodnog materijala, tačka na dijagramu se pomera po liniji 

A-B (na slici 5 levo) i tačka B odgovara postavljanju sonde na površinu tog feromagnetnog materijala 

kada on nema defekata. Položaj tačke B kao i oblik putanje A-B zavise od provodnosti materijala, 

njegove permeabilnosti i frekvencije napona napajanja, kao i od dimenzija i debljine uzorka od tog 

materijala. 

X L 

C 

pukotina 

X L 

A 

B 

približavanje 

površini 

materijala 

R 

A 

B 

C 1 

C 2 

R 

Slika 5. Karakteristične krive na ekranu pri impedansnom načinu predstavljanja 

Na slici 5 (levo) kriva AB predstavlja približavanje sonde materijalu, a BC nailazak na pukotinu kod 

feromagnetnih materijala. Na slici 5 (desno) predstavljen je isti dijagram kome su ose normalizovane i 

zarotirane da bi kriva AB bila približno horizontalna. 

Putanja A-B pokazuje kako bi se menjala induktivnost sonde, kao i fazno kašnjenje , ako se sonda 

odiže od površine, ili joj se približava i vidi se da je ovaj uticaj na promenu induktivnosti (eng. lift-off) 

vrlo značajan i neophodno je da se pri ispitivanju sonda drži na konstantnom rastojanju od površine 

uzorka. Ako se ista sonda koja je na površini uzorka pomera i naiđe na pukotinu, tačka na djagramu bi 

se u zavisnosti od veličine i položaja pukotine kretala po nekoj putanji tipa B-C. Izmedju krivih AB i BC 

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postoji fazni ugao i on zavisi od veličine i dubine defekta. Da bi se na dijagramu što osetljivije prikazale 

promene u materijalu, ovaj dijagram se pri praktičnom prikazivanju rotira i normira tako da kriva AB 

bude približno paralelna x-osi i predstavlja referentnu krivu, kako je prikazano na slici 5 desno. Krive 

BC1 i BC2 na slici 5 desno kvalitativno predstavljaju kretanja tačke na dijagramu pri nailasku na 

pukotinu manje i veće dubine. 

Postupak pri ovakvom načinu prikazivanja i karakterizacije defekata je da se prvo podizanjem i 

približavanjem sonde ispitivanom materijalu formira putanja AB, referentna za neoštećeni materijal i 

sondu i podesi se njen željeni položaj na ekranu. Da bi se kvantitativno odredila dubina defekta, 

njegova dužina, nagib i sl. potrebno je ispitivanje vršiti prvo na standardu od istog materijala na kome 

su napravljeni defekti poznatih dubina, nagiba, dužina i sl. i na osnovu toga podesiti pojačanje u 

mostu, da bi se dobila što bolja rezolucija i utvrdili kakva promena impedanse i ugla odgovara kojoj 

vrsti defekta. Na slici 6 je prikazan dijagram koji se dobija kada se sonda kreće na standardnom 

čeličnom uzorku koji ima tri vertikalne pukotine različite dubine. 

Slika 6. Merenje na standardnom čeličnom uzorku: urezani uski žlebovi naznačenih dubina (levo), 

prikaz na ekranu mernog uređaja (desno) 

Krive koje se dobijaju prevlačenjem sonde preko defekata imaju različite visine što je posledica i 

dužine i dubine defekta, ali i različite nagibe, koji su vezani za različite dubine defekata. Naime, uticaj 

vrtložnih struja sa neke dubine ispod površine materijala se javlja sa vremenskim zakašnjenjem u 

odnosu na uticaj onih koje su na površini (eng. phase lag), pa se ovo javlja kao dodatna promena faze 

između struje i napona na sondi i koristi za procenu dubine defekta. U slučaju da se mali defekt nalazi 

na dubini od jedne standardne dubine na ekranu bi kriva zaklapala ugao od 114 0 u odnosu na istu 

krivu koja bi se dobila za isti defekt na površini materijala. Ako se pukotina prostire od površine do 

neke dubine uticaji presečenih vrtložnih struja nisu istovremeni pa to utiče na nagib krive na 

dijagramu, ali ne sa podjednakom težinom jer je gustina vrtložnih struja ispod površine manja. 

Poseban problem predstavljaju pukotine koje su pod nekim nagibom manjim od 90 0 stepeni u odnosu 

na površinu uzorka pa one presecaju vrtložne struje na različitim mestima i različitim dubinama, i čak 

se dobijaju različite putanje na dijagramu ako se ide u smeru povećavanja dubine ili smanjenja dubine. 

Zato procena dubine defekta preko nagiba nije previše precizna, ali može da posluži kao relativni 

pokazatelj pri poređenju više defekata. 

Ovaj metod prikazivanja i tumačenja defekata, uz korišćenje odgovarajućih standarda za ispitivani 

materijal i uvežbanost i veliko iskustvo osobe koja vrši ispitivanje omogućava dobru karakterizaciju 

defekta. Promenom frekvencije pobudnog napona i dimenzija sonde može se postići optimalan 

kompromis između osetljivosti, rezolucije merenja i dubine prodiranja vrtložnih struja. 

Na isti način rade uređaji na dve frekvencije kod kojih se sonda pobuđuje istovremeno na dve 

frekvencije i na ekranu se istovremeno prikazuju dva dijagrama za isti defekt i zahvaljujući tome on se 

preciznije karakteriše. 

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2.2 Sistemi za automatsko snimanje vremenske zavisnosti signala i njihovu obradu 

U slučaju ispitivanja predmeta velikih dimenzija, kao što su šine, manuelan način ispitivanja je veoma 

dugotrajan, pa se sonda najčešće montira na neki nosač koji se pomera poznatom brzinom po 

površini ispitivanog materijala. Pri tome se prate promene napona u dijagonali mernog mosta u koji je 

povezana sonda u toku vremena, kao i fazno kašnjenje signala u odnosu na napon napajanja. Tokom 

merenja vrši se analogno-digitalna (A/D) konverzija signala, njegova akvizicija i dodatna obrada. 

Dobijeni signali imaju određeno kašnjenje u odnosu na nailazak sonde na defekt, zbog konačnog 

vremena prelaska sonde preko njega, pa frekvencija odabiranja mora biti dovoljno velika da se 

detektuju svi defeki, ali ne i prevelika, jer bi to zahtevalo ogromnu memoriju uređaja. Ova pojava 

ograničava i brzinu kretanja sonde tj. vozila koje je nosi. U daljoj obradi signala veoma važnu ulogu 

ima njegovo filtriranje. Pošto se parametri koji utiču na vrtložne struje stalno lokalno menjaju, signal sa 

sonde koja se kreće konstantnom brzinom po površini bez defekata ima fluktuacije, jer se lokalno 

menja provodnost i permeabilnost materijala usled naprezanja i temperature, jer se menja rastojanje 

sonde od površine zbog neravnina površine i vibracija sonde na nosaču, jer dolazi do indukovanje 

struja u sondi koje su drugog porekla, itd. Sve ove promene imaju neku karakterističnu vremensku, ili 

prostornu periodičnost, tj. karakteristične frekvente opsege i daju lažne skokove ili padove signala koji 

se prati. Zbog toga se signali filtriraju nisko i visoko frekventnim filtrima, kako bi se ove komponente 

eliminisale. Radi lakšeg eliminisanja ovih neželjenih fluktuacija, sonde se često napajaju naponima 

impulsnog umesto prostoperiodičnog oblika. 

Softver za obradu signala, naročito sa više postavljenih sondi koje se snimaju simultano je veoma 

bitan i zahteva složeno povezivanje intenziteta, faznog kašnjenja, vremena odziva sonde, lociranja 

mesta defekta i sl. Zbog mnogostrukih uticaja parametara materijala i sondi na pojavu i promenu 

gustine i rasporeda vrtložnih struja ova metoda pokazuje različitu osetljivost detekicije u zavisnosti od 

vrste defekata. 

Ovakav sistem pored detekcije vrši i dalje procesiranje signala da bi se pamtila mesta i procena 

veličine defekta i upoređivala sa prethodnim stanjem materijala. 

3. PRIMENA METODE VRTLOŽNIH STRUJA U ODRŽAVANJU ŠINA 

Metod vrtložnih strula primenjuje se u inspekciji šina prema [11] i kontroli rada brusnih vozova. Za 

detekciju površinskih šinskih defekata primenom vrtložnih struja koriste se različite vrste šinskih 

inspekcijskih vozila (slika 7, levo) i ručnih uređaja za ispitivanje (slika 7, desno) [13-15]. Pored toga, 

uređaj za inspekciju šina vrtložnim strujama integriše se u brusne vozove (slika 7, sredina) kao 

kontrolni uređaj kojim se na probnoj deonici utvrđuje očekivani broj prolaza brusnog voza i kojim se 

nakon svakog prolaza dokazuje učinak izvršenog brušenja. 

Šinska inspekcijska vozila su opremljena osmokanalnim uređajima za ispitivanje šina u koloseku 

pomoću vrtložnih struja. To znači da se u istom poprečnom preseku pomoću četiri sonde na levoj i 

četiri sonde na desnoj šini (slika 8) vrši defektoskopija pomoću vrtložnih struja u zoni očekivane pojave 

defekata usled zamora šinskog čelika, koja se nalazi na 25-35 mm u odnosu na osu simetrije 

poprečnog preseka spoljašnje nadvišene šine, odnosno na -5 mm do +10 mm u odnosu na osu 

simetrije poprečnog preseka unutrašnje šine. 

Sonde ne dodiruju hrapavu površ glave šine, već se nalaze na bezbednoj udaljenosti. Slika 10 

prikazuje nemačko rešenje vođenja sonde na konstantnom rastojanju 0,5 mm od vozne ivice šine 

kako bi se sačuvala sonda od oštećenja [15]. Držač sonde se pneumatski podiže u zonama skretnica 

gde postoji opasnost oštećenja sonde. 

Belgrade, 2012 245



Slika 7. Inspekcijsko vozilo (levo), brusni voz (sredina), ručni WPG uređaj sa integrisanim 

uređajem za ispitivanje vrtložnim strujama (desno) 

Slika 8 . Raspored sondi na glavi šine i dijagrami odgovarajućih signala [13] 

Slika 9. Zona zamora materijala na glavi šine u koloseku 

Slika 10. Princip vođenja sonde na konstantnom odstojanju u odnosu na voznu ivicu šine 

4. KLASIFIKACIJA ŠINSKIH DEFEKATA POMOĆU METODE VRTLOŽNIH STRUJA 

Analiza oblika izlaznih signala četiri sonde za ispitivanje vrtložnim strujama, koje su postavljene prema 

rasporedu prikazanom na slici 8, može da ukaže na tip defekta na površini glave šine. 

4.1 Karakteristike signala za detektovanje šinskog defekta tipa head checking 

Head checking (HC) je vodeći tip defekta u svetu, koji nastaje usled zamora šinskog čelika i ugrožava 

bezbednost saobraćaja, ukoliko se njime ne upravlja na adekvatan način. Ovaj defekt se javlja na 

spoljašnjoj šini u krivinama radijusa do 3000 m, a najčešće pri radijusima krivina do 1500 m, isključivo 

na kolosecima sa definisanim smerom vožnje. Defekat ima kodnu oznaku 2223 prema [12]. 

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Vizuelna inspekcija, koja je obavljena tokom jeseni 2011. godine na magistralnim prugama 

Beogradskog čvora ukazala je, nažalost, na obimnu pojavu ovog defekta. Inače, defekt HC nije 

obuhvaćen klasifikacijom defekata koja se primenjuje na ŽS i ne postoji strategija upravljanja razvojem 

ovog opasnog defekta. 

Na slici 11 prikazan je karakteristični izgled HC na voznoj ivici i u poprečnom preseku, kao i oblik 

signala pri ispitivanju vrtložnim strujama prema [13]. Prema očekivanjima, signali na sondi 3 i 4 su 

gotovo ravni. Signali na sondama 1 i 2 imaju fino raspoređene amplitude sa neravnomernim 

"pikovima". Analizom signala moguće je odrediti mesto i broj HC prslina i proceniti dubinu defekta. 

Slika 11. Karakteristična pojava i oblik izlaznih signala za defekt head checking 

4.2 Karakteristike signala za detektovanje defekta tipa squat 

Na slici 12 prikazan je karakteristični izgled defekta tipa squat, kao i oblik signala pri ispitivanju 

vrtložnim strujama prema [13]. Prema očekivanjima, signal na voznoj ivici na sondi 1 je gotovo ravan. 

Signali na sondama 2 i 3 imaju diskretno raspoređene amplitude sa karakterističnim višestrukim blisko 

postavljenim "pikovima". Analizom signala moguće je odrediti mesto i broj squat defekata. 

Slika 12. Karakteristična pojava i oblik izlaznih signala za defekt squat 

Belgrade, 2012 247



Ovaj defekt je vidljiv na glavi šine kao proširenje i kao lokalna depresija, praćen je tamnom mrljom 

usled korozije i lučnom prslinom ili prslinom u obliku slova „v“. Prslina se javlja u glavi šine u početku 

pod malim uglom. Kad dostigne dubinu od 3 mm do 5 mm povija se u poprečnom pravcu i može da 

dovede do loma šine. Defekt ima kodnu oznaku 227 prema [12]. Ovi defekti se višestruko uočavaju na 

prugama Železnice Srbije. 

4.3 Karakteristike signala za detektovanje defekta usled utiskivanja stranih tela 

Oštećenja vozne površi na glavi šine mogu da nastanu usled utiskivanja stranih tela pod točkom vozila 

(kodna oznaka 301). Česta su oštećenja usled utiskivanja zrna tucanika ili metalnih delova. Ukoliko se 

strano telo koje se utiskuje u šinu nalazi na točku, onda se oštećenja vozne površi šine raspoređuju 

periodično na dužini obima točka. 

Na slici 13 prikazan je karakteristični izgled defekta usled utiskivanja stranog tela u voznu površ šine, 

kao i oblik signala pri ispitivanju vrtložnim strujama prema [13]. 

Slika 13. Karakteristična pojava i oblik izlaznih signala za defekt usled utiskivanja stranog tela 

Analizom signala moguće je odrediti mesto i broj defekta. Ukoliko se na dijagramu uočava 

periodičnost, onda se radi o utiskivanju stranog tela koje se nalazi na točku vozila. 

Na mestima defekata usled utiskivanja stranog tela u voznu površ šine signal ima lokalni vrh, koji 

može biti usmeren nagore ili nadole, što zavisi od provodljivosti utisnutog stranog tela. Ukoliko je u 

voznu površ šine utisnuto telo sa većom provodljivošću, onda je vrh signala okrenut nadole na mestu 

defekta, kao što to prikazuje dijagram na slici 13. 

4.4 Karakteristike signala za detektovanje talasastog habanja unutrašnje šine u krivini 

Izgled defekta i oblik signala prikazuje slika 14. 

Belgrade, 2012 248



Slika 14. Izgled defekta i oblik signala za detektovanje talasastog habanja unutrašnje šine u krivini 

Ovaj defekt nosi kodnu oznaku 2202 i ispoljava se na voznoj površini unutrašnje šine u krivinama 

malog radijusa usled proklizavanja unutrašnjih točkova osovinskih sklopova. Defekt predstavlja 

naboranost dugačkih talasa, dužina talasa varira od 8-30 cm. Kod ove vrste naboranosti ne postoji 

razlika u izgledu ispupčenja i ulegnuća. Defekt doprinosi uvećanju dinamičkog opterećenja i emisije 

buke, kao i smanjenju komfora vožnje. 

Oblik signala koji se u ovom slučaju očitava na kanalima 2-4 je razvučen sa malim amplitudama koje 

pokazuju izvesnu periodičnost. Na osnovu signala moguće je utvrditi mesto i broj vršnih mesta 

naboranosti (tzv. grbine). Na osnovu oblika signala nije moguće utvrditi obim oštećenja. 

4.5 Karakteristike signala za detektovanje naboranosti kratkih talasa na površi glave šine 

Naboranost kratkih talasa se odlikuje gotovo pravilno naizmenično raspoređenim sjajnim ispupčenjima 

i tamnim ulegnućima na gornjoj površini glave šine. Dužina talasa u opštem slučaju iznosi između 3 i 8 

cm. Ovakva naboranost se može uočiti na šinama u pravcu i krivinama velikog radijusa. Smatra se da 

usled oscilacija točka i šine nastaju promene u strukturi čelika, tako da se na tvrđim mestima formiraju 

sjajna ispupčenja. Ova pojava utiče na povećanje buke i do 10 dB(A) i povećava dinamičko 

opterećenje koloseka 

Slika 15 pokazuje karakterističan pravilan signal na sondi 4. Amplitude su male. Signal ima izrazitu 

periodičnost. Vrhovi (pikovi) signala odgovaraju pojavi sjajnih ispupčenja na voznoj površi. Analizom 

signala utvrđuje se mesto, broj i periodičnost talasa naboranosti na glavi šine. 

Slika 15. Karakteristična pojava i oblik izlaznih signala za naboranost kratkih talasa 

Belgrade, 2012 249



4.6 Karakteristike signala za detektovanje šinskih defekata na mestima kočenja i ubrzavanja 

vozila 

Na mestima kočenja, pokretanja i ubrzavanja dolazi do povećanog angažovanja pogonskih osovina 

vučnih vozila. Ovo pored ostalog ima za posledicu otvrdnjavanje, pomeranje materijala u gornjem 

sloju vozne površine i ugibanje. Kao posledica se javljaju defekti na voznoj površini. Napredovanje 

defekta može da dovede do loma šine. Slika 16 prikazuje izgled defekta i signala. 

Ovaj defekt se uvek javlja na obe šine u koloseku, tako da je oblik signala za levu i desnu šinu uvek 

sličan. Karakterističan signal se javlja sa sonde 4. Signal ima široki "breg" sa nizom malih vrhova. 

Analizom oblika signala utvrđuje se mesto pojave i dužina ovog defekta, ali ne može se utvrditi dubina 

oštećenja. 

Slika 16. Karakteristična pojava i oblik izlaznih signala za defekt na mestima pokretanja, 

ubrzavanja i kočenja vozila 

5. ZAKLJUČAK 

Cena šine u odnosu na cenu gornjeg stroja sa kolosekom u zastoru od tucanika iznosi oko 30%, 

odnosno oko 20% u odnosu na cenu koloseka na čvstoj podlozi. Pored toga, troškovi održavanja šina 

čine dobar deo troškova održavanja železničkih pruga. 

Životni vek šine u koloseku nekada je bio ograničen vertikalnim i bočnim habanjem. Današnja 

osovinska i saobraćajna opterećenja, kao i brzine na prugama čine da je uzrok zamene šine zamor 

šinskog čelika. Zamor šinskog čelika može da ograniči vek šine na samo par godina. Jedan od načina 

da se produži životni vek šine u koloseku je rana detekcija defekata usled zamora šinskog čelika. 

U radu je prikazana mogućnost primene metode vrtložnih struja za detekciju površinskih defekata 

usled zamora. Ovaj metod detekcije najbolje rezultate daje u otkrivanju defekata tipa head checking. 

Na osnovu oblika signala sa četiri sonde može se odrediti mesto i broj defekata HC i proceniti dubina 

defekta. 

Pomoću metode vrtložnih struja mogu se utvrditi sa velikom verovatnoćom defekti tipa squat, defekti 

usled utiskivanja stranih tela, naboranost kratkih talasa i defekti na mestima pokretanja, ubrzanja i 

kočenja pogonskih vozila. Kod nabrojanih defekata ne može se metodom vrtložnih struja odrediti 

dubina oštećenja. 

Belgrade, 2012 250



Defekt belgrospi se ne detektuje ovom metodom. Takođe, defekt dugačke naboranosti unutarnje šine 

u krivinama malog radijusa se teže detektuje ovom metodom. 

Za efikasno upravljenje šinskim defektima na ŽS, autori ovog rada preporučuju kombinovanje više 

nedestruktivnih metoda: vizuelnu inspekciju, ispitivanje ultrazvukom i vrtložnim strujama. U tom smislu, 

neophodna je hitna dopuna podzakonskih akata i edukacija stručnog kadra u oblasti održavanja 

železničke infrastrukture. 

ZAHVALNICA 

Ovaj rad je rezultat istraživanja na Tehnološkom projektu br. 36012 "Istraživanje tehničko-tehnološke, 

kadrovske i organizacione osposobljenosti Železnice Srbije sa aspekta sadašnjih i budućih zahteva 

Evropske unije", koje je finansirano od strane Ministarstva za prosvetu i nauku Republike Srbije. 

LITERATURA 

[1] Schöch, W.: Entwicklung von Schleifstrategien gegen Rollkontaktermüdung - Ein internationaler 

Überblick, ZEVrail Glasers Annalen. 132, (2008), S. 2-10. 

[2] Popović, Z., Puzavac, L., Lazarević, L.: Rail Defects due to Rolling Contact Fatigue, Building 

Materials and Structures. 54, 2(2011), pp. 17-30, 

[3] Grassie, S., Nilsson, P., Bjurstrom, K., Frick, A., Hansson, L. G.: Alleviation of rolling contact 

fatigue on Sweden’s heavy haul railway, Wear. 253 (2002), pp. 42-53. 

[4] Cannon, D.F., Pradier, H.: Rail rolling contact fatigue Research by the European Rail Research 

Institute, Wear. 191 (1996), pp. 1-13. 

[5] Heyder, R., Girsch, G.: Testing of HSH rails in high-speed tracks to minimise rail damage, 

Wear. 258 (2005), pp. 1014-1021 

[6] Vitez, I., Oruč, M., Krumes, D., Kladarić, I.: Damage to Railway Rails Caused by Exploitation, 

Metalurgija. 46 (2) (2007), pp. 123-128. 

[7] Stock, R., Pippan, R.: RCF and wear in theory and practice – The influence of rail grade on 

wear and RCF, Wear. 271 (2011), pp. 125 -133. 

[8] Donzella, G., Faccoli, M., Ghidini, A., Mazzu, A., Roberti, R.: The competitive role of wear and 

RCF in a rail steel. // Engineering Fracture Mechanics. 72 (2005), pp. 287-308. 

[9] Lichtberger, B.: Das System Gleis und seine Instandhaltung, EI – Eisenbahningenieur (58) 

1/2007, S. 10-19. 

[10] Popović, Z., Lazarević, L., Brajović, LJ., Puzavac, L.: Rail Defects Head Checking – 

Phenomenon and Treatment, 20th International Symposium EURO – ZEL 2012, 5th – 6th June 

2012, Žilina SK, 2012, pp. 202-209. 

[11] UIC International Union of Railways: UIC Code 725 Treatment of rail defects, Paris, 2007. 

[12] UIC International Union of Railways: UIC Code 712 Rail Defects, Paris, 2002. 

[13] DEY, A., CASPERSON, R., POHL, R., THOMAS, H. M.: Die Klassifizierung von 

Oberflächenfehlern in Schienen mit der Wirbelstromprüfung, DGZfP-Jahrestagung, Münster, 

2009, S. 9 

[14] Pohl, R., Krull, R.: A new Eddy Current Instrument in a Grinding Train, ECNDT 2006, Poster 

178, Genf, Switzerland, 2006. 

[15] Krull, R., Hintze, H., Thomas, H.: Moderne Methoden der zerstörungsfreien Werkstoffprüfung im 

Oberbau, Internationales Symposium Schienenfehler, Brandenburg, Brandenburg, 2000, S.39- 

54. 

Belgrade, 2012 251



NOISE REDUCTION IN RAILWAY INFRASTRUCTURE 

Zdenka Popović, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia 

Leposava Milosavljević, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia 

Luka Lazarević, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia 

Abstract: 

The tendency of applying urban rail systems for passenger transport grows in the urban environment, 

due to their advantage regarding direct and indirect ecological effects in comparison to other modes of 

transport. In this sense, the increase of railway transport will affect on reduction of air pollution, but at 

the same time it will increase noise level. This paper analyzes and suggests necessary measures for 

managing railway noise in planning, design, construction and maintenance of the railway 

infrastructure. It emphasizes the influence of separation of passenger and freight transport 

subsystems in the railway junction, rail routing with respect to terrain, track alignment design 

parameters and superstructure and substructure design. It is pointed out that efficient solution of the 

noise problem requires joint strategy of managing noise from vehicles and infrastructure. Efficient 

noise control is based on clearly defined legal regulations and technical standards. 

Key words: Serbian Railways, noise, infrastructure, environment, legislation 

ULOGA INFRASTRUKTURE U REDUKCIJI BUKE OD ŽELEZNIČKOG SAOBRAĆAJA 

Apstract: 

U urbanom okruženju raste tendencija primene šinskih sistema za prevoz putnika, zbog njihove 

prednosti u pogledu direktnih i indirektnih efekata u odnosu na druge vidove prevoza. U skladu sa 

time, očekivano povećanje obima železničkog saobraćaja uticaće na smanjenje zagađenja vazduha, 

ali u isto vreme i na povećanje nivoa buke. Ovaj rad analizira i predlaže potrebne mere za upravljanje 

bukom od železničkog saobraćaja na nivou planiranja, projektovanja, građenja i održavanja železničke 

infrastrukture. On ukazuje na značaj razdvajanja pitničkog i terenog saobraćajnog podzistema u 

železničkom čvoru, vođenja trasa železničke pruge u odnosu na teren, izbora elemenata situacionog 

plana, kao i konstrukcije gornjeg i donjeg stroja na smanjenje emisije buke. U radu se ističe da 

efikasno rešenje problema buke zahteva zajedničku strategiju upravljanja bukom od vozila i 

infrastrukture. Efikasna kontrola buke se zasniva na jasno definisanim zakonskim propisima i 

tehničkim standardima. 

Ključne reči: Železnice Srbije, buka, infrastruktura, životna sredina, regulativa 


The countries that were signatories of the Protocol adopted in Kyoto on December 12th, 1997 

committed to reduce the emission of harmful gases. Achieving the target of the reduction of emission 

of harmful gases requires the reduction of the influence of transport on the environment and reestablishing 

the balance between different modes of transport. Thus the relative competitiveness of 

railway transport compared to other modes of transport becomes quite significant (European 

Commission, 2011). 

European traffic policy expects a tripling of freight transport on rail by 2020, which will affect on 

reduction of air pollution and increase of road traffic safety (European Commission, 2011). By the 

assessments, consequences of this policy will be increase of noise from railway traffic by 5 dB(A). 

Control of railway noise has very significant part in the traffic policy of the EU. Considering an 

organization policy of railway traffic in Europe, main cause of night-time noise is traffic of freight trains. 

Daily noise level of railway traffic is determined by high speed trains traffic, conventional speed trains 

traffic and urban rail transit. 

This increase of noise will significantly reduce the quality of life of citizens. Enhanced noise firstly 

causes uneasiness, then irritability, tendency towards depression, insomnia, digestive problems, even 

Belgrade, 2012 252



cardio-vascular disease and deafness. That’s why utilizing methodical measures for noise reduction is 

expected from the railway. 

Unfortunately, noise control is often incorrectly implemented only in the maintenance phase. This 

paper points out that noise control begins already in the phase of planning and design and continues 

in the phase of construction and maintenance of the railway infrastructure. It means that application of 

indirect measures for noise protection (screening with conventional or low sound barriers next to track, 

installing the soundproof windows on nearby buildings) only have sense after applying all possible 

measures in railway planning and design. 

The paper analyzes concrete measures in planning, design, construction and maintenance of the 

railway infrastructure which influence the level of the railway noise. 

2. STRUCTURE OF RAILWAY NOISE 

Railway noise is an unwanted, unpleasant and disturbing sound, which emerges as a time variable 

mechanical deformation in the elastic environment. During sound transmission, oscillating change of 

pressure over time, p(t), appears in the air, and the human ear registers it. 

The source of exterior force which is causing mechanical deformations by taking small parts of the 

matter out of balance and stimulating them to move around their position of equilibrium is considered 

to be the source of noise. The main sources of the railway noise are engine of vehicles, wheels rolling 

on the rail and air resistance (Hecht, 2003). 

Definitions of measurands that are used in measurement of noise emitted by rail bound vehicles are 

given in the EN standard : EN ISO 3095:2005 Railway applications – Acoustics – Measurement of 

noise emitted by rail bound vehicles (ISO 3095:2005). The methodology of measurement of noise 

inside rail bound vehicles is given in the EN standard: EN ISO 3381:2005 Railway applications – 

Acoustics – Measurement of noise inside rail bound vehicles (ISO 3095:2005). Test method and limit 

values are prescribed by the TSI (European Commission, 2006). TSI application is obligatory for all 

member countries of the EU, while EN standards are obligatory only in the case of bringing 

subordinate acts to a certain standard. 

By analyzing the structure of noise emission, it is determined that noise in the wheel/rail contact point 

is the major problem in the widest domain of velocities (Figure 1). In the domain of small velocities, the 

authoritative noise is coming from vehicle engine and auxiliary devices (locomotive engine, air 

conditioning devices, breaks and similar). In the domain of high velocities the railway noise largely 

depends on acoustic noise caused by turbulent airflow over the surface of a train body. 

FIG. 1. Level and sources of railway noise depending on the vehicle speed 

The dominant influence of noise generated at the wheel/rail contact point, confirms the importance of 

maintenance of both vehicles and track geometry. 

Belgrade, 2012 253



Masses of small parts of the matter which oscillate and interior forces which tend to restore them to 

the state of equilibrium are major contributors of unwanted noise during the rolling of wheels on the rail 

(Figure 2). The rolling of wheels on the rail causes noise due to the following: 

- geometrical shape of the wheel and surface of the rail head in the area of their contact, 

- abrupt changes of stiffness in track with discrete rail support, 

- influence of rail joints (mechanical with fishplates, isolated, welded) 

- bumping and friction of flange of the outer wheel on the inner side of the head of the outer rail 

in the curve. 

FIG. 2. The oscillation principle of the "wheel-rail-rail bed" system 

(Hohnecker, 2004) 

Noise control in the wheel/rail contact point requires application of corresponding measures in design 

and maintenance of the vehicle, track and track bed. 

3. NOISE CONTROL IN THE PHASES OF PLANNING, DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND 

MAINTENANCE OF THE RAILWAY INFRASTRUCTURE 

The policy of modern European railway development assumes control of the possible harmful 

influences on the environment in the phases of planning, design, construction and maintenance of the 

railway infrastructure. 

Relocation of freight transport subsystem (railways and stations for freight traffic) outside of urban area 

of the railway junction gives the greatest contribution to reducing the negative impact of railway noise 

on the population. 

The tendency of applying urban rail systems (trams, light rail systems, metro, urban and suburban 

railway) for passenger transportation grows in the urban environment, due to their advantage 

regarding direct and indirect ecological effects in comparison to other modes of transport. 

It can be concluded that the environmental impact of rail systems in the urban environment, from the 

standpoint of infrastructure, is primarily defined by: 

- separation of passenger and freight transport subsystem in the area of traffic junction, 

- rail routing with respect to terrain, 

- track alignment design parameters (spatial track macro-geometry), 

- choice of the railway superstructure and substructure, 

Belgrade, 2012 254



- choice of construction technology and organization (only during construction in an urban 

environment), 

- concept of maintaining the railway infrastructure (track micro-geometry). 

Introduction of modern railway terminals in the central zones of the city requires minimizing ecological 

influences from the railway traffic to the urban environment. The difference between noise emission of 

freight car and modern bi-level rail car of Intercity train is about 20 dB(A) (which is same as the 

difference between noise from rock concert and from chamber concert. It is therefore necessary to 

plan and design railway junctions with a clear separation of passenger and freight transport subsystem 

in the area of traffic junction. Figure 3 shows the current reconstruction of the Belgrade railroad 

junction, which should enable separation of the passenger and freight transportation, as well as the 

relocation of the main passenger rail station. 

FIG. 3. Passenger and freight subsystem of the Belgrade railroad junction 

In the general, the following positions of railway route with respect to terrain are possible: below 

ground surface (deep or shallow laid tunnel, cut), on the surface, above the ground (embankment, 

bridge). The principle of railway noise transmission to the surrounding objects is shown in Figure 4. 

FIG. 4. The principle of railway noise transmission to the surrounding objects 

Belgrade, 2012 255



By choosing the elements of geometry in the layout plan (radii of horizontal circular curves, shape and 

length of transition curves, the length of tangent sections) and longitudinal profile (gradient slope, the 

shape of the superelevation ramps, the position of gradient change point, radii of vertical curves) the 

expected scope and types of activities, as well as maintenance costs during exploitation are defined. 

This is important because each irregularity of track micro-geometry increases the emission of noise 

during the passage of rail vehicles. 

After determining the spatial position and track alignment design parameters, the design of 

superstructure and substructure defines the level of ecological influence on the environment. 

The expected calculated railway noise level emitted in the environment must be in accordance with 

legal guidelines. Otherwise, the design determines additional noise protection measures such as low 

and high noise protection walls, embankments, plantings, installation of special windows in nearby 

buildings and other appropriate measures, in order to harmonize the expected noise levels with the 

statutory provisions. 

FIG. 5. Noise and vibrations control during planning, design, construction and exploitation 

The expected calculated railway noise level emitted in the environment must be in accordance with 

legal guidelines. Otherwise, the design determines additional noise protection measures such as low 

and high noise protection walls, embankments, plantings, installation of special windows in nearby 

buildings and other appropriate measures, in order to harmonize the expected noise levels with the 

statutory provisions. 

During the track exploitation, vibrations and noise level emitted into the environment must be 

maintained according to calculated guidelines. In order to achieve that, the track maintenance and 

noise level monitoring are mandatory. Modern maintenance compulsorily includes rail care, inspection, 

regular and corrective maintenance of track elements and geometry (Figure 5). 

4. INFLUENCE OF THE SUPERSTRUCTURE DESIGN ON THE NOISE EMISSION 

Design of the superstructure generally must fulfil the usual requests of the convenient transmission of 

the static and dynamic load based on the principle of stress reduction, starting from the rail towards 

Belgrade, 2012 256



the substructure, as well as requests for safe guidance and directing of the rail vehicle. Also, 

superstructure design must fulfil the request for comfort for the passengers who sit or stand in the 

vehicle, with minimum disturbance, and if possible, improvement of ecological relations in the 

environment. 

In urban environment, the influence of superstructure design on the noise and vibrations emission is of 

particular importance. In addition, these structures must meet the esthetical requirements, accessibility 

requirements, as well as specific conditions for construction and maintenance in urban environment. 

4.1 Specificity of use of ballasted track in an urban environment 

Generally, good sides of the classical superstructure solution with ballast are : 

- better acoustic properties in comparison to a solution without ballast, 

- developed domestic production of the majority of the structure elements, 

- application of the usual technology and mechanization for construction and maintenance, 

- available qualified and competent domestic staff, 

- acceptable price for the meter of the track. 

Bad sides of this solution are also very well known: 

- inevitable change of track geometry (longitudinal level and alignment) during exploitation, 

expressed as deviation from designed geometry, which leads to reduction of drive comfort and 

increase of emission of noise and vibration, 

- necessity of track geometry correction, 

- inevitable pollution of ballast by crushing grains, sand, dust and plant seeds deposited by 

wind, which requires regular vegetation control, cleaning and adding of ballast material (noisy 

machine cleaning with addition of new ballast material), 

- deposition of solid and liquid waste on ballast, which creates a hygienic and esthetical 

problem, 

- ballast creates favourable environment for rodents (especially in the tunnels) and reptiles. 

Generally, correcting the stated defects requires free access of mechanization at the place of 

intervention, necessary space for storage and maintenance of mechanization, as well as the space for 

residence of personnel, necessary regular pauses in the timetable for rail-care and current 

maintenance, alternative transport solutions in case of inevitable closure of the track, ensuring 

sufficient track length where some of the corrective maintenance measures should be performed in 

order to make the maintenance possible, safe, efficient and economical. 

The application of mechanization in ballasted track maintenance is favourable because of its efficiency 

and extremely unfavourable because of the noise. It is extremely difficult to implement the conditions 

for mechanization work during the heavy traffic, insufficient work space (tracks between platforms, 

high cable density, equipment and devices built into the track). The consequence is frequent inability 

to apply mechanized track maintenance and to engage unreliable, long-term and inhumane manual 

work. 

Ballast track maintenance works become a real problem during the heavy daily traffic. The solution is 

mainly sought in applying maintenance activities during the night. This often creates the problem of 

insufficient time for maintenance activities when the noise level is limited during the night (according to 

the national legal regulations). 

Reduced emission of noise and vibration is achieved by applying elastic rail fastening systems (CEN, 

2006), reducing the distance between sleepers (not over 60 cm), installation of elastic elements 

beneath the concrete sleepers (under sleeper pads) and elastic mats beneath the ballast (ballast 

mats) (Figure 6). 

Belgrade, 2012 257



FIG. 6. Possible positions of the elastic elements in the ballasted track 

4.2 Specificity of use of ballastless track in an urban environment 

Generally, the level of noise emitted while the vehicle is passing through on the ballastless track 

(without additional noise protection measures) is greater than 5 dB(A) relative to ballasted track 

(Buchman, 2006). In spite of that, minimal maintenance expenses, which were reduced to rail-care 

and inspection, as well as long service life, give this solution an advantage in urban environment 

(Darr, 2006). 

What principally secludes ballastless track with respect to ballasted track is long service life and stable 

track geometry with minimum activity and maintenance expenses during at least 60 years. One of the 

prerequisites for fulfilment of this request is quality track geometry, according to the design, while 

respecting set tolerances for track geometry accuracy. 

Ballastless track geometry corrections are limited to interventions within elastic fastening system 

capacities (CEN, 2002; Darr, 2006). Thus, the track is laid out only on the stable multilayered solid 

bed. 

Leaving ballast out requires the application of appropriately dimensioned elastic elements in 

ballastless track. Elastic elements are most frequently placed within the fastening system, but they can 

be found within or beneath sleepers, as well as beneath concrete slabs (Figure 7). 

FIG. 7. Possible positions of the elastic elements in the ballastless track 

Belgrade, 2012 258



Ballastless tracks with continually elastically supported rails have relatively less noise emission 

compared to tracks with discretely elastically supported rails. 

Ballast spreading over the ballastless track, implantation of prefabricated noise absorption elements 

(Figure 8) or grass cladding is applied in addition to standard noise protection measures (Figure 9). 

FIG. 8. Ballast spreading over the asphalt slab (middle) and built-in noise-absorbing elements (right) in 

the track type FFBS ATS SATO (left) on the railway between stations Mannheim and Karlsruhe in 

1996 (Mailänder Ingenieur Consult, 1996) 

FIG. 9. Track type "Rasengleis" for long-distance traffic on the test section between stations 

Mannheim and Karlsruhe before (left) and after installation of noise protection elements (right) 

(Mailänder Ingenieur Consult, 1996) 

5. WHEEL/RAIL NOISE CONTROL MEASURES 

By analyzing equation (1) for calculating noise level according to (Die Deutsche Bundesbahn, 2006), it 

can be concluded that wheel/rail noise control must include strategy and measures in design and 

maintenance of both vehicles and track, as well as measures in the organization of transport. 

L 

mE 

0.1(51 DFz DD D1 

DV ) 

10 lg 10 

DFb 

DBr 

DBue 

DRa 

(1) 

where: 

51 dB is the basic value of noise emission level, 

DFz is the influence of vehicle type, 

DD is the influence of brake type, 

D1 is the influence of vehicle length, 

DV is the influence of vehicle speed, 

D Fb is the influence of track type and state, 

D Br is the influence of bridges, 

D Bue is the influence of level crossings, 

and D Ra is the influence of track curvature. 

Belgrade, 2012 259



5.1 Maintenance of the upper part of the rail head 

Corrugation of the upper part of the rail head is the common cause of the roughness of the rail head 

running surface (Figure 10). The phenomenon is observed as a periodical sequence of bright ridges 

and dark hollows on the running surface (International Union of Railways, 2002). 

Constructive measures for corrugation reduction are continual rail support or decrease of space 

between discrete rail supports (space between sleepers 60 cm, which increases rail bending 

stiffness) and decrease of direct fastening system stiffness (recommended value of static stiffness of 

rail pads is up to 200 kN/cm). Experience showed that corrugation doesn’t occur in the case of 

continually supported rails, or it occurs with time delay with respect to discretely supported rails. 

FIG. 10. Rail head slip waves - code number 2202 (photos taken on the New Belgrade – Zemun 

section, 28 July 2004) 

To eliminate rail head corrugation, grinding is applied (International Union of Railways, 2007). Today, 

grinding (along with lubrication of outer rail in curve) is a part of the routine rail-care. Timely grinding of 

surface roughness prevents its further development. The grinding effect is not permanent. After some 

time, corrugation reoccurs. 

It is considered that the noise decrease potential, based on the rail-care, is from 15 to 20 dB(A) with 

respect to the track condition without rail-care (Schöch, 2008). 

The objective of grinding strategy is rail life extension, reduction of total track and vehicle maintenance 

costs, and reduction of railway traffic vibration and noise level. Preventive, corrective and cyclic 

activities make the grinding strategy. 

Preventive activities are undertaken before the defects are noted in the zones where their occurrence 

is empirically expected. Preventive grinding is applied after laying new rails on the track before 

acceptance of works. If the rail has to be replaced on the existing track, new rails can be grinded right 

away or a few weeks after the assembly. 

The target of corrective grinding is re-establishing regular longitudinal rail profile by removing 

corrugation. Different railway managements set different limit values of corrugation depth for 

application of corrective grinding. In spite of diversity of corrugation grinding strategies, it is generally 

accepted in Europe that removing corrugation is essential and worthwhile. 

Depending on the depth of the rail head damage, material is removed from the surface of the head in 

order to allow the wheels to roll on the undamaged steel surface. By removing the material by 

grinding, rail cross profile has to be maintained, so that the wheel/rail contact stresses are maintained 

within acceptable limits and a stable ride quality is provided. 

Sometimes corrugation appears combined with squats (Figure 11, right) mainly on straight lines and 

curves of radius R ≥ 3000 m with high shear stresses, especially zones where accelerations and 

breaking occurs (Schöch, 2008). If the defect is noticed in the initial stadium, it can be removed by 

grinding and thus the rail replacement can be deferred. Only in some cases welding can repair this 

defect. Rail replacement most frequently solves the problem, though. 

Belgrade, 2012 260



FIG. 11. Head checking (left) and squat rail defect (right) caused by rolling contact fatigue (photos 

taken on the Belgrade Centre – New Belgrade section) 

Special attention during maintenance should be paid to the condition of rail joints, tracks in the curve 

(Dollevoet, 2010), as well as the tracks in the turnout zone, crossings and expansion devices. Every 

noise increase on such sections points to irregularity of the track geometry, including the occurrence 

of rail defects. 

5.2 Maintenance of the wheel/rail contact surface 

Testing shows that finer treatment of the wheel rolling surfaces can reduce noise emission in the 

environment for 3 dB(A). 

A frequent cause of unevenness on the wheel rims are damages occurring due to influence of the 

brakes on the wheel. The level of damage is directly connected to the brake design, which is covered 

by the expression (1). Disc brakes don’t damage the wheel rim, and thus they contribute to noise level 

decrease of up to 11 dB(A) compared to the cast iron brake shoe. By discarding the additional shoe 

brake, which was the cause of roughness of the wheel rim, TGV-Atlantic reduced noise in the 

environment for 6 dB(A) with respect to TGV Sud-Est (Chiaramella, 1995). Similarly, but in respect to 

freight cars, Swiss Railway expects to reduce the environmental noise pollution by 5 to 8 dB by 

replacing shoe brakes affecting the wheel. 

FIG. 13. Wheel tread surface condition: cast iron block brake (left), composite block 

brake (center), disc brake (right) 

5.3 Relation of the wheel and rail maintenance strategies 

At even rail and wheel noise emission levels, total noise from both elements increases for 10log2=3.01 

dB. Also, if noise induced by wheel and rail are the same, then reduction of noise emission on either 

wheel or rail by 10 dB(A) will decrease total wheel/rail noise by only 2.6 dB(A) (Figure 12). 

Belgrade, 2012 261



To simplify the calculus, decrease or increase of rail or wheel noise influence for 10 dB is used in the 

numerical example. Still, in practical terms, it corresponds to an increase or decrease of noise at 

emphasized corrugation or roughness of the wheel rim. 

FIG. 12. Total noise level in case of various noises induced by wheel and rail 

If the noise that one of the elements is creating is greater, then greater effects in total noise reduction 

are achieved by intervention on the element that is greater source of noise. This can be illustrated with 

a simple numerical example. Let’s suppose that one of the elements (wheel or rail) emits the noise of 

the level “A” expressed in dB, and another of the level “B”. If the intervention reduces the noise level of 

one element by, for example, 10 dB, simple mathematical analysis (2) can prove that total noise level 

is less if noise reduction measures are applied precisely on the element which emits greater noise: 


log(10 

A 10 



B 


) 


log(10 

A 



B 10 


) 


A 



A B 

10 10 

A B 

B 


(2) 

This proves that efficient noise control must contain design and maintenance measures of both 

elements, so it can be intervened in time on the element which emits greater levels of noise. 

6. CONCLUSION 

Railway infrastructure investments have to be planned in a way that maximises positive impact on 

economic growth and minimises negative impact on the environment. 

The efficient solution for noise emission requires the cooperation and common maintenance strategy 

of both, vehicle and infrastructure owners. This is a serious task because of possible negative effects 

of noise on human health, life quality and productivity. This problem cannot be solved by appealing to 

conscience and responsibility of infrastructure owners and vehicle owners. The way to solve this 

problem is to define legal and technical regulations in the field of railway noise control. 

In this sense, it is necessary to harmonize national legal and technical regulations with EU regulations 

in the area "Railway applications". Harmonization of regulations is a process that must include 

education of professionals for railway infrastructure and rolling stock in the area of actual application of 

regulations on railway. This is a necessary condition for the realization of the idea of interoperability of 

railway systems across Europe and beyond. 

Belgrade, 2012 262



The Technical Specification of Interoperability relating to the trans-European conventional rail system - 

Subsystem Infrastructure covers the conventional railway system maintenance from the aspect of 

safety, reliability and availability, health, environmental protection and technical compatibility of the 

maintenance installations for conventional rolling stock (European Commission, 2011). 

The Infrastructure Manager has to define, for each conventional rail line, a maintenance plan 

according to (European Commission, 2011). The plan defines types of inspection and testing and their 

frequency, professional competences of staff, measuring methods and necessary procedures. 

It should be emphasized that from the railway infrastructure aspect, the railway noise control is not 

realized only in the area of maintenance. Noise control begins already in the phase of planning and 

design of the railway and continues in the phase of construction and maintenance of the railway 

infrastructure. 

Since the rolling of the wheel on the rail is the primary source of noise in the widest range of velocities 

on the conventional railway network, special attention must be directed to the design and maintenance 

of the track and vehicles. 

Application of indirect measures for noise protection only have sense after applying all possible 

measures in railway planning and design, as well as measures in design and maintenance of vehicles 

and track. Decision on the application of passive measures of protection must be based on the 

corresponding calculations which justify their application. 

Railway noise and vibration control lasts throughout the entire service life of the track by coordinating 

and performing railway infrastructure and vehicle maintenance activities. 



the research project No. 36012: “Research of technical-technological, staff and organisational capacity 

of Serbian Railways, from the viewpoint of current and future European Union requirements” and joint 

Slovak - Serbian project “Reconstruction and revitalization of railway infrastructure in accordance with 

regional development” (No. 680-00-140/2012-09/10). 

REFERENCES 

[1] BUCHMAN, A. (2006), 'Feste Fahrbahn und Lärm - Gibt es hier Lösungen' (lecture), Institut 

für Straßen- und Eisenbahnwesen, Universität Karlsruhe (TH) 

http://www.dlr.de/fs/Portaldata/16/Resources/dokumente/vk/Vortrag_Buchmann_051006.pdf 

(accessed 25 January 2012). 

[2] CEN (European Committee for Standardization) (2006), EN 13481-2/A1:2006 Railway 

applications - Track - Performance requirements for fastening systems - Part 2: Fastening 

systems for concrete sleepers. 

[3] CEN (European Committee for Standardization) (2002), EN 13481-5:2002 Railway 

applications - Track - Performance requirements for fastening systems - Part 5: Fastening 

systems for slab track. 

[4] CHIARAMELLA G. (1995), 'La SNCF soigne son environnment sonore', La Vie du Rail, 2518, 

12-13. 

[5] DARR, E. and FIEBIG W. (2006), Feste Fahrbahn: Konstruktion und Bauarten für Eisenbahn 

ud Strassenbahn, Eurailpress. 

[6] DIE DEUTSCHE BUNDESBAHN (2006), Schall 03, Richtlinie zur Berechnung der 

Schallimmissionen von Schienenwegen. 

[7] DOLLEVOET, R.P.B.J. (2010), Design of an Anti Head Check profile based on stress relief, 

PhD Thesis, University of Twente. 

[8] EUROPEAN COMMISSION (2011), Technical specification for interoperability relating to the 

‘infrastructure’ subsystem of the trans-European conventional rail system, Brussels. 

[9] EUROPEAN COMMISSION (2006), TSI Subsystem ‘rolling stock - noise’ of the trans- 

European conventional rail, Official Journal of the European Union. 

Belgrade, 2012 263



[10] EUROPEAN COMMISSION (2011), White Paper, Roadmap to a Single European Transport 

Area - Towards a competitive and resource efficient transport system, Brussels. 

[11] HECHT, M. (2003), 'Lärmbelastung durch Schienengüterverkehr' (lecture), TU Berlin, 

http://www.laermorama.ch/m5_krachmacher/pdf/schienengueterverkehr.pdf (accessed 10 

February 2012). 

[12] HOHNECKER, E. (2004), 'Schienenfahrweg für das 21 Jahrhundert - Teil I Lärmreduktion 

beim Fahren auf kontinuierlich gelagerter Schiene System INFUNDO' (final report), Karlsruhe. 

[13] UIC (International Union of Railways) (2002), UIC Code 712 Rail Defects. 

[14] UIC (International Union of Railways) (2007), UIC Code 725 Treatment of rail defects. 

[15] MAILÄNDER INGENIEUR CONSULT (1996), Optimierte Feste Fahrbahn, Einbau von sieben 

verschiedenen neuen Bauerten zwischen Mannheim und Karlsruhe, Movie Klip. 

[16] SCHÖCH, W. (2008), 'Entwicklung von Schleifstrategien gegen Rollkontaktermüdung - Ein 

internationaler Überblick', ZEVrail Glasers Annalen 132, 2-10. 

Belgrade, 2012 264



ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD UNDER THE ELECTRIC OVERHEAD 

SYSTEM 25 KV, 50 HZ OF SERBIAN RAILWAYS 

Gavrilovic S. Branislav, Railway College of Vocational Studies Belgrade, Serbia 

Popovic Zdenka, Faculty of Civil Engineering in Belgrade, Serbia 

Bundalo Zoran, Railway College of Vocational Studies Belgrade, Serbia 

Abstract 

Basic design of railway overhead system is represented with overall geometry and the results are 

obtained by three-dimensional analysis. Results of analysis are compared with the values in 

regulation to assess the impact of electric and magnetic fields to environment. 

Railway network section switchgear and rolling conductors of overhead system as an element of 

railway traction system 25 kV, 50 Hz, are a stationary source of electromagnetic fields for which 

legislation provides mandatory control of field's level. Function of railway network section 

switchgears is partition of railway network in sections which are loaded from different traction 

substation. 

In this paper, protective legislation is described including marginal levels of electric and magnetic 

field in vicinity of electro energetic facilities. In order to estimate if the values of fields in the 

environment exceed the prescribed limits of Regulation, it is necessary to calculate the value of the 

field. For that purpose software EFC-400 Release V5.3 is used. 

Basic design of railway overhead system is represented with overall geometry and the results are 

obtained by three-dimensional analysis. Results of analysis are compared with the values in 

regulation to assess the impact of electric and magnetic fields to environment 

Key words: Serbian Railways, electric overhead traction system, electromagnetic field, environment, 

legislation 

ELEKTROMAGNETNO POLJE U PROSTORU OKO VOZNIH VODOVA I POSTROJENJA ZA 

SEKCIONISANJE KONTAKTNE MREŽE 25 kV, 50 Hz “ŽELEZNICE SRBIJE” 

Rezime - U radu je definisano električno i magnetno polja u prostoru oko stabilnih postrojenja 

električne vuče “Železnice Srbije”. Navedene su propisane granične vrednosti polja u ovom prostoru. 

Uopšteno je opisan elektrovučni sistem 25 kV, 50 Hz “Železnice Srbije” sa svim bitnim delovima: 

elektrovučnim podstanicama, kontaktnom mrežom, postrojenjima za sekcionisanje i železničkim 

šinama kao povratnim vodom kontaktne mreže. Prezentovan je model za proračun električnog i 

magnetnog polja na jednokolosiječnoj otvorenoj pruzi i u neposrednoj blizini stabilnih postrojenja 

električne vuče. Iz tog modela su dobijene vrednosti jačine polja u karakterističnim tačkama i 

upoređene su sa dozvoljenim vrednostima. Uporednom analizom dobijenih rezultata ustanovljeno je 

da su maksimalne moguće vrednosti intenziteta električnog polja i intenziteta magnetne indukcije u 

prostoru oko voznih vodova postrojenja za sekcionisanje kontaktne mreže manje od referentnih nivoa 

prema ICNIRP preporukama. Kako još uvek nisu istraženi svi biološki mehanizmi uticaja 

elektromagnetnog polja na povećanje rizika od nastanka obolenja ljudskog organizma, važno je da 

buduća istraživanja ograniče dozvoljenu dužinu vremena izloženosti železničkih radnika ovim poljima. 

Ključne reči - Elektovučni sistem “Železnice Srbije”, elektromagnetno polje, životna sredina. 

Belgrade, 2012 265



1. UVOD 

U ovom radu je analiziran elektrovučni sistem 25 kV, 50 Hz “Železnice Srbije” kao izvor 

elektromagnetnog polja. Cilj rada je uspostavljanje matematičkog modela za izračunavanje nivoa 

elektromagnetnog polja u karakterističnim tačkama sistema, kako bi se sračunate vrednosti uporedile 

sa dozvoljenim, kao i sa već postojećim izmerenim vrednostima. Cilj rada proističe iz činjenice da se 

mogući nivoi elektromagnetnog polja u razmatranom elektrovučnom sistemu nisu mogli izmeriti zbog 

složenosti problema. Takođe, neka dosadašnja merenja su ukazivala na nedozvoljeno visoke 

vrednosti elektromagnetnog polja propisane u Republici Srbiji i prostoru EU [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. 

2. OSNOVNI POJMOVI O ELEKTROMAGNETNOM POLJU 

Uobičajeno je da se elektromagnetno polje definiše preko svoje posledice, tj. sile kojom deluje na 

naelektrisanja. Dakle, u nekom prostoru postoji elektromagnetno polje, ako na malu naelektrisanu 

česticu, naelektrisanja ΔQ , koja se u tom prostoru kreće brzinom v deluje tzv. Lorencova sila: 

F Q E Q v B 

(1) 

Naelektrisanje ΔQ u ovom slučaju, ne mora da postoji da bi postojalo polje. Ono služi samo za 

detekciju polja. Polje, prouzrokovano nekim drugim izvorom, postoji nezavisno od tog naelektrisanja. 

Izraz (1) je istovremeno i osnovni izraz za silu kojom elektromagnetno polje deluje na neko 

naelektrisanje. Iz izraza (1) se vidi da električno polje deluje i na nepokretna i na pokretna 

naelektrisanja, dok magnetno polje deluje samo na pokretna naelektrisanja. Vidi se i da je sila kojom 

električno polje deluje na česticu u smeru vektora E , što znači da električno polje dodaje 

naelektrisanju kinetičku energiju, ubrzava ga. Magnetna sila je normalna na vektor B , tako da ne 

može da ubrzava naelektrisanje, već samo teži da promeni pravac njegovog kretanja. 

Vektor jačine električnog polja E [V/m] i vektor magnetne indukcije B [T] su osnovni vektori koji 

kvantitativno opisuju bilo koje elektromagnetsko polje. 

Da li postoji samo električno polje, definisano vektorom jačine električnog polja E , ili samo magnetno 

polje, definisano vektorom magnetske indukcije B ili oba, zavisi od izvora koji stvaraju to polje. 

Ako su poznati izvori elektromagnetnog polja, zapreminska gustina naelektrisanja, ρ i vektor gustine 

struje, J , sa oznakama kao na slici 1, vektor jačine električnog polja i vektor magnetne indukcije, u 

vakuumu, dati su sledećim izrazima: 

E 

E 

r, 

t 

R 

c0 

4 

1 

0 V ' 

r', 

t 

R 

c0 

3 

R 

r 

r' 

dv' 

0 

t 4 

V ' 

J 

r', 

t 

R 

R 

c0 

dv' 

(2) 

Belgrade, 2012 266



B 

r, 

t 

R 

c0 

0 

4 

V ' 

J 

r', 

t 

R 

c0 

3 

R 

r 

r' 

dv' 

(3) 

U izrazima (2) i (3) korišćene su sledeće oznakeje: 

0 permitivnost (dielektrična konstanta) vakuuma, koja iznosi: 

12 F 

0 8 ,85419 0,00002 10 , 

m 

0 permeabilnost vakuuma, koja iznosi: 

7 H 

0 4 10 , 

m 

c 0 brzina prostiranja svetlosti u vakuumu, koja iznosi: 

1 

8 

c0 2,997924 0,000003 10 

0 0 

m 

s 

. 

Slika 1: Položaj izvora i položaj tačke u kojoj se određuje elektromagnetno polje 

Iz izraza (2) i (3) može da se uoči još jedna, vrlo značajna pojava, koja se naziva efekat kašnjenja. 

Zbog konačne brzine uspostavljanja elektromagnetnog polja, iz prethodnih izraza se vidi da su vektori 

polja definisani u tački P, u nekom trenutku t, prouzrokovani delovanjem izvora u tački P’ ne u tom 

R 

trenutku, već u nekom ranijem trenutku, t . 

c 0 

Kao i ostale pojave u prirodi, elektromagnetna polja mogu da budu vremenski konstantna, ili 

vremenski promenljiva. Proučavanje jednih i drugih se bitno razlikuje. 

Ako se izvori koji stvaraju elektromagnetno polje ne menjaju u vremenu, govorimo o vremenski 

konstantnim poljima. Karakteristično za sva vremenski konstantna elektromagnetna polja je da, u svim 

slučajevima, može posebno da se posmatra električno, a posebno magnetno polje. U slučaju kada se 

makroskopska naelektrisanja ne kreću, ona stvaraju elektrostatičko polje, pri čemu magnetno polje ne 

postoji. Kada se makroskopska naelektrisanja uniformno kreću, formirajući vremenski konstantnu 

struju, na osnovu prirodnih konstanti može da se pokaže da je uticaj magnetnog polja (drugi sabirak 

Belgrade, 2012 267



Lorencove sile) mnogo manji od uticaja električnog polja (prvi sabirak Lorencove sile), na osnovu čega 

može da se zanemari uticaj vremenski konstanog magnetnog polja na raspodelu vremenski 

konstantne struje. Iz toga sledi da i u tom slučaju električno polje može da se posmatra nezavisno od 

magnetnog polja. Vremenski konstanto električno polje je uvek konzervativno, potencijalno, odnosno: 

C 

E dl 0 

(4) 

Sasvim druga situacija je kada se izvori menjaju u vremenu. Zbog pojave elektromagnetske indukcije, 

vektor E dobija i vrtložnu komponentu, prouzrokovanu vremenski promenljivim magnetnim poljem, a 

i magnetno polje može da nastane kao posledica vremenski promenljivog električnog polja. Zbog toga 

električno i magnetno polje ne mogu da se posmatraju nezavisno jedno od drugog i predstavljaju 

samo komponentne jedinstvenog elektromagnetskog polja. Kaže se da je vremenski promenljivo 

električno polje uvek praćeno vremenski promenljivim magnetnim polje i obrnuto. 

Uobičajeno je da se vremenski promenljivo elektromagnetsko polje deli na dve podgrupe, u zavisnosti 

od toga da li već pomenuto kašnjenje elektromagnetnog polja može, ili ne može da se zanemari. Ako 

kašnjenje može da se zanemari, govori se o sporopromenljivom elektromagnetnom polju, 

kvazistatičnom ili kvazistacionarnom elektromagnetskom polju, dok se u drugom slučaju definiše 

brzopromenljivo elektromagnetsko polje, odnosno, elektromagnetski talasi. 

Elektromagnetna polja u elektrovučnom sistemu 25 kV, 50 Hz se mogu smatrati da su 

kvazistacionarna elektromagnetna polja, odnosno kvazistacionarni talasi koji se nalaze u 

megametarskom talasnom opsegu (50 do 300 Hz). Ova konstatacija posledica je činjenica što su 

izvori elektromagnetnog polja zapravo struje u elektro vučnom sistemu (struja vuče) koje su po pravilu 

složeno periodične veličine. Složeno periodična struja vuče u elektrovučnom sistemu "Železnice 

Srbije” sa elektrovučnim vozilima (ŽS 441, ŽS 444, ŽS 461, I EMV ŽS 412/416) pored osnovnog 

harmonika (50 Hz) sadrži i više uticajne harmonike koji ne prelaze navedeni frekventni opseg [7]. 

Zbog mogućnosti zanemarenja efekta kašnjenja u generisanju elektromagnetnog polja u 

elektrovučnom sistemu 25 kV, 50 Hz “Železnice Srbije” u daljem tekstu analiziraće se električno i 

magnetno polje nezavisno jedno od drugog. 

2.1. Električno polje 

Električno se polje kroz strujne provodnike se često računa kao negativni gradijent skalarnog 

potencijala x , y, 

z [8]: 

E r r 

(5) 

gde je: 

x 

y 

(6) 

z 

Belgrade, 2012 268



Tako na primer, potencijal u proizvoljnoj tački P xP, yP, 

zP 

koji potiče od ukupnog linijskog 

naelektrisanja Q i smešten na dužini provodnika L i duž x-ose može se odrediti iz sledećeg izraza: 

gde je: 

2 2 2 

Q 

xP 

xP 

yP 

z 

i 

p 

x P , yP, zP 

, t 

ln 

(7) 

4 0 

2 2 2 

xP 

Li 

xP 

Li 

yP 

zP 

Qi 

- ukupna količina naelektrisanja na posmatranoj dužini provodnika, 

Li 

- dužina provodnika, 

0 - dielektrična konstanta vakuuma. 

Definisanjem potencijala u svim tačkama prostora oko strujnog provodnika na osnovu izraza (7), 

električno polje se se lako određuje primenom izraza (5). 

Na osnovu opisanog matematičkog modela pristupilo se proračunu električnog polja na 

jednokolosečnoj pruzi u prostoru oko voznog voda u četri raspona kontaktne mreže BzII (slika 2) i u 

neposrednoj blizini postrojenja za sekcionisanje sa neutralnim vodom – PSN košutnjak (slika 3). 

Slika 2: Poprečni presek u prostoru oko voznog voda jednokolosečne otvorene pruge 

Belgrade, 2012 269



Slika 3: Postrojenje za sekcionisanje sa neutralnim vodom (PSN) Košutnjak, 

a) izgled, b) principijelna šema, c) 3D prikaz d) 2D prikaz spojnih vodova 

Kako bi se sproveo proračun električnog polja u analiziranom prostoru bilo je nužno utrvrditi naponske 

i strujne prilike voznog voda kontaktne mreže prema geometriskom rasporedu kao na slici 2, kao i 

prilike spojnih vodova za konkretnu konfiguraciju postrojenja za sekcionisanje (PSN). U ovom radu 

analizirana je konfiguracija terena i raspored spojnih vodova PSN Košutnjak koji, se nalazi u 

Beogradskom železničkom čvoru. Na slici 3 vidi se da u postrojenje PSN Košutnjak ulazi šest spojnih 

vodova. Koordinate početaka i završetaka spojnih vodova kod ovog PSN date su u tabeli 1. 

Tabela1: Položaj spojnih vodova u PSN Košutnjak m 

vod 

x p y p 

z p x k 

y k 

z k 

1 -10 4,5 7 -3 4,5 6 

2 -10 3,5 7 -3 3,7 6 

3 -10 2,5 7 -3 1,3 6 

4 -10 0,5 7 -3 0,5 6 

5 3 4.5 6 10 4,5 7 

6 3 3,7 6 10 3,5 7 

Naponske prilike na voznom vodu kontaktne mreže i spojnih vodova EVP su relativno stabilne. Naime, 

za kretanje elektrovučnih vozila potrebno je osigurati napajanje naponom koji neće znatno odstupati 

od nazivne vrednosti. U elektrovučnom sistemu 25 kV, 50 Hz dopušteni pogonski napon je 19 kV, dok 

napon ni u jednom trenutku ne sme pasti ispod 17.5 kV [9] Sa druge strane, kako bi se osigurale što 

bolje naponske prilike, odnosno smanjio uticaj pada napona na kontaktnom vodu, napon na 

sabirnicama u elektrovučnim podstanicama je nešto viši od nazivnog. U cilju dobijanja mogućih 

ekstremnih vrednosti električnog polja u analiziranom prostoru, u ovome radu pretpostavljen je napon 

voznog voda od U=26,5 kV. 

Belgrade, 2012 270



Električna struja kroz vozni vod kontaktne mreže i spojnih vodova EVP nije stalna. Čak šta više, 

njezina vrednost se menja iz trenutka u trenutak u zavisnosti od broja i trenutnog položaja vozova u 

odnosu na elektrovučnu podstanicu. Pri izračunavanju ekstremnih vrednosti električnog polja od 

posebnog interesa je bilo odrediti maksimalnu vrednost struje vuče kroz vozni vod kontaktne mreže. S 

obzirom da je vozni vod kontaktne mreže obrazovan od bakarnog kontaktnog provodnika (preseka 

100 mm 2 ) i nosivog užeta (preseka 65,8 mm 2 ), a na osnovu njihovih poznatih impedansi pristupilo se 

definisanju maksimalnih vrednosti kroz ove provodnike. Naime, na osnovu poznatih impedansi 

kontaktnog provodnika i nosivog užeta proizlazi da 60 % struje prolazi kroz kontaktni provodnik, a 40% 

kroz nosivo uže. Budući da je za bakarne provodnike voznog voda kod maksimalne radne 

temperature od 80 °C dopušteno strujno opterećenje 4 A/mm 2 , usvojene su za proračun u ovom radu 

nazivne struje kontaktnog provodnika i nosivog užeta od 400 A odnosno 260 A respektivno [10]. Treba 

napomenuti da iako su moguće ovako velike vrednosti struje kroz vozni vod iste se jako retko postižu. 

Na osnovu opisanog matematičkog modela i uz primenu programskog paketa EFC-400 Releaze V5.3. 

dobijena je raspodela električnog polja u prostoru oko voznog voda kontaktne mreže na 

jednokolosečnoj pruzi kao na slici 4 [11]. Sa slike 4 se može uočiti da najviša vrijednost električnog 

polja u blizini voznog voda ne prelazi vrednost 2 kV/m. Na visini 1.5 m iznad ravni gornje ivice šina 

električno polje ne prelazi vrednost 1.5 kV/m, a kritičnu vjednost od 2 kV/m dostiže na visini 4.35 m. 

Slika 4: Raspodela električnog polja oko voznog voda na jednokolosečnoj pruzi 

Električno polje u prostoru oko PSN Košutnjak izračunato je na visini 1 m i 2 m iznad ravni gornje ivice 

šina. Prva visina je odabrana kao standardna za proračune ovog tipa, dok je druga odabrana kao 

predpostavka najveće visine gde bi mogli boraviti ljudi. Rezultati su predstavljeni na slici 5. 

Najveća proračunata vrednost električnog polja 1 m iznad ravni gornje ivice šina je oko 0,9 kV/m i 

postiže se u prostoru na krajevima konzole i nosača konzole. Ono je rezultat međudelovanja metalnih 

masa i linija sila električnog polja. Međutim ovo područije je prostorno veoma ograničeno i nalazi se 

uz same železničke šine. Jačina električnog polja 2m iznad površine zemlje dostiže vrednost 1,2 kV/m 

i javlja se na uskom prostoru oko nosećeg stuba preko čijih konzola su kontaktni vodovi povezani sa 

postrojenjem za sekcionisanje. Kako je zgrada PSN Košutnjak obložena metalom u njoj nema 

delovanja električnog polja. 

Belgrade, 2012 271



Na visini 1 m iznad ravni gornje ivice šina 

Na visini 2 m iznad ravni gornje ivice šina 

Slika 5: Jačina električnog polja iznad ravni gornje ivice šina kod PSN Košutnjak 

2.2. Magnetno polje 

Magnetno polje u prostoru oko voznog i povratnog voda kontaktne mreže kroz koje protiče struja vuče 

može se izračunati na osnovu Bio - Savarovog zakona i metode superpozicije doprinosa svih delova 

na koji su podeljeni posmatrani vodovi (slika 6). Svaki infinitezimalni deo doprinosi ukupnom polju u 

proizvoljnoj tački P prema izrazu: 

d B 

4 

0 

I t 

r 

3 

dl 

r 

(8) 

gde je: 

I (t) struja koja prolazi kroz kroz elementarnu dužinu provodnika, 

dl vektor dužine elementarne dužine provodnika, 

r vektor položaja posmatrane tačke P. 

Ako se predpostavi da je pravoliniski provodnik dužine 

doprinos magnetnom polju u tački 

P x , 

P, yP 

zP 

: 

L i u pravcu i smeru x-ose, tada je njegov 

0 I t Li 

xP 

x 

B t 

P 

i (9) 

4 

2 2 2 2 

Li 

xP 

r xP 

r 

Sa komponetama: 

Belgrade, 2012 272



B 

xi 

t 

0 zP 

yP 

Byi 

t 

Bi 

t Bzi 

t 

Bi 

t 

2 2 

2 2 

y z 

y z 

(10) 

P 

P 

P 

P 

Слика 6: Мagnetna indukcija u prostoru oko strujnog provodnika 

Na osnovu izraza (9) i (10) može se zapaziti da je zavisnost od veličine struje vuče, koja se stalno 

menja, čini proračun magnetne indukcije složenijim od proračuna električnog polja. Na slici 7 

prikazana je raspodela magnetne indukcije u okolini kontaktne mreže na otvorenoj jednokolosečnoj 

pruzi za struju vuče od 600 A. Ta vrednosti struja vuče izabrana je kao maksimalno dozvoljena 

vrednost struje u voznom vodu. Na visini 1.5 m iznad ravni gornje ivice šina u osi koloseka vrednost 

magnetne indukcije iznosi 59.96 μT. 

Slika 7: Raspodela magnetne indukcije oko voznog voda kontaktne mreže na jednokolosečnoj pruzi 

pri struji vuče od 600 A 

Promena magnetne indukcija za različite vrednosti struja vuče na visini 1.5 m iznad ravni gornje ivice 

šina u pružnom pojasu do 6 m od ose koloseka grafički je prikazana na slici 8. Na slici 8 se može 

uočiti da je vrednost magnetne indukcije direktno proporcionalna jačini struje vuče i da opada sa 

udaljenošću od ose koloseka. Kada voznim vodom teče struja od 600 A na udaljenosti manjoj od 2 m 

od ose koloseka, postiže se vrednost magnetne indukcije od 40 μT. 

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Slika 8: Promena magnetne indukcije na visini 1.5 m iznad ravni gornje ivice šina u pružnom pojasu 

do 6 m od ose koloseka 

Kada je reč o magnetnom polju u prostoru oko PSN Lastra, treba istaći da u redovnom pogonu kroz 

spojne vodove ne teče struja, pa prema tome nema ni magnetnog polja. Ipak, u spojnim vodovima 

može teći struja i ako se računa da je ona 600 A, prostorna raspodela magnetne indukcije na visini 

iznad ravni gornje ivice šina od 1 m i 2 m prikazana je na slici 10. 

Na osnovu rezultata sa slike 9 uočava se da je magnetno polje na visini 1.5 m iznad ravni gornje ivice 

šina u pružnom pojasu do 6 m od ose koloseka manje od 75 μT, a da se ova vrednost kreće u vrlo 

uskom područiju u kome ne borave ljudi. Vrednosti magnetne indukcije od 100 μT na 2 m iznad ravni 

gornje ivice šina postižu se za struje od 800 A u svim spojnim vodovima. Ovako velika struja se po 

pravilu ne pojavljuje, pogotovo ne u svim spojnim vodovima. 

Raspodela magnetne indukcije na visini 1m 

iznad ravni gornje ivice šina 

Raspodela magnetne indukcije na visini 2m 

iznad ravni gornje ivice šina 

Slika 9: Raspodela magnetne indukcije oko EVP Lastra pri struji vuče od 600 A 

2.3. Provera dobijenih rezultata 

Na elektrificiranim prugama ŽS do sada nisu izvršena odgovarajuća merenja električnog i magnetnog 

polja na jednokolosečnim prugama. Međutim, “Hrvatske železnice” na svojim elektrificiranim prugama 

su obavila neka merenja [12]. Kako se radi o istoj konfiguraciji i tehničkim karakteristikama kontaktne 

mreže (slika 2), merenja električnog i magnetnog polja koja su izvršena na mestima prikazanim na 

Belgrade, 2012 274



slici 10 prema IEC 61786 standardu (tačke A,B,C, D i E), mogu služiti i za donošenje zaključaka i za 

izračunate elektromagnetne prilike na jednokolosečnim prugama ŽS. 

U tabeli 2 dati su rezultati merenja električnog i magnetnog polja koji su izvšeni u tačkama A,B,C, D i 

E kontaktne mreže na jednokolosečnoj pruzi kao na sl.11 [12]. 

Upoređujući vrednosti izmerenog električnog polja iz tabele 2 sa slikom 4, možemo zaključiti da se 

izmerene i proračunate vrednosti električnog polja u posmatranim tačkama podudaraju. 

Da bi se uporedile vrednosti magnetnog polja, potrebno je izračunati vrednosti magnetne indukcije za 

svaku od struja iz tabele 1. Rezultati izmerenih i izračunatih vrednosti magnetnog polja za ove struje 

date su u tabeli 3. 

Slika 10: Položaj mernih tačaka električnog i magnetnog polja 

Analizirajući vrednosti iz tabele 2, može se uočiti da se izmerene i izračunate vrednosti u tri slučaja 

gotovo potpuno podudaraju, dok se dve vrijednosti nešto razlikuju (u tačkama C i D). Razlika je 

posljedica nepreciznosti merenja struje vuče i činjenice da su ove struje složeno periodična funkcija 

vremena, pa je izmerena magnetna indukcija sastavljena i od komponenata višeg reda, dok se 

proračunom dobija samo magnetna indukcija osnovne frekvencije [7]. Može se smatrati da rezultati 

opisanog proračuna daju zadovoljavajuću tačnost. 

Tabela 2: Električno i magnetno polje na jednokolosečnoj elektrificiranoj pruzi 25 kV, 50 Hz 

Tačka Nazivni napon [kV] Električno polje [kV/m] Struja vuče [A] Magnetna indukcija [ T] 

A 25 1,27 200 12,0 

B 25 1,55 60 5,9 

C 25 1,70 95 6,3 

D 25 0,80 100 5,1 

E 25 1,02 220 7,2 

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Tabela 3: Izmjerene i izračunate vrijednosti magnetske indukcije 

Tačka I [A] B [ T]- izmereno - B [ T]- izračunato 

A 200 12,0 13,2 

B 60 5,9 6,3 

C 95 6,3 9,5 

D 100 5,1 5,0 

E 220 7,2 11,5 

2.4. Granične vrednosti električnog i magnetnog polja 

Kako bi se izbegli eventualni negativni efekti pri izlaganju živih bića poljima u elektrovučnom sistemu, 

na nivou Evropske unije donešena je preporuka 1999/519/EC o graničnim vrednostima 

elektromagnetnog polja (0 Hz -300 Hz). Granične vrednosti su preporučene po frekvencijskim 

opsezima. U tabeli 3 prikazan je izvod iz preporuka za frekvencije do 0.8 kHz [13,14]. 

Tabela 4: Izvod iz tablice graničnih vrijednosti [13,14] 

Frekvencijski opseg Električno polje [kV/m] Jačina magnetnog polja [A/m] Magnetna indukcija [ T] 

0-1 Hz - 3,2 10 4 4 10 4 

1-8 Hz 10000 3,2 10 4 /f 2 

8-25 Hz 10000 

0,025-0,8 KHz 250/f 4/f 5/f 

Iz tabele 4 se može uočiti da su za pogonsku frekvencija f=50 Hz preporučene granične vrednosti: E = 

5 kV /m , H = 80 A/ m i B = 100 μT . 

Međunarodna Komisija za zaštitu od nejonizujućeg zračenja (ICNIRP) definiše dva područija 

izloženosti elektromagnetnim poljima: područije profesionalne izloženosti poljima pogonske frekvencije 

od 50 Hz i tzv. područje povećane osjetljivosti [15]. Za područje profesionalne izloženosti poljima 

pogonske frekvencije od 50 Hz granične vrednosti su: E = 5 kV / m , H = 80 A/ m te B = 100 μT , 

odnosno E = 2 kV /m, H = 32 A / m te B = 40 μT za područje povećane osjetljivosti. Nacrtom zakona o 

zaštiti od nejonizujućih zračenja, Ministarstvo nauke i zaštite životne sredine R. Srbije, u novembru 

2005. Godine, je prihvatilo navedene vrednosti kao granično dozvoljene [16]. 

Analizom dobijenih rezultata u tačkama 2.1 i 2.2 ovog rada o jačini električnog i magnetnog polja u 

prostoru oko voznih vodova kontaktne mreže i prostoru u neposrednoj blizini PSN može se 

konstatovati da su sve izračunate i izmerene vrednosti jačine električnog i magnetnog polja niže od 

gore nevedenih vrednosti iz tabele 4 i da nema štetnog uticaja na žive organizme. 

Međutim, i pored svega navedenog, savremena istraživanja danas beleže brojne primere štetnog 

uticaja elektromagnetnog polja na železničke radnike [17, 18]. Zbog toga je potrebno pored graničnih 

vrednosti jačine električnog i magnetnog polja sagledati i druge uticajne parametre. 

Belgrade, 2012 276



Da bi se svi uticajni parametri što bolje sagledali obično se polazi od modela po kome se živi 

organizam u električnom polju predstavlja kao provodno telo određenog oblika, najčešče kao obrtni 

elipsoid (telo nastalo obrtanjem elipse oko duže ose koja je postavljena vertikalno u odnosu na 

horizontalnu ravnu površ zemlje). 

a) 

b) 

c) 

Slika 11: a) Model čovekovog tela u električnom polju 

b) Ekvivalentna šema za objašnjenje uzroka proticanja struje kroz organizam 

c) Tumačenje nastanka indukovane struje u organizmu usled delovanja magnetnog polja 

Unošenjem provodnog tela u električno polje dolazi do indukovanja električnih opterećenja na površi 

tela što dovodi do izobličenja spoljašnjeg električnog polja. U trenutku unošenja provodnog tela u 

električno polje dolazi do proticanja struje kroz telo. Ukoliko je električno polje promenljivo u vremenu, 

dolazi do stalnog proticanja struje kroz provodno telo. Pri delovanju naizmeničnog elektrinog polja kroz 

provodno telo protiče indukovana naizmenična struja, čiji se nastanak može objasniti prema slici 11b. 

U slučaju organizma, proticanje struje kroz telo zbog uticaja električnog polja se može objasniti 

kretanjem pozitivnih i negativnih jona u elektrolitu unutar tela. 

Za proračun gustine struje kroz ljusko telo koje se nalazi u uniformnom električnom polju poznate 

vrednosti E inc često se koristi sledeći aproksimativan izraz [15]: 

6 

d 0,275 10 1, E inc 

J 73 

(11) 

gde je: 1,73 

0,275 


6 A 

2 

m 

dozvoljena gustina struje po 1 

m 

V na 50 Hz. 

Za 

V 

E 1700 (koliko iznosi maksimalno električno polje u osi koloseka ispod voznog voda 

m 

kontaktne mreže), maksimalna gustina struje kroz ljusko telo iznosi: 

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6 

mA 

J d 0,275 10 1,73 1700 0,809 

(12) 

2 

m 

U prostoru oko EVP Lastra maksimalna vrednost jačine električnog polja 2m iznad ravni gornje ivice 

šina iznosi 1,2 kV/m. Moguća maksimalna vrednosti struje kroz ljudsko telo je još manja i iznosi: 

6 

mA 

J d 0,275 10 1,73 1200 0,571 

(13) 

2 

m 

Vrednosti gustine struje, date izrazima (11) i (12), takođe su znatno niže od dozvoljenih vrednosti koje 

su propisane s obzirom na centralni nervni sistem živih bića. Naime, dozvoljena vrednost gustine 

struje za područije profesionalne izloženosti je 10 mA/m 2 , a za područje povećane osjetljivosti 2mA/m 2 

[15, 16]. 

Magnetna indukcija, koja je posledica proticanja struje kroz vozne vodove kontaktne mreže i spojne 

vodove kod PSN, takođe izaziva pojavu struja u organizmu (slika 11 c). 

Može se uočiti da kao posledica dejstva magnetnog polja usled naizmenične struje kroz vozni vod 

kontaktne mreže i spojne vodove PSN dolazi do pojave indukovanih elektromotornih sila u organizmu 

koje prouzrokuju struje, što je prikazano na pravougaonoj konturi unutar elipsoida na slici 14. Na 

osnovu Faradejevog zakona gustina indukovane struje kroz provodni obrtni ellipsoid kojim je 

predstavljeno čovečije telo je: 

1 

J ind 

2 

r 

dB 

dt 

(13) 

Za sinusoidalnu promenu magnetnog polja: 

J ind r f B ind 

(14) 

gde je: 

r radijus krivine obrtnog elipsoida, 

S električna provodnost tela (obrtnog elipsoida), 

Bind 

- magnetna indukcija kroz obrtni ellipsoid 

f - frekvencija struja kroz nadzemne vodove kontaktne mreže. 

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Ako se uzmu preporučene vrednosti iz literature [15] za gore navedene parametre tj.: 

r 0 , 2 m , 

S 

S 0 , 2 , f 50 Hz za maksimalnu vrednost magnetne indukcije od 59.96 μT koja se postiže 

m 

na visini 1.5 m iznad šine i u osi koloseka ispod voznog voda kontaktne mreže dobija se: 

mA 

J ind max 

0,2 0,2 50 59,96 0,376 

(12) 

2 

m 

I ova vrednosti gustine struje je niža od 2mA/m 2 , koliko se dozvoljava s obzirom na centralni nervni 

sistem živih bića i za područje povećane osjetljivosti [15, 16]. 

Dakle, pojedinačno posmatrane indukovane struje usled elektičnog i magnetnog uticaja vodova 

kontaktne mreže imaju male efektivne vrednosti i to daleko manje od dozvoljenih vrednosti i praga 

nadražaja mišićnih i nervnih ćelija (čak za nekoliko redova veličina). Zbog toga boravak u prostoru u 

kome deluju električno i magnetno polje nema nikakvo dejstvo koje bi čovek mogao da oseti svojim 

čulima. 

Problem, međutim, predstavlja činjenica što do sada nisu u potpunosti poznati efekti dugotrajnog 

proticanja gore navedenih indukovanih struja kroz organizam. Zbog toga se danas vrše istraživanja u 

laboratorijama i na terenu u cilju dolaženja do saznanja da li postoje i koji efekti na organizam usled 

dugotrajnog boravka u prostoru u kome postoje električna i magnetna polja frekvencije 50 Hz. S 

obzirom na to da do sada nije bio poznat biološki mehanizam po kome elektromagnetno polje utiče na 

povećanje rizika od nastanka obolenja i negativnih zdravstvenih efekata, ne može se definisati ni 

jedna relevanta veličina koja karakteriše izloženost osobe. Ako bi takva veličina bila poznata, to bi 

značilo da su bitni aspekti mehanizma delovanja poznati i da štetni efekat postoji. Takođe, nije 

poznata ni dužina vremena izloženosti koja bi se mogla smatrati potencijalno opasnom. Trenutno je u 

svetu malo istraživanja na ovu temu. 

3. ZAKLJUČAK 

Nacrt Zakona o zaštiti od nejonizujućih zračenja [16] u Republici Srbiji predviđa korišćenje peporuka 

Saveta Evrope [13]. U preporuci [13] su navedeni dozvoljeni bezbedni referentni nivoi za intenzitete 

električnog i magnetnog polja, odnosno magnetne indukcije kako za područije profesionalne 

izloženosti, tako i za područije povećane osjetljivosti. Za područje profesionalne izloženosti poljima 

pogonske frekvencije od 50 Hz granične vrednosti su: E = 5 kV / m, H = 80 A/ m te B = 100 μT , 

odnosno E = 2 kV /m, H = 32 A / m te B = 40 μT za područje povećane osjetljivosti. Date vrednosti se 

slažu sa vrednostima predstavljenim u [17]. 

Uporednom analizom, proračunom i odgovarajućim merenjima dobijenih rezultata može se zaključiti 

da su maksimalne moguće vrednosti intenziteta električnog polja i intenziteta magnetne indukcije u 

prostoru oko voznog voda i postrojenja za sekcionisanje kontaktne mreže manje od referentnih nivoa 

prema ICNIRP preporukama. 

Bez obzira na prethodni zaključak, a s obzirom na činjenicu da do sada nisu dovoljno istraženi svi 

biološki mehanizmi uticaja elektromagnetnog polja na zdravlje železničkih radnika, potrebno je iste 

ispitati i definisati. Od izuzetog značaja je definisati i zakonski propisati dužinu vremena izloženosti 

Belgrade, 2012 279



železničkih radnika uočenim intenzitetom elektromagnetnog polja, koja bi se smatrala potencijalno 

opasnom po njihovo zdravlje. 

LITERATURA 

[1] Railway applications – Electromagnetic compatibility - Part 1: General EN 50121-1:2006 

[2] Railway applications – Electromagnetic compatibility - Part 2: Emission of the whole railway 

system to the outside world EN 50121-2:2006 

[3] Railway applications – Electromagnetic compatibility - Part 3-1: Rolling stock - Train and 

complete vehicle EN 50121-3-1:2006 

[4] Railway applications – Electromagnetic compatibility - Part 3-2: Rolling stock - Apparatus EN 

50121-3-2:2006 

[5] Railway applications – Electromagnetic compatibility - Part 4: Emission and immunity of the 

signalling and telecommunications apparatus EN 50121-4:2006 

[6] Railway applications – Electromagnetic compatibility - Part 5: Emission and immunity of fixed 

power supply installations and apparatus EN 50121-5:2006 

[7] Gavrilovic S.Branislav: „Modelling the Harmonic Components of Voltage and Current in 

Electric Traction Supply System of the “Serbian Railways”, Journal of Electrical and 

Electronics Engineering, Academy of Romanian Scientists University of Oradea, Faculty of 

Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, pp 77-83, Volume 3, Number 1, ISSN 

18446035,http://electroinf.uoradea.ro/reviste%20EEE/volumes/JEEE_Vol_3_No_1_May_2010 

.pdf), 2010, Romania. 

[8] Z. Haznadar, Ž. Štih, Elektromagnetizam I i II, Školska knjiga, Zagreb, 1997. 

[9] IEC 60850 Railway applications - Supply voltages of traction systems, 2007. 

[10] D. Jergović, Raspodjela struja izmenu kontaktnog vodiča i nosivog užeta, stručni članak, 

1992. 

[11] EFC-400 uputstvo za korišćenje, Narda, Berlin, 2004. 

[12] HŽ: “Izveštaj sa izvršenog merenja električnog i magnetnog polja sprovedena na deonici 

pruge Dugo Selo-Križevci na stajaližtu Repnice prema IEC 61786”, jul, 2000. g., Zagreb. 

[13] 1999/519/EC, Council recomandation on the limitation of exposure of the general public to 

electromagnetic fields (0 Hz to 300 GHz), Officle Journal of the European Union, 1999. 

[14] Directive 2004/40/EC of the European Parlament and of the Council on minimum health and 

safety requirements regarding the exposure of workers to the risks arising from physical 

agents (electromagnetic fields), Officle Journal of the European Union, 2004. 

[15] ICNIRP Review of Static and Low Frequency EMF and Health (0-100 kHz), ISBN 3-934994- 

03-2 

[16] Nacrt Zakona o zaštiti od nejonizujućih zračenja, Ministarstvo nauke i zaštite životne sredine 

Republike Srbije, novembar 2005. 

[17] NHMRC (National Health and Medical Research Council, Australia) Interim guidelines on 

limits of exposure to 50/60 Hz electric and magnetic fields (1989), ARPANSA Radiation health 

series No.30. 

[18] David A. Savitz: “Electromagnetic Fields and Cancer in Railway Workers “ , American Journal 

of Epidemiology, Copyright © 2001 by The Johns Hopkins University School of Hygiene and 

Public Health, All rights reserved, Vol. 153, No. 9, Printed in U.S.A. 

[19] B. Milošević, A. Pavić, I. Periša, D. Hrkec: “Postrojenje za sekcionisanje Željezničke 25 kV, 50 

Hz mreže kao izvor elektromagnetskih polja, Hrvatski ogranak međunarodne 

elektrodistribucijske konferencije, SO1-28 2.(8.) savetovanje, Umag, 16.-19. Svibanj. 2010. 

Belgrade, 2012 280



DISMANTLING OF VESSELS AS A SUSTAINABLE PROCESS 

Vladanka Presburger Ulniković, Faculty of Ecology and Environmental Protection, University "Union 

- Nikola Tesla", Belgrade, Serbia 

Abstract: 

The Danube as the largest and most important waterway in Serbia, also represents the waterway 

corridor VII, which is the only waterway from the ten pan-European corridors. Bearing in mind the 

international importance of the European waterway, modernization and renewal of vessels navigating 

the Danube are necessary. This necessarily entails dismantling a number of vessels. Dismantling of 

vessels considered as a sustainable process can be a significant source of recyclable waste, as a 

base for the renewal material resources. This is very important for a developing country such as 

Serbia, from economic aspects, particularly from the aspect of environmental protection. The benefits 

of dismantling of vessels are numerous: with very small investment it brings a monetary profit from 

recycling material and employment of local population as an additional benefit, while from the 

standpoint of environmental protection it contributes to the renewal of material resources and prevents 

environmental pollution, especially territorial waters, which further contributes to protection of human 

health and flora and fauna. Furthermore, the process of dismantling of vessels must be approached as 

a sustainable process in compliance with local legal regulations, and also with European Union laws. 

Key words: dismantling, vessel, sustainable process, corridor VII, recycling, waste, environmental 

protection 

Demontaža plovnih objekata kao održiv proces 

Apstrakt 

Dunav kao najveći i najznačajniji plovni put u Srbiji, ujedno predstavlja i plovni koridor VII, koji je jedini 

plovni put od svih deset panevropskih koridora. Imajući u vidu međunarodni značaj ovog evropskog 

plovnog puta, neophodna je modernizacija i obnavljanje plovnih objekata koji plove Dunavom. To 

neminovno za sobom povlači demontažu većeg broja plovnih objekata. Demontaža plovnih objekata 

posmatrana kao održiv proces, može da predstavlja bitan izvor reciklabilnog otpada, kao baze za 

obnovu materijalnih resursa. Ovo je jako značajno za zemlju u razvoju kakva je Srbija, sa ekonomskog 

aspekta i naročito sa aspekta zaštite životne sredine. Koristi od demontaže plovnih objekata su 

višestruke: donosi novčanu dobit od materijalne reciklaže, uz veoma male investicije i zapošljavanje 

lokalnog stanovništva kao dodatnu korist, dok sa stanovišta zaštite životne sredine doprinosi obnovi 

materijalnih resursa i sprečava zagađenje životne sredine, pre svega akvatorije, čime dalje doprinosi 

zaštiti zdravlja ljudi i biljnog i životinjskog sveta. Sem toga, procesu demontaže plovnih objekata 

neophodno je pristupiti kao održivom procesu i u smislu poštovanja, kako domaće zakonske 

regulative, tako i zakona Evropske unije. 

Ključne reči: demontaža, plovni objekat, održiv proces, koridor VII, reciklaža, otpad, zaštita životne 

sredine 

Belgrade, 2012 281




The Danube as the largest and most important waterway in Serbia, also represents the waterway 

corridor VII, which is the only waterway from the ten pan-European corridors. Bearing in mind the 

international importance of the European waterway, modernization and renewal of vessels navigating 

the Danube is necessary. This necessarily entails dismantling a number of vessels. Dismantling of 

vessels considered as a sustainable process can be a significant source of recyclable waste, as a 

base for the renewal material resources. This is very important for a developing country such as 

Serbia, from economic aspects, particularly from the aspect of environmental protection. 

Dismantling of vessels through the shipbreaking industry, from the point of ship owners, should 

provide a cash flow for the renewal of fleet, by dispensing aged or irreparably damaged ships or 

vessels that cannot be used further due to the changing international legislation. From the point of 

view of world’s environment, re-use of scrap iron and steel, which is the main output of the 

shipbreaking industry, is an environment-friendly activity since it reduces the need for mining and 

production of raw metal, mainly, pig iron, which is the main input of steel industry. When looked on the 

micro-scale, scrapping of old vessels is a serious challenge for the local environment and sometimes a 

challenge for the health of workers. [1] 

Until 1970s, shipbreaking was a common industrial activity both in the United States of America and in 

Europe. Specialized salvage docks, equipped with cranes and other heavy equipment, were used to 

scrap the ships, providing material for the steel industry. Obtained scrap metal was sold in countries 

with few natural metal resources, at a high profit [2]. 

In the western world, shipbreaking is an area that is viewed with suspicion due to the high level of 

environmental awareness. The same environmental awareness has been reflected to both national 

and international authorities who adopted preventative measures against the unsafe, primitive 

conditions of scrapping yards in developing countries in order to maintain the industry at a sustainable 

level. 

Within the 1992-1999 period, between 2% and 4% of the world fleet was scrapped annually. The 

world’s demand for shipbreaking is predicted in a report prepared by Baltic and International Maritime 

Council (BIMCO): a scenario predicts that in 2016, the annual amount of ships that will be 

decommissioned (vessels greater than 2000 gross tonnes) will range from 6 to 8 million light 

displacement tonnes (LDT) [3]. 

The shipbreaking industry is important for a number of groups: vessel owners who are in need of 

converting their aged or non-usable vessels into money for the maintenance of their fleets, developing 

countries where shipbreaking is an important industry for the country’s economy and steel industry 

who are dependent on this vast source of raw material. These groups have the tendency to ignore 

negative environmental effects, conditions related to labour safety and occupational health issues. 

Apart from steel, other scrap metals and alloys such as copper, bronze, brass and aluminium are also 

obtained, as well as certain outfit and machinery from vessels that are re-used by the maritime 

industry. 

Vessel may be inspected for a hazardous waste inventory and as much equipment and loose outfit are 

removed from superstructures. This also allows the yard owners to minimize the time the vessel 

spends in the shipbreaking yard. 

Legislation 

In Serbia there is no specific legislation dealing with waste from dismantling of vessels, not even the 

waste from vessels at all. For these reasons it can not be given a summary of the current shipbreaking 

regulations, existing legislation and rules related to shipbreaking in Serbia. For these reasons 

following regulations can be considered relevant: 

Rulebook on the content of documents to be submitted with the application for a license to 

import, export and transit of waste ("RS Official Gazette", No. 60/09 and 101/10), this is 

instead of old federal regulations ("RS Official Gazette", No. 69/99) 

Law on Waste Management ("RS Official Gazette", No. 36/09 and 88/10) 

Belgrade, 2012 282



The Waste Catalogue, Republic of Serbia, Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning, the 

Agency for Environmental Protection, Belgrade, 2010 

The National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) as an objective in the transport sector have 

reduce pollution from vessels in navigable waters 

Rulebook on conditions and classification, packaging and storage of raw materials ("RS 

Official Gazette", No. 55/01) 

Rulebook on Hazardous Substances in Water ("RS Official Gazette", No. 31/82 ) 

Rulebook on categories, testing and classification of waste ("RS Official Gazette", No. 56/10) 

Rulebook on the form of the issuance of permits for the storage, treatment and disposal ("RS 

Official Gazette", No. 72/09) 

Rulebook on form of documents on the movement of hazardous wastes and instructions for its 

completion ("RS Official Gazette", No. 72/09) 

Rulebook on the Handling of Waste with Hazardous Substances ("RS Official Gazette", No. 

12/95) 

Regulation lists the transboundary movements of waste ("RS Official Gazette", No. 60/09); 

(The Basel Convention is automatically taken from the former SRJ, as well as other 

regulations. Now, these regulations are valid) 

Rulebook on the content of documents to be submitted with the application for a license to 

import, export and transit of waste ("RS Official Gazette", No. 60/09 and 101/10). 

All mentioned, a number of regulations of Serbia may be relevant to the field of waste management 

and waste oil from vessels, including the vessels’ waste generated due to dismantling in shipbreaking 

industry. At the same time bearing in mind the general rules in the field of environmental protection as 

a basis for a general framework for the regulation of specific issues of waste oils, and certain special 

rules governing the field of waste management [4]. 

Strategic and other documents relevant to the management of waste oils are mostly made in the past 

5 years [4]: 

Rulebook on the conditions, manner and procedure of waste oils; 

Waste Management Strategy for the period 2010-2019. The; 

Law on Ratification of the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of 

Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal; 

National Environment Protection Program; 

A report on the environmental situation in the Republic of Serbia for 2007. year. 

Wastes from vessels dismantling 

Waste from dismantling of vessels, i.e. a list of hazardous waste and materials that are obtained in the 

process of vessels’ dismantling, included the Basel Convention on the transboundary movement of 

hazardous waste and its disposition [5]. This Convention also provided provisions for the proper 

removal and disposal of hazardous substances, and for the collection, sorting and recycling of waste 

in an environmentally friendly way (the list of hazardous wastes and materials, health and safety of 

workers, steel re-rolling, partial disassembly; scope of the guidelines; contingency plan). 

Recommendation for cleaner dismantling of vessels 

Some impact to the environment is unavoidable as long as the vessel under recycling is not separated 

from the waterbody. The ultimate solution is dry docking as proposed in the Basel Convention document 

[5]. 

‘‘Green’’ shipbreaking may soon become a priority, conventional single-hull tankers, which are prone 

to spilling their cargo at collisions, will not be able to sail at international waters after 2016 and shall be 

scrapped. This is expected to become a main activity for ship breakers worldwide. A decision taken on 

the meeting of the Basel Convention on 29th October 2004, in Geneve, Switzerland has declared that 

old ships should be considered as toxic wastes. Therefore, it is resolved that ships are required to be 

cleaned from their toxic contents. This decision, if properly applied, is considered to be a very 

important step towards having cleaner seas and coastlines. It requires a control system around the 

sea and land borders of shipbreaking yards. Apart from the shipbreaking, the yards should also have 

certified personnel to be specifically employed for firefighting, removal of insulating layer, cutting and 

Belgrade, 2012 283



welding, crane operation and material handling. OSHA [6] has been insisting on mandatory training for 

safer working environments, with regards to the following: 

provision of adequate worker training; 

use of proper personnel protective equipment; 

obedience to fire protection measures; and 

arrangements for appropriate emergency action teams such as firefighting, rescue, first aid, 

pollution prevention and other services. 

The combustible wastes obtained from scrapped vessels are regarded as an alternative fuel, and can 

be used as a fuel by proper gasification or incineration with proper pollution protective measures. The 

energy obtained can be used for power generation. 

2. DISMANTLING STAGES 

Decommissioning for disposal is a step by step process (illustrated in Scheme 1): 

Decommissioning and sale 

Inventory of onboard 

hazardous/ polluting wastes 

• (Removal/ cleaning – liquids, 

including fuels and oils) 

• Securing 

(Removal of equipment) 

The dismantling process 

(Inventory of onboard 

hazardous/ polluting wastes) 

• Removal/ cleaning– liquids, 

including fuels and oils 

• Securing 

Removal of equipment 

Removal of 

hazardous/polluting 

substances 

Dismantling 

Sorting for reuse, 

recycling and disposal 

Storage, recycling and 

disposal 

Storage, recycling and 

disposal 

Scheme 1. Block diagram of decommissioning and dismantling stages 

Basic rules and labor safety and occupational health during dismantling of vessels 

Shipbreaking is one of the most hazardous activities of shipping industry. This is due to the structural 

complexity of the ships and due to the possible exposures to asbestos, polychlorinated biphenyls 

(PCBs), lead, hazardous materials and chemicals, as well as excess noise and fire and explosions. A 

report prepared by the U.S. Department of Labor Occupational Safety and Health Administration for a 

national program on reduction of workplace hazards for shipbreaking operations, hazardous activities 

related to shipbreaking are listed as follows [6]: 

Entry into confined, enclosed and other dangerous atmospheres 

Paint removal 

Metal cutting and disposing 

Powered industrial truck operations 

Working on elevated surfaces 

Bilge and ballast water removal 

Oil and fuel removal and tank cleaning 

Removal and disposal of ship’s machinery 

Operations involving cranes, gear, and material handling equipment 

Cutting and welding operations and use of compressed gas and 

Activities involving scaffolds, ladders and working services. 

Belgrade, 2012 284



There is more activities to be undertaken during dismantling of ships, in order to environmental 

protection: 

Physical identification and labeling of hazardous materials on board 

Adequate transfer operations facilities 

Impermeable floors wherever hazardous materials and wastes are handled 

Spill containment boom. Adequate draining and pumping equipment 

Use solvents to dissolve heavyweight sludge so that most oil and sludge can be pumped out 

Minimize use of manual labour inside the tanks for removal operations (use of pumps) 

Provide adequate treatment/disposal facilities for different hazardous materials 

Ventilate compartments/tanks continuously 

Provide adequate storm water discharge facilities, to avoid contamination of storm water 

runoff 

Spill cleanup equipment 

Introduce a hot work certification system 

Create an enclosed chamber in the ship where asbestos has been identified. Limit access. 

Filter air emissions 

Create a separate area for paint removal operations, with impermeable floor. Cover and install 

air filtration 

Test compartments for presence of flammable vapors before hot work 

Create dedicated area for asbestos removal. Limit access 

Create a dedicated area for segregation of hazardous materials (e.g. PCBs) 

Provide adequate storage facilities for hazardous wastes 

Collect and contain all wastes resulting from asbestos removal processes. Pack asbestos in 

approved packaging system. Decontaminate workers when leaving the asbestos removal area 

Complete containment/impermeable floors 

Test compartments for presence of toxins, corrosives, irritants before entrance (manual 

cleaning) 

Identify and remove toxic or flammable paint prior to metal cutting 

Collect and contain all wastes resulting from paint removal processes 

Collected wastes have been contained in sewage wells. 

Contamination between wastes and the soil 

Spill cleanup and notification procedures 

Always wear rigid helmets, hard-toed shoes and gloves, as well as personnel protective 

equipment for eyes, face and skin 

Use appropriate protective equipment against respiratory hazards 

Keep fire extinguishing equipment immediately available 

Implement appropriate asbestos management procedures in accordance with ILO code of 

practice 

Work with asbestos should be carried out by trained personnel only 

Determine pollutant concentrations prior to the removal of bilge and ballast water. 

Removal and disposal of PCB-containing material in a controlled manner [7]. 

Solid wastes 

Solid wastes produced by shipbreaking can be subclassified into 16 groups according to their 

composition: paper, metals, glass and ceramics, plastics, leather, textiles, wood, rubber, food waste, 

chemicals, ash, paint scrap, thermocol, oiled sponge, oily solid waste, miscellaneous combustibles 

and noncombustibles [8]. 

In some cases vessels still carry residual cargo in their holds or tanks, and those cargoes are usually 

not well identified, and sometimes can even be expired chemicals. Especially, obsolete vessels from 

some Eastern European countries are suspected of carrying more hazardous materials than other 

vessels and also command lower prices in comparison with average world prices. 

Today, procedures are available that allow asbestos to be identified and removed from vessels by a 

specialised team and disposed in a licensed hazardous waste facility. Asbestos is a material that is a 

serious health threat to workers and its usage was reduced since 1970s [1]. However, asbestos is still 

found on many vessels, in particular on old ships and fishing vessels. Removed asbestos should be 

Belgrade, 2012 285



periodically taken by a specialised waste-treatment team and disposed. Glass fibres and styrophore 

material that are used for insulation purposes can be recycled by removing them safely and reselling 

them to various users. Others such as chemicals, paints and oil-mixed sludges are collected by the by 

authorized organizations’ hazardous waste management unit and stored in a specialised storage area. 

Liquid wastes 

Liquid wastes are generally bilge and ballast waters contaminated by oil and various chemicals. Bilgewater 

in engine rooms can be further mixed with fuel and oil. They belong to the category of oily 

waste, often contaminated with oil and cargo residues together with other pollutants, such as - 

inorganic salts, metals, such as arsenic, copper, chromium, lead and mercury [9-11]. The composition 

of the water can be very different, depending on the type of vessel from which comes. Occasionally, 

oily waste is spilled into the aquatic environment during the scrapping process and the water around 

the yards may be polluted. 

The collected oily wastes are carried to certificated reprocessing companies or to a specialised facility 

for disposal and the domestic wastes of the vessels are collected in the cesspools of the shipbreaking 

yards, and later are transported to the sewage treatment plants. 

Atmospheric pollutants 

The most important atmospheric pollutant of shipbreaking activities is the asbestos. If not properly 

disposed, it can form a cancerogenic powder. The usual way is to disassemble asbestos linings by 

wetting and removing them in bulk. Present asbestos removal facility and team for the removal of this 

material have greatly reduced the risk of this mode of pollution. Disassembling of air conditioning and 

refrigeration systems can also result in the release of refrigerant chloro-fluoro carbon series chemicals 

that are hazardous to the ozone layer. Some shipboard fire extinguishing systems can also be the 

source of such gases. The availability of licensed companies for this activity implies an improved 

capacity for this hazardous waste in the local area. Another source of atmospheric pollutants is the 

practice of stripping the electrical cables off their insulation by burning: plastic material used for 

insulation is a source of highly toxic gases such as dioxins, polychromatic hydrocarbons, etc. [12]. 

Apart from the atmospheric pollution, flammable gases from fuel or oil tank residues become highly 

explosive if mixed with air in certain proportions. Therefore, proper gas freeing and gas monitoring 

procedures have to be followed before a ship is broken. Greenpeace has reported several fatal 

accidents in the past [12]. 

Heavy metal pollution of water area 

Data from various sources show a high concentration of heavy metals at the site of vessels' 

dismantling. For example, a study has also been carried out at a similar shipbreaking location at 

Alang, India. It has been reported that at a near shore station near Alang, concentrations of Fe, Mn, 

Co, Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd, Ni and Hg are 25-15, 500% higher when compared to another control station at 

the surroundings [13]. 

The group of marine ecologists and chemists from the Dokuz Eylul University Institute of Marine 

Sciences and Technology in Turkey conducted a study by taking samples from the location close to 

the shipbreaking yards. Results of this study showed that Al and Fe are above their normal levels due 

to the existence of shipbreaking and steel industry ashore. Also Cd, Ni and Zn at the surface water 

were found to be higher than the normal levels [14]. 

3. DISPOSAL AND RECYCLING 

The waste/material stream following demolition is distributed and transported out of the dismantling 

site to local enterprises for re-sale, re-manufacturing or recycling. These enterprises are usually 

located within the vicinity of the dismantling facility and are often under the same or related ownership. 

Re-sale: 

The trade of recovered usable items may be found in the vicinity of the scrapping facilities or items 

may be transported to central areas (main cities) for re-sale. The individual trade facilities tend to 

Belgrade, 2012 286



specialize according to item type. The following is a listing of item-groups typically offered for direct resale 

(no reprocessing/ re-manufacturing) [5]: 

Pumps, valves, motors, machines, navigational equipment, life-saving equipment (rafts, 

lifebuoys, life-vests, survival suits, etc); 

Personal protective equipment (helmets, workboots, gloves, goggles, overalls, etc.) 

Chemicals and paints 

Steel components (anchors, chains, ventilation components, pipework, etc.) 

Sanitary equipment (toilets, sinks, bath tubs, and so on) 

Furniture 

Electrical cabling (intact) and batteries 

Insulation material 

Oil products (to manufacturing industries). 

Re-manufacturing/ re-processing: 

A comprehensive proportion of the waste stream is re-processed or re-manufactured rather than 

recycled prior to sale. The following illustrate this [5]: 

Steel re-manufacturing: Not all extracted steelwork is characterised as scrap. “Undamaged” 

plating is re-manufactured by cutting, grinding and hot-work. Anchors, chains, engine 

structures, and so on may also be re-manufactured by undergoing similar treatments. 

Oil re-manufacturing: Used (dirty) oils (lubricating oils) are re-processed and offered for sale. 

Mineral re-processing: Insulation material (asbestos) is in some facilities reprocessed by 

manual crushing and sold to manufacturing industries. 

Copper reclaim: Damaged cabling or non-saleable cabling is stripped for insulation either by 

burning or by mechanical stripping (sometimes also carried out at the scrapping site). 

Recycling: 

Real recycling in the sense of waste being used as a raw material in the production chain is first and 

foremost represented by scrap steel. This is the raw material for steel works and for cold-rolling 

facilities [5]. The quality of the end product is a function of the quality of the available scrap, the 

sorting and the recycling process. 

Recommendation for cleaner dismantling of vessels 

Some impact to the environment is unavoidable as long as the vessel under recycling is not separated 

from the waterbody. The ultimate solution is dry docking as proposed in the Basel Convention document 

[5]. 

‘‘Green’’ shipbreaking may soon become a priority, conventional single-hull tankers, which are prone 

to spilling their cargo at collisions, will not be able to sail at international waters after 2016 and shall be 

scrapped. This is expected to become a main activity for vessel breakers worldwide. A decision taken 

on the meeting of the Basel Convention on 29th October 2004, in Geneve, Switzerland has declared 

that old vessels should be considered as toxic wastes. Therefore, it is resolved that vessels are 

required to be cleaned from their toxic contents. This decision, if properly applied, is considered to be 

a very important step towards having cleaner seas and coastlines. It requires a control system around 

the sea and land borders of shipbreaking yards. Apart from the shipbreaking, the yards should also 

have certified personnel to be specifically employed for firefighting, removal of insulating layer, cutting 

and welding, crane operation and material handling. OSHA [6] has been insisting on mandatory 

training for safer working environments, with regards to the following: 

Provision of adequate worker training 

Use of proper personnel protective equipment 

Undertaken of fire protection measures and 

Arrangements for appropriate emergency action teams such as firefighting, rescue, first aid, 

pollution prevention and other services. 

The combustible wastes obtained from scrapped ships are regarded as an alternative fuel, and can be 

used as a fuel by proper gasification or incineration with proper pollution protective measures. The 

energy obtained can be used for power generation [15]. 

Belgrade, 2012 287



Fundamental Principles of dismantling of vessels 

Fundamental Principles of dismantling of ships through the ‘‘Green’’ shipbreaking comprise first of all: 

1. Life-cycle approach: Safe and environmentally sound ship recycling requires appropriate 

infrastructure not only within, but also beyond the yard. 

2. Inclusion: Inclusion of ship recycling in national development, and poverty reduction, 

strategies is essential to the creation of sustainable ship recycling industries. 

3. Collaboration: Collaboration with a variety of stakeholders, including representatives of 

governments, ship recycling associations, workers and non-governmental organizations 

(NGO) of the ship recycling countries, donors. 

4. Continuity: Building upon work already done, and putting in place processes and procedures 

for the long-term [7]. 


Dismantling of vessels is sustainable process since it reduces the need for the highly polluting mining, 

mine-enrichment and pig iron production industries. Dismantling of vessels provides raw material for 

the steel and other metallurgical industries from the used production equipment of the transport sector. 

Due to the nature of the vessels and highly polluting materials they carry, it may harm not only 

worker’s health but also the coastal zone environment if preventive measures are not taken. 

However, the contribution of ship recycling is more comprehensive and is reflected in the following: 

Provides tremendous amount of steel 

Provides employment to workers 

Provides high annual revenue 

Forest conservation 

Efficient use of recovered materials reduces environmental pollution 

Reuse of empty equipment such as transformers, engines, batteries etc. 

Reuse of different rubber material. 


The authors are grateful to the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the 

Republic of Serbia, for the financial support (project TR 36012). 

REFERENCES 

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Turkey: environmental, safety and health issues, Journal of Cleaner Production, 16, 350-358 

[2] Langewiesche, W. The shipbreakers. Atlantic Monthly 2000; August, 34-49 

[3] Neser, G. (1998) Present situation of the shipbreaking industry in Turkey and some proposals for 

its improvement. In: Ozhan E, editor. Proceedings of the second national conference on the 

coastal and marine zones of Turkey, Ankara, Turkey, p. 439-446 

[4] Presburger Ulniković, V., (2012) Integrated model of vessel-produced waste material 

management in regular and emergency situations, Doctoral Dissertation, University of Belgrade, 

Belgrade 

[5] United Nations Environment Programme (2002) Consideration of the implementation of the Basel 

convention – Technical guidelines for the environmentally sound management of the full and 

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transboundary movements of hazardous wastes and their disposal, Sixth meeting, 

UNEP/CHW.6/23, Geneva 

[6] U.S. Department of Labor Occupational Safety and Health Administration (2002) Reducing 

shipbreaking hazard. Job Safety and Health Quarterly, 13(3) 

[7] Rugarabamu, D. (2008) Secretariat of the Basel Convention (UNEP), Inaugural Discussions on 

the Global Programme on Sustainable Ship Recycling, Dhaka, Bangladesh 

[http://archive.basel.int/ships/gpssr/index.html] 

[8] Reddy, M.S., Basha, S., Kumar, V.G.S., Joshi, H.V., Ghosh, P.K. (2003) Quantification and 

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[9] Presburger Ulniković, V. (2010) Savremeni postupci tretmana kaljužnih voda (zauljenih drenažnih 

otpadnih voda) sa brodova, Bilten Srpskog društva za zaštitu voda No 155-156 Vol.XLIII, s. 13-20 

[10] Presburger Ulniković, V. (2010) Biodisperzijа kаo sаvremeno rešenje tretmаnа kаljužnih vodа sа 

brodovа, Zbornik rаdovа “Otpаdne vode, komunаlni čvrsti otpаd i opаsаn otpаd”, Suboticа, s. 

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[11] Guidelines for oil spill waste minimization and management (2004) Internat. Petroleum Industry 

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[13] Tewari, A, Joshi, H.V., Tirvedi, R.H., Sravankumar, V.G., Raghunathan, C., Khambhaty Y. et al. 

(2001) The effect of ship scrapping industry and its associated wastes on the biomass production 

and biodiversity of biota in situ condition at Alang. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 1(6) 462-469 

[14] The analysis of seawater using in the cooling system of a power plant in the industrial zone of 

Aliaga (2000) Report DBTE-127. DEU Institute of Marine Sciences and Technology 

[15] Reddy, M.S., Basha, S., Kumar, V.G.S., Joshi, H.V., Ramachandraiah, G. (2004) Distribution, 

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scrapping yard, India. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 48, 1055-1059 

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REVIEW OF THE TRACK CHARACTERISTICS ON THE CORRIDOR 

10 TRACKLINE SEGMENT 

Milutin Krivokapić, Kirilo Savic Institute, Belgrade, Serbia 

Marija Vukšić Popović, Kirilo Savic Institute, Belgrade, Serbia 

Saša Radulović, Kirilo Savic Institute, Belgrade, Serbia 

Borisav Bogdanović, Kirilo Savic Institute, Belgrade, Serbia 

Abstract 

In this paper the suitability of serbian tracklines on selected section of the corridor 10 for dynamic 

testing of railway vehicles was analysed. As most adequate section for this purpose, the section 

Vrtište – Vitkovac on the railway: Trupale (near city of Niš) – Djunis, was chosen. The analysis was 

carried out in relation to the requirements of the standard: EN 14363 as to leaflet UIC 518 as well as to 

methods, that is used by Serbian Railways (ŽS). Particular emphasis was given to the track geometry 

quality comparative analysis, considering testing of running safety and dynamic behaviour of railway 

vehicles. 

Key words : corridor 10, track geometry quality, testing of running safety of railway vehicles 

PRIKAZ KARAKTERISTIKA KOLOSEKA NA SEGMENTU PRUGE KORIDORA 10 

Rezime: 

U ovom radu je analizirana podobnost srpskih pruga na izabranoj deonici koridora X za dinamička 

ispitivanja železničkih vozila. Kao najprikladnija za tu svrhu je izabrana donica Vrtište – Vitkovac na 

pruzi Trupale (kod Niša) – Đunis. Analiza je sprovedena u odnosu na zahteve standarda: EN 14363 

odnosno objave UIC 518 kao i metode, koje koriste Železnice Srbije (ŽS). Poseban naglasak je 

stavljen na uporednu analizu geometrijskog kvaliteta koloska s obzirom na ispitivanje bezbednosti 

vožnje i dinamičkog ponašanja železničkih vozila. 

Ključne reči – koridor 10, geometrijski kvalitet koloseka, ispitivanje bezbednosti trčanja železničkih 

vozila. 

1. UVOD 

Institut ''Kirilo Savić'' iz Beograda, je izvršio analizu dela pruge koridora 10 sa stanovišta njegove 

podobnosti za vozno tehnička ispitivanja železničkih vozila. Da bi neki segment pruge bio odabran za 

ispitivanje bezbednosti vožnje i dinamičkog ponašanja železničkih vozila, on treba da zadovolji 

nekoliko kriterijuma. Ti kriterijumi su: odgovarajući sastava koloseka, geometrijski kvalitet koloseka i 

nedostatak nadvišenja. Geometrijski kvalitet koloseka se prema propisima Železnica Srbije – ŽS [1], 

ocenjuje na osnovu nekoloko parametara, kao što su: stabilnost leve i desne šine, smer leve i desne 

šine, otstupanje širine koloseka, nadvišenje spoljašnje šine u krivini i izvitoperenje koloseka na 

dužinskoj bazi od 3,5m. Dobar geometrijski kvalitet koloseka je bitan kako prvenstveno zbog 

bezbednosti i kvaliteta odvijanja železničkog saobraćaja, tako i zbog ispitivanja vozno tehničkih 

karakteristika železničkih vozila. 

Prema standardu EN 14363 [2] i objavi UIC 518 [3], geometrijski kvalitet koloseka se ocenjuje na 

osnovu dva parametra: neravnine profila šina u vertikalnoj ravni i odstupanja po pravcu u horizontalnoj 

ravni. Analiza je sprovedena na deonici: Vrtište – Vitkovac na levom koloseku pruge Trupale (kod 

Niša) – Đunis, kao delu pruge na koridoru H sa najboljim geometrijskim kvalitetom. 

Belgrade, 2012 290



2 PARAMETRI KVALITETA KOLOSEKA 

2.1 OCENA GEOMETRIJSKOG KVALITETA KOLOSEKA PREMA DOMAĆIM PROPISIMA 

Ocena geometrijskog kvaliteta koloseka se daje da osnovu poređenja snimljenih parametatra 

koloseka sa graničnim vrednostima. Ovi parametri se snimaju pomoću mernih kola. Železnice Srbije 

(ŽS) za premeravanje kvaliteta koloseka, koriste merna kola austrijske proizvodnje: Plasser & Theurer 

tipa EM – 80 L. Parametri od značaja za ocenu geometrijskog kvaliteta koloseka prema Uputstvu 339 

[1] su sledeći: Stabilnost koloseka, koja se definiše kao stanje sastava leve i desne šine za mernu 

bazu od 5 m i meri se kao odstupanja od nulte linije u razmeri 1:1 u prenosnom sistemu gore 

navedenih mernih kola. Smer leve i desne šine se definiše kao odstupanje od nulte linije u 

horizontalnoj ravni i meri se u razmeri 1:4 za mernu bazu (tetivu) od 10 m. Širina koloseka se 

registruje kao odstupanje od normalne širine 1435 mm u smislu proširenja ili suženja i meri se kao 

odstupanje od nulte linije u razmeri 1:1. Nadvišenje koloseka registruje visinski odnos šina u razmeri 

1:5, a veličine se mere od nulte linije. Izvitoperenje koloseka registruje se za mernu bazu od 3,50 m u 

razmeri 1:1, a mere se kao odstupanja od nulte linije. 

Premeravanje pruga na koridoru 10, vrši se dva puta godišnje s jeseni i s proleća. Kao rezultat 

premeravanja mernim kolima, nastaju pojedinačni i zbirni izveštaji. Zbirni izveštaj prikazuje dužinu 

koloseka u okviru posmatranog odseka pruge određene dužine (1 km) na kojoj su prekoračene 

granične vrednosti jednog ili više parametara za zadatu kategoriju pruge. 

Na kraju izveštaja sumarno su prikazani broj grešaka i dužine na kojima se javljaju po parametrima, 

kao i ukupan broj grešaka i dužina pruge s greškama za sve parametre po klasama A, B i C za celu 

mernu deonicu. 

Geometrijski kvalitet koloseka sa stanovišta kriterijuma održavanja je na infrastrukturi Železnica Srbije, 

definisan u tri nivoa kvaliteta ili klasa: 

A 

Vrednost po parametrima do kojih nije potrebno planirati i izvoditi radove. 

B 

Greške zbog kojih treba planirati radove za njihovo otklanjanje. 

C 

Greške koje su iznad eksploatacionih granica i koje zahtevaju hitno otklanjanje ili 

smanjenje brzina. 

Stanje koloseka ocenjuje se na osnovu ukupne dužine grešaka u grupama V i S na dužini od jednog 

kilometra. 

Ocena geometrijskog kvaliteta koloseka prema Uputstvu 339, vrši se tako što se uzima u obzir ukupna 

dužina svih grešaka u dve klase kvaliteta: B i C na dužini od 1 km. Postoje ukupno 4 ocene 

geometrijskog kvaliteta koloseka: vlo dobro, dobro, zadovoljavajuće i nezadovoljavajuće u zavisnosti 

od ukupne dužine grešaka u metrima. U tabeli 1 dat je prikaz kriterijuma za ocenu kvaliteta koloseka 

prema Uputstvu 339 [1]. 

Belgrade, 2012 291



Tabela 1. Kriterijumi za ocenu kvaliteta koloseka prema Uputstvu 339 

Ukupan broj grešaka 

Ocena 

u klasama 

B/C 

Vrlo dobro ≤ 10/0 

Dobro ≤ 50/10 

Zadovoljavajuće ≤ 250/25 

Nezadovoljavajuće > 250/25 

2.2 OCENA GEOMETRIJSKOG KVALITETA KOLOSEKA PREMA EVROPSKIM PROPISIMA 

Za potrebe vozno tehničkih ispitivanja bezbednosti trčanja, opterećenja koloseka na smicanje i 

dinamičkog ponašanja železničkih vozila pri maksimalnoj brzini na određenim delovima pruge, ocena 

geometrijskog kvalitetea koloseka, kao ispitne deonice, definisana je standardom: EN 14363 [2] i 

objavom: UIC 518 [3]. Prema ovim propisima parametri: neravnine po profilu i odstupanja po pravcu 

su dovoljni za ocenu geometrijskog kvaliteta koloseka radi ove vrste ispitivanja. Neravnine po profilu 

predstavlja grešku geometrije koloseka u vertikalnoj ravni, izražena kao rastojanje između tačke na 

kotrljajućoj površini šine i podužne ose idealnog profila. Odstupanje po pravcu je greška geometrije 

koloseka u horizonalnom poprečnom pravcu, izražena kao rastojanje između jedne tačke na 

kotrljajućoj površini šine, na visini od 15 mm ispod gornje ivice šine (GIŠ) i ose idealne trase u ravni. 

Geometrijski kvalitet koloseka sa stanovišta kriterijuma održavanja je prema popisima [2] i [3] takođe 

okarakterisan pomoću tri nivoa: QN1, QN2 i QN3. Ovi nivoi kvaliteta su definisani na sledeći način: 

QN 1 

Vrednost, koja proizilazi iz nadzora koloseka ili iz mera održavanja u okviru normalnog 

planiranja poslova održavanja koloseka. 

QN 2 

Vrednost, koja proizilazi iz kratkoročnih mera održavanja koloseka. 

QN 3 

Vrednost, pri čijem prekoračenju se posmatrani odsečak isključuje iz ispitivanja, jer 

geometrijski kvalitet koloseka nije više tipičan za uobičajeni kvalitet koloseka. Ova 

vrednost još uvek ne odgovara najnepovoljnijem stanju, ali je još uvek dozvoljena sa 

aspekta održavanja. 

U ovim evropskim propisima [2] i [3] se koriste standardna odstupanja ova dva parametra, koja 

odgovaraju stabilnosti i smeru po domaćem propisu [1], dok se maksimalne pojedinačne vrednosti 

prikazuju samo informativno. 

3 ODNOSI PARAMETRI KVALITETA KOLOSEKA PREMA RAZLIČITIM REFERENTNIM 

SISTEMIMA 

U domaćem propisu: Uputstvu 339 [1], geometrijski kvalitet koloseka se ocenjuje na osnovu grešaka 

parametara koloseka, koje su izražene kao maksimalna odstupanja od nominalne vrednosti. U 

evropskim propisima [2] i [3], geometrijski kvalitet koloseka se ocenjuje na osnovu standardnih 

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odstupanja neravnina po profilu i odstupanja po pravcu, dok se maksimalne pojedinačne vrednosti 

prikazuju samo informativno. U referentnom sistemu [1] parametar stabilnost (STAB) odgovara 

parametru neravnina po profilu po [2] i [3], dok parametar smer (SMER) po [1] odgovara parametru 

odstupanja po pravcu prema [2] i [3]. Granične vrednosti neravnina za ocenu kvaliteta koloseka zavise 

od maksimalne konstruktivne brzine ispitivanog vozila V max . Na pravcu i u krivinama velikog 

poluprečnika je za ocenu kvaliteta koloseka merodavna brzina V max + 10 km/h. U krivinama malog 

poluprečnika (R≤600m), merodavna je brzina 80 km/h < V ≤ 120 km/h. U tabeli 2 dat je uporedni 

prikaz graničnih vrednosti maksimalnih vrednosti dva relevantna parametra za kategorije pruga po EN 

14363 i brzinskih kategorije pruga I i II na infrastrukturi ŽS. 

Parametri koloseka 

po EN 14363 i UIC 518 

Najveće pojedinačno 

odstupanje po profilu, 

neravnine: Z max 

Najveće pojedinačno 

Tabela 2. Uporedni prikaz kriterijuma EN 14363 i ŽS 

Granice za kvalitet 

koloseka u krivinama 

malog radijusa 

80 < V ≤ 120 km/h 

QN1 

[mm] 

QN2 

[mm] 

QN3 

[mm] 

Granice za kvalitet 

koloseka u krivinama 

velikog radijusa i na 

pravcu 

120 < V ≤ 160 km/h 

QN1 

[mm] 

QN2 

[mm] 

QN3 

[mm] 

8,0 12,0 15,6 6,0 10 13,0 

odstupanje po pravcu: Y max 8,0 10,0 13,0 6,0 8,0 10,4 

Parametri koloseka 

Kategorija pruge II 

80 < V ≤ 100 km/h 

Kategorija pruge I 

V > 100 km/h 

na ŽS 

A 

[mm] 

B 

[mm] 

C 

[mm] 

A 

[mm] 

B 

[mm] 

Stabilnost (STAB) 4 8 15 2 5 10 

Smer (SMER) 5 10 20 2 5 10 

C 

[mm] 

Odnos dva kriterijuma je sledeći: kod neravnina kriterijum po Uputstvu 339 ŽS je stroži od kriterijuma u 

propisima EN 14363/UIC 518, kod odstupanja po pravcu samo je za klasu ''C'' kriterijum blaži nego u 

propisima EN 14363/UIC 518 za kategoriju pruge II, dok je za kategoriju pruge I kriterijum stroži od 

kriterijuma u propisima EN 14363/ UIC 518. Ovi nivoi geometrijskog kvaliteta koloseka stoje u 

sledećim odnosima: 

Za odstupanja po profilu (STAB): 

A < QN1; B < QN2 i C < QN3 

Za odstupanja po pravcu (SMER): 

A < QN1; B ≤ QN2 i C ≥ QN3 

4 ZAHTEVI KVALITETA KOLOSEKA U POGLEDU ISPITIVANJA ŽELEZNIČKIH VOZILA 

Da bi neke deonice koloseka bile odabrane kao ispitni koloseci za ispitivanje vozno tehničkih 

svojstava železničkih vozila, traba da ispune nekoliko kriterijuma. To su kriterijum sastava koloseka, 

kriterijum geometrijskog kvaliteta koloseka i kriterijum nedovoljnog nadvišenja. 

Kriterijum sastava koloseka se odnosi na određen procenat i dužine deonica sa: pravcima i krivinama 

veoma velikog poluprečnika sa R > 2500 m, deonice sa krivinama sa velikim poluprečnikom 600 m < 

R ≤ 2500 m, deonice sa krivinama sa malim poluprečnikom 400 m ≤ R ≤ 600 m i deonice sa 

krivinama sa veoma malim poluprečnikom 250 m ≤ R < 400 m. 

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Kriterijum nedovoljnog nadvišenja određuje se na osnovu referentnog nedostatka nadvišenja – Nn, doz , 

koji zavisi od vrste voza i/ili vozila i brzina vožnje kroz krivine. U tabeli 3, prikazan je referentni 

nedostatak nadvišenja. 

Tabela 3. Referentne vrednosti nedostatka nadvišenja 

Vrsta voza 

V 

[km/h] 

Nn doz 

[mm] 

Ia – Teretni voz (vagoni klasične gradnje) V ≤ 120 130 

Ib – Teretni voz (vagoni prilagođene gradnje) 120 < V ≤ 140 130 

Ic – Teretna kola (vagoni prilagođene gradnje) i dozvoljeni 

140 < V ≤ 160 150 

za korišćenje trase putničkog voza 

II – Klasični putnički vozovi V ≤ 230 150 

III – Motorni vozovi i motorna kola bez 

Postojeće 

0 < V ≤ 160 165 

naginjanja kolskog sanduka sa 

deonice 

160 < V ≤ 230 150 

naročitim karakteristikama (npr. 

nisko težište malo osovinsko 

Deonice velikih 200 < V ≤ 250 150 

opterećenje...) 

brzina 

250 < V ≤ 300 130 

IV – Motorni vozovi ili vozila sa naginjanjem 

kolskog sanduka 

0 < V ≤ 300 X 

Na osnovu ovog referentnog nedostaka nadvišenja određuje se dijapazon nedostatka nadvišenja, koji 

treba da bude postignut tokom vožnje kroz krivine ispitnog koloseka, na sledeći način: 

0,75xNn, doz ≤ Nn ≤ 1,10xNn, doz (1) 

Nedostatak nadvišenja predstavlja razliku između idealnog, teretskog, nadvišenja spoljašnje šine u 

krivini, koje je neophodno za potpunu kompenzaciju centrifugalnog ubrzanja i izvedenog, 

projektovanog nadvišenja [5]. Nedostatak nadvišenja se određuje iz veze sa neponištenim bočnim 

ubrzanjem prema [6]: 

Nn 

a 

n 

2b 

g 

0 

[mm] (2) 

gde su: 

a n – neponišteno bočno ubrzanje 

2b 0 – nominalno rastojanje krugova kotrljanja osoviskog sklopa. Za osovinske sklopove za 

normalni kolosek ova vrednost iznosi 1500 mm. 

g – ubrzanje sile zemljine teže 

Neponišteno bočno ubrzanje, u ravni paralelnoj ravni GIŠ-a, predstavlja ubrzanje nekompenzovano 

nadvišenjem spoljašnje šine, odnosno odgovarajućom komponentom ubrzanja zemljine teže pri 

prolasku vozila kroz krivinu i određuje se iz sledećeg izraza prema [5]: 

Belgrade, 2012 294



2 

V h 

a n g 

[m/s 2 ] (3) 

R 2b 

0 

gde su: V – brzina vožnje kroz krivinu 

R – poluprečnik krivine 

h – nadvišenje spoljašnje šine u krivini 

U pogledu geometrijskog kvaliteta koloseka, prema EN14363 i UIC 518, kvalitet koloseka za 

ispitivanje se ocenjuje preko standardnog odstupanja neravnina leve i desne šine po profilu (vertikalna 

odstupanja – σ z ) i odstupanja po pravcu (bočna odstupanja – σ y ). Da bi se dobijo statistički uzorak, 

celokupna pruga za ispitivanje se deli na elementarne otsečke dužine: 250, 100 ili 70 m, zavisno od 

toga da li je u pitanju pravac ili određena kategorija krivina [4]. 

Preporuka je po EN14363 i UIC 518, da ispitni kolosek obuhvata sledeći sastav u pogledu kvaliteta: 

- 50% odsečaka kvaliteta boljeg ili jednakog QN1, što uslovno odgovara oceni: vrlo dobro po 

kriterijumu na ŽS 

- 40% odsečaka kvaliteta između QN1 i QN2, što uslovno odgovara oceni: dobro 

- 10% odsečaka kvaliteta između QN2 i QN3, što uslovno odgovara oceni: zadovoljavajuće 

Otsečci u kojima se prekorače maksimalna pojedinačna odstupanja koja odgovaraju granici kvaliteta 

QN3, ne uzimaju se u obzir pri oceni rezultata. Kao granica QN3 se uzima vrednost 1,3h QN2, što 

uslovno odgovara oceni nezadovoljavajuće prema [1]. Dato je uslovno poređenje sa sistemom za 

ocenu prema domaćem propisu, jer nije moguće uspostaviti direktnu korelaciju sa metodom ocene, 

koju predviđa standard EN 14363 odnosno UIC 518 iz izveštaja o snimanju koloseka mernim kolima, 

koje koriste srpske železnice. 

5 SEGMENTI ISPITNOG KOLOSEKA NA KORIDORU 10 

Na koridoru 10 postoje pojedini segmenti, koji se mogu iskoristiti kao ispitni koloseci za vozno tehničko 

ispitivanje bezbednosti trčanja i dinamičkog ponašanja železničkih vozila. Pošto su zahtevi za odabir 

ispitnih segmenata i odsečaka dosta rigorozni, kako u pogledu sastava, tako i u pogledu 

geometrijskog kvaliteta koloseka i nedostatka nadvišenja. Kao ilustracija podobnosti pojedinih 

segmenata koridora 10 za dinamičkog ponašanja šinskih vozila prikazan je segment na deonici: 

Vrtište – Vitkovac, koji leži između stanica Trupale kod Niša i Đunisa. Ovaj segment pruge na levom 

koloseku je odabran jer sadrži i pravce i krivine velikog poluprečnika, a i geometrijski kvalitet koloseka 

je prilično dobar, što će se u daljem tekstu podrobnije analizirati. 

5.1 KARAKTERISTIKE ISPITNOG SEGMENATA U POGLEDU SASTAVA 

Segment obuhvata odabranu deonicu: Vrtište – Vitkovac na pruzi Trupale – Đunis, levi kolosek od 

232.286 km do 199.005 km. Na ovoj deonici preovlađuje ispitno područje 2 prema [2] tj. krivine velikog 

radijusa: 600 m < R ≤ 2500 m. Takođe zastupljeno je i u značajnoj meri ispitno područje 1 odnosno 

prave deonice. Ukupna dužina deonice je 33. 281 km. 

5.2 KARAKTERISTIKE ISPITNOG SEGMENATA U POGLEDU NEDOSTATKA 

NADVIŠENJA 

Na ovom segmentu dominiraju krivine velikog poluprečnika, tako da se može analizirati kriterijum 

nedostatka nadvišenja. Prilikom ispitivanja vozno tehničkih karakteristika novog Dizelmotornog voza 

ŽS serije 711 na ovoj deonici, dobijena je raspodela brzina po odsečcima, koja je prikazana na slici 1. 

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R [m] 

V [km/h] 

n n [mm] 



120 

110 


90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 


0 

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 

N 

Slika 1. Histogram raspodele brzine na segmentu Vrtište – Vitkovac 

Maksimalno postignuta brzina na segmentu pruge je V max = 101,2 km/h, dok je srednja brzina na 

segmentu V sr = 99,3 km/h. Na slici 2 prikazan je histogram raspodele poluprečnika krivine po ispitnim 

odsečcima, a na slici 3 raspodela nedovoljnog nadvišenja na ovom segmentu. 

2500 

200 

180 

2000 

160 

140 

1500 

120 



80 

60 

500 

40 

20 

0 

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 

N 

0 

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 

N 

Slika 2. Histogram raspodele poluprečnika krivine 

Slika 3. Histogram raspodele nedostatka nadvišenja 

Poluprečnici krivine se kreće u dijapazonu od R min = 700 m do R max = 2000 m, srednji poluprečnik 

krivine je R sr = 1300 m. Iznos nedovoljnog nadvišenja se kreće u dijapazonu: Nn ,min = 12 mm do 

Nn, max = 80 mm. Referentni nedostatak nadvišenja za dizelmotorni voz za brzine V ≤ 160 km/h je 165 

mm. Dijapazon potrebnog nedostatka nadvišenja se kreće prema (1): 

123,75 ≤ Nn ≤ 181,5 mm. 

Ovaj dijapzon nedostatka nadvišenja nije mogao da bude postignut, zbog poštovanja maksimalno 

dozvoljene brzine iz reda vožnje na prugama ŽS na ovom segmentu ispitnog koloseka. 

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5.3 KARAKTERISTIKE ISPITNOG SEGMENATA U POGLEDU GEOMETRIJSKOG 

KVALITETA KOLOSEKA 

U tabeli 4, dat je prikaz geometrijskog kvaliteta koloseka za ispitnu deonicu: Vrtište – Vitkovac, za 

najnovija snimanja mernih kola, koja su obavljena u aprilu 2011. 

Tabela 4. Ocena kvaliteta koloseka na segmentu: Vitkovac – Vrtište, levi kolosek (199.0 – 233.0) km 

Broj 

Km. 

Stacionaža 

Stanice 

Stanje 

(B/C) 

Granične 

vrdnosti 

(B/C) lim 

Ocena po 

Uputstvu 

339 

Uslovna ocena po 

evropskim 

propisima 

[km/m] 

1 199.0 – 200.0 Vitkovac 172/7 ≤250/25 zadovoljavajuće QN2 ≤ QNx ≤ QN3 

2 200.0 – 201.0 Donji Ljubeš 244/24 ≤250/25 zadovoljavajuće QN2 ≤ QNx ≤ QN3 

3 201.0 – 202.0 63/0 ≤250/25 zadovoljavajuće QN2 ≤ QNx ≤ QN3 

4 202.0 – 203.0 347/8 >250/25 nezadovoljavajuće QNx ≥ QN3 

5 203.0 – 204.0 Gornji Ljubeš 182/12 ≤250/25 zadovoljavajuće QN2 ≤ QNx ≤ QN3 


7 205.0 – 206.0 Korman 75/0 ≤250/25 zadovoljavajuće QN2 ≤ QNx ≤ QN3 


9 207.0 – 208.0 37/4 ≤50/10 dobro QN1 ≤ QNx ≤ QN2 

10 208.0 – 209.0 Trnjani 32/0 ≤50/10 dobro QN1 ≤ QNx ≤ QN2 

11 211.0 – 212.0 Adrovac 10/0 ≤10/0 vrlo dobro QNx ≤ QN1 



14 214.0 – 215.0 Aleksinac 84/0 ≤250/25 zadovoljavajuće QN2 ≤ QNx ≤ QN3 

15 215.0 – 216.0 9/0 ≤10/0 vrlo dobro QNx ≤ QN1 


17 217.0 – 218.0 Nozrina 20/0 ≤50/10 dobro QN1 ≤ QNx ≤ QN2 

18 218.0 – 219.0 Lužine 8/0 ≤10/0 vrlo dobro QNx ≤ QN1 



21 221.0 – 222.0 Tešica 52/8 ≤250/25 zadovoljavajuće QN2 ≤ QNx ≤ QN3 



24 224.0 – 225.0 Grejač 50/0 ≤50/10 dobro QN1 ≤ QNx ≤ QN2 




28 228.0 – 229.0 Supov. Most 42/2 ≤50/10 dobro QN1 ≤ QNx ≤ QN2 

29 229.0 – 230.0 Mezgraja 33/0 ≤50/10 dobro QN1 ≤ QNx ≤ QN2 



32 232.0 – 233.0 Vrtište 45/0 ≤50/10 dobro QN1 ≤ QNx ≤ QN2 

Na najvećem broju segmenata preovlađuje srednji geometrijski kvalitet: zadovoljavajuće i dobro. 

Najbolji geometrijski kvalitet je od 211 do 232 km gde ima i segmenata sa vrlo dobrim kvalitetom. Na 

segmentu br. 4 u dužini od 1000 m od 202 do 203 km je nezadovoljavajući kvalitet koloseka. Udeo 

uslovnih nivoa kvaliteta po međunarodnim normama [2] i [3], prikazan je na dijagramu na slikama 4 i 

5. 

Belgrade, 2012 297

QNx [%] 

QNx [%] 



Sastav koloseka po geometrijskom kvalitetu 

Preporuka standarda u pogledu kvaliteta ispitnog koloseka 

60 

60 

50 

50 

50 

50 

40 

30 

31.25 

40 

30 

40 

20 

15.63 

20 


3.13 



0 

1 

Nivoi kvaliteta 

QNx≤QN1 QN1≤QNx≤QN2 QN2≤QNx≤QN3 QNx≥QN3 

0 

0 

1 

Nivoi kvaliteta 

QNx≤QN1 QN1≤QNx≤QN2 QN2≤QNx≤QN3 QNx≥QN3 

Slika 4. Sastav deonice Vitkovac – Vrtište 

u pogledu geometrijskog kvaliteta 

Slika 5. Preporučeni sastav ispitne deonice po 

međunarodnim standardima 

Iz gore navedenog može se zaključiti da, sastav ispitnog koloseka u pogledu geometrijskog kvaliteta, 

ne odgovara preporuci standarda EN 14363, iako se radi o deonici sa najboljim geometrijskim 

kvalitetom na koridoru 10 za preovlađujuće ispitno područje sa krivinama velikog poluprečnika. 

6 ZAKLJUČAK 

Podaci, koji su dobijeni od ''Železnica Srbije'' nisu bili u formi, koja omogućava obradu i ocenu prema 

metodologiji iz EN 14363 [2] i UIC 518 [3]. Kvalitet analizirane deonice koridora 10 ne odgovara 

preporuci iz propisa [2] i [3], tako da su uslovi ispitivanja u pogledu geometrijskog kvaliteta koloseka 

prilikom ispitivanja novog DMV serije 711 bili oštriji od preporučenih [4]. Kriterijum nedostatka 

nadvišenja pri vožnji kroz krivine različitih kategorija nije mogao da se ispuni, osim na ispitnom 

području 1 na pravcima i krivinama veoma velikog poluprečnika, kako zbog stanja gornjeg stroja, tako i 

zbog pridržavanja maksimalne brzine iz reda vožnje ŽS pri ispitivanju bezbednosti vožnje i dinamičkog 

ponašanja DMV serije 711. 

Iz sprovedene analize, nameće se zaključak da na domaćim prugama, pa i na koridoru 10 mogu da se 

obavljaju samo voznotehnička ispitivanja za vozila, koja su predviđena samo za domaći saobraćaj. Da 

bi se ispitivanja bezbednosti vožnje i dinamičkog ponašanja vozila u punoj brzini, namenjenih za 

međunarodni i/ili regionalni saobraćaj na našim prugama mogla obavljati, potrebno je: 

1) Podići i održavati geometrijski kvalitet koloseka naših pruga na što višem nivu prema 

međunarodnim propisima [2] i [3]. 

2) Etalonirati merna kola ŽS prema mernim kolima holandskih železnica (NS) kao etalona, da bi 

se odredio popravni faktor - K prenosne funkcije mernog sistema kola. 

3) Obrađivati i prikazivati izveštaje mernih kola u formi, koja omogućuje analizu prema zahtevima 

evropskih propisa [2] i [3], kako bi izveštaji o premeravanju pruga bili uporedivi sa evropskim. 

4) Prilikom rekonstrukcija pruga, gornji stroj tako projektovati da se omoguće veće brzine kroz 

krivine sa srednjim i malim poluprečnicima, kako bi se ostvario i kriterijum nedovoljnog 

nadvišenja. 

Belgrade, 2012 298



LITERATURA 

[1] UPUTSTVO 339 o jedinstvenim kriterijumima za kontrolu stanja pruga na mreži JŽ Zajednica 

jugoslovenskih železnica, Beograd 

[2] EN 14363 “Railway applications-Testing for the acceptance of running characteristics of railway 

vehicles-Testing of running behaviour and stationary tests”, CEN, June 2005 

[3] UIC 518 “Testing and approval of railway vehicles from the point of view of their dynamic 

behaviour – Safety – Track fatigue – Ride quality” UIC, Paris, October 2005 

[4] ELABORAT O ISPITIVANJU dizelmotornog voza, serije 711. Deo 3 – Ispitivanje bezbednosti 

trčanja i kvaliteta vožnje prema EN 14363, M. Krivokapić, M. Vukšić-Popović, B. Bogdanović, Z. 

Starčević, S. Radulović, D. Mijuca, Institut ''Kirilo Savić'', Beograd, 2011 

[5] UREĐENJE KOLOSEKA U KRIVINI ZA NOVE PRUGE I REKONSTRUKCIJE, L. Puzavac, Z. 

Popović, Zbornik radova XIII Naučno-stručne konferencije o železnici ŽELKON '08, Niš, 2008. 

[6] KARAKTERISTIKE PRUGE ZA ISPITIVANJE DINAMIČKOG PONAŠANJA ŽELEZNIČKIH 

VOZILA, G. Simić, Zbornik radova XI Naučno-stručne konferencije o železnici ŽELKON '04, Niš, 

2004. 

Belgrade, 2012 299



NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF SPREADING CO2 AND SO2 EMITTED 

FROM STACK KOSTOLAC B ABOVE THE MUSEUM VIMINACIJUM 

Kozić Mirko, VTI, Belgrade, Serbia 

Puharić Mirjana, Institut Kirilo Savić, Belgrade, Serbia 

Ristić Slavica, Institut Goša d.o.o, Belgrade, Serbia 

Suzana Polić Radovanović, Centralni institut za konzervaciju, Belgrade, Serbia 

ABSTRACT 

Air pollution in recent times become important, so that the need for protection from air pollution, 

ensuring the quality of life in rural areas and industrial centers, and the preservation of the ecological 

potential of the natural environment, it becomes one of the imperatives of development. The major 

sources of atmospheric pollution are combustion of fossil fuels in industry and power generation, as 

well as in internal combustion engines. 

Scientific approach to solving this problem uses different experimental, theoretical and numerical 

methods. This paper presents the results of simulations of pollution emitted from the stack Kostolac B, 

CFD method above Viminacijum museums. This archaeological site was selected because of its 

excellence. Used the software package Fluent for flow simulation. Wind direction was chosen to wind 

rose, which was obtained from the Meteorological Department. Application of CFD numerical 

simulation method is intended to demonstrate the advantages of the method presented in solving the 

acute problems of environmental pollution in the fastest, most efficient and most economical way, 

whether pollution comes from point sources, diffuse and mobile sources. 

Keywords: simulation, CFD methods, pollution, 

NUMERIČKA SIMULACIJA ŠIRENJA CO 2 I SO 2 EMITOVANIH IZ DIMNJAKA TERMOELEKTRANE 

KOSTOLAC B IZNAD MUZEJA VIMINACIJUM 

Zagađenje vazduha u novije vreme poprima značajne razmere, tako da potreba zaštite vazduha od 

zagađenja, obezbeđenje kvaliteta života u naseljima i industrijskim centrima i očuvanje ekološkog 

potencijala prirodne sredine, postaje jedan od imperativa razvoja. Najveći izvori zagađenja atmosfere 

su sagorevanje fosilnih goriva u industriji i u proizvodnji električne energije, kao i u motorima sa 

unutrašnjim sagorevanjem. 

Naučni pristup rešavanja ovog problema koristi različite eksperimentalne, teoretske i numeričke 

metode. U ovom radu predstavljeni su rezultati simulacije širenja zagađenja emitovanih iz dimnjaka 

termoelektrane Kostolac B, CFD metodom, iznad muzeja Viminacijum. Ovo arheološko nalazište je 

izabrano zbog svoje izuzetnosti. Za simulaciju strujanja korišćen je softverski paket Fluent. Smer 

vetra je izabran prema ruži vetrova, koja je dobijena od meteorološke službe. Primena CFD metoda 

numeričke simulacije strujanja ima za cilj da demonstrira prednosti koje ove metode daju u rešavanju 

akutnih problema zagađenja životne sredine na najbrži, najefikasniji i najekonomičniji način, bilo da 

zagađenje potiče iz tačkastih, difuznih ili pokretnih izvora. 

Ključne reči: simulacija, CFD metoda, zagađenje, 

Belgrade, 2012 300



1. UVOD 

Čist vazduh je osnova za zdravlje i život ljudi i čitavog ekosistema. Vazduh je smeša gasova koja se 

sastoji od približno 4/5 azota, 1/5 kiseonika i vrlo malih količina plemenitih gasova, ugljen dioksida, 

vodonika, ozona, vodene pare i raznih nečistoća. Problem nastaje kada se ovaj odnos poremeti. 

Glavni zagađivači vazduha su sumporni spojevi nastali sagorevanjem fosilnih goriva, ugljenmonoksid 

(CO), azotni oksidi (NOx), ugljikovodonici, mikročestice čađi, a specifični olovo, kadmijum, mangan, 

arsen, nikl, hrom, cink i drugi teški metali i organski spojevi. 

Jedan od važnijih veštačkih izvora zagađenja je industrija, koja prema fizičkim i prostornim 

karakteristikama, spada u tačkasti izvor zagađenja. Primarne emisije SO 2 u industriji potiču iz procesa 

sagorevanja fosilnih goriva iz motornih vozila i postrojenja za proizvodnju energije, gde posebno 

mesto zauzimaju termoelektrane. Za industrijske centre su karakteristične sezonske promene 

koncentracije SO 2 , a najviše vrednosti se javljaju tokom zimskih meseci. Oksidna jedinjenja sumpora 

su na vodećoj poziciji među zagađivačima vazduha i imaju veoma štetne efekte na biološke sisteme, 

pa se koncentracija SO 2 u vazduhu uzima kao referentni parametar za procenu kvaliteta, odnosno 

stepena zagađenosti vazduha. Osnovni naučni dokazi pokazuju da ugljen dioksid CO 2 igra značajnu 

ulogu kada je u pitanju efekat staklene bašte. Zbog pojasa ugljen-dioksida i drugih otrovnih gasova u 

atmosferi infracrveni zraci ne mogu da se probiju u kosmos, već ostaju pod slojem gasova i Zemlja ih 

ponovo apsorbuje što rezultuje efektom zagrevanja atmosfere. Za značajne količine ugljen dioksida i 

drugih gasova koji izazivaju efekat staklenika, odgovorni su upravo antropogeni izvori. 

Upravo iz ovih razloga, CFD metodom je simulirano širenje gasovitih polutanata iz termoelektrane 

Kostolac B, a praćena je masena koncentracija sumpor dioksida i ugljen dioksida. Istraživanja vezana 

za zagađenje vazduha iz termoelektrane Kostolac B sprovedena su na arheološkom nalazištu 

Viminacijum. Ostaci ovog rimskog grada i vojnog logora predstavljaju dragulj kulturne baštine naše 

zemlje. U Viminacijumu se izuzetno bogatstvo krije već u površinskom, oraničnom sloju. Jedan od 

značajnih objekata je muzej Viminacijum, veoma atraktivan za posetioce, u čijim depoima je smešteno 

više od 40.000 vrednih eksponata pronađenih na lokalitetu. Imajući u vidu izuzetnost ovog 

arheološkog nalazišta, sprovedena su istraživanja, koja obuhvataju uticaj zagađenja iz termoelektrane 

Kostolac B. Odbor za nacionalne starine je vršio procenu sadržaja koji mogu da oštete osetljive 

artefakte, više od prirodnog raspadanja. Nivo tih sadržaja je znatno niži nego propisane granične 

vrednosti za zdravlje [13,14]. 

Industrijsko zagađenje, pored negativnog uticaja na kulturnu baštinu, izaziva i zagađenje 

agrosistema, koje postaje veoma ozbiljan problem. Termoeletrane i proizvodnja cementa, takođe 

zagađuju obradive površine u njihovoj blizini i snažni su izvori prašine i pepela. Industrija kontaminira 

zemljište neposredno toksičnim supstancama i posredno taloženjem polutanata iz vazduha, jer 

aerozagađenje pre ili kasnije pada na zemljište, gde dolazi do hemijskih reakcija koje menjaju sastav 

zemljišta i negativno utiču na njegovu plodnost. 

Jednako značajan izvor zagađenja životne sredine, pored industrije je i saobraćaj, kako u gradovima 

tako i na velikim saobraćajnicama. Vozila koja koriste dizel gorivo proizvode veoma fine 

suspendovane čestice, koje su izuzetno opasne za ljudsko zdravlje. Zbog toga je neophodno u izradi 

inicijalnih studija putnih koridora napraviti studiju izvodljivosti zajedno sa pripadajućom procenom 

uticaja na životnu sredinu. Puteve treba graditi tako da mogu zadovoljiti strožije zahteve za 

bezbednost i zaštitu životne sredine [13]. 

U tabeli 1. dat je procenat štetnih gasova po vrstama saobraćaja. Očigledno je da drumski saobraćaj 

ima najveći udeo emisije štetnih sastojaka u atmosferu. Većina zagađujućih supstanci, ne ostaje dugo 

u atmosferi, već se u neizmenjenom ili izmenjenom obliku vraća na površinu zemlje. Gasovi i čestice 

se spuštaju pod delovanjem sile gravitacije, difuzijom i turbulentnim transportom. Deo njih apsorbuje 

vegetacija, ali se najvećim delom vraćaju na zemljinu površinu. 

Belgrade, 2012 301



Tabela 1: Procenat štetnih gasova po vrstama saobraćaja [12] 

Udeo emisije po 

saobraćajnim granama 

(%) 

Ugljen 

monoksid 

(CO) 

Azotni 

oksid 

(NOx) 

Štetni sastojak 

Ugljen 

vodonik 

(CH) 

Ugljen 

dioksid 

(CO 2 ) 

Sumpor 

dioksid 

(SO 2 ) 

Železnički saobraćaj 1 4 1 4 10 5 

Drumski saobraćaj 98 90,5 95 80 74 85 

Vazdušni saobraćaj 0,3 0,5 1 11 2 3 

Vodeni saobraćaj 0,7 5 3 5 14 7 

Čvrste 

čestice 

Teški metali se pretežno zadržavaju u površinskom sloju zemljišta, koji je izuzetno značajan za 

produktivnost ekosistema. Stepen toksičnosti teških metala u zemljištu zavisi od više faktora: kiselosti, 

količine i svojstava organskih materija u pogledu kapaciteta sposobnosti metala da stupi u interakcije 

sa glinom i drugim neorganskim materijama. U uslovima zagađenja zemljišta teškim metalima, 

menjaju se bitni parametri za rast, gustinu populacije, efikasnost metabolizma, što rezultuje zastojima 

bioloških transformacija. Imajući u vidu ove činjenice, ovoj problematici treba posvetiti posebnu 

pažnju, naročito kada su u pitanju nove saobraćajnice i njihov uticaj na agro i ekosisteme. 

Takođe, na osnovu informacija o kulturnoj imovini Zavoda za zaštitu spomenika kulture, treba vršiti 

trasiranje kako bi se zaobišla zakonom zaštićena područja i kulturni spomenici i da se uticaji na 

životnu sredinu i socijalni poremećaji svedu na minimum. U toku izrade pojedinih faza projekta 

saobraćajnica, potrebno je evidentirati koji lokaliteti zahtevaju dalja istraživanja, kako bi se utvrdilo da 

li su ugroženi projektom [15]. 

Simulacija strujanja CFD metodom je lako primenljiva i na istraživanja vezana za zagađenja štetnim 

jedinjenjima, kao što su olovo, benzen, suspendovane čestice i benzopiren, koje su značajno 

povišene usled emisija iz saobraćaja. 

2. PRIMENA CFD METODA 

Zagađenje, pre svega zavisi od jačine izvora zagađenja, a njegovo širenje, razblaživanje i taloženje 

polutanata na okolinu zavisi od visine zagađivača (visina dimnjaka), brzine padanja čestica, 

turbulencije i razmene vazdušnih masa, pravca i brzine vetra, oblika zemljišta i okolnih objekata. 

Osnovni parametar koji utiče na zagađenje atmosfere je vetar, njegova brzina, pravac i vertikalni 

odnosno horizontalni gradijent temperature. 

U ovom radu prikazan je primer primene CFD metoda na određivanje raspodele koncentracije štetnih 

materija u bližem i daljem okruženju termoelektrane Kostolac B, pod uticajem dejstva vetrova. Za 

određivanje putanja i promene koncentracija gasovitih štetnih materija u vazduhu od njihovog izvora i 

njihovo širenje u okolinu, korišćen je softver ANSYS-FLUENT, koji uzima u obzir sve bitne detalje 

geometrije i lokalne uslove okruženja [1]. Simulacija je urađena na osnovu poznatih vrednosti 

koncentracija štetnih materija na izlasku iz dimnjaka. Dimni gasovi sastavljeni od ugljendioksida, 

kiseonika, azota, vodene pare i polutanata, ispuštaju se u atmosferu kroz dimnjak. Na osnovu 

ukupnog zapreminskog protoka vlažnog dimnog gasa i površine poprečnog preseka izlaznog preseka 

dimnjaka, dobija se brzina dimnih gasova na izlasku iz dimnjaka. Ovaj softver rešava jednačine 

održanja mase, količine kretanja, energije i masene koncentracije mešavine više gasova, kojima su 

opisane konvekcija, difuzija i eventualno izvori (mase, energije) usled različitih reakcija, za svaki od 

gasova čija koncentracija se izračunava u numeričkom domenu. 

Na slici 1, data je mapa terena oko termoelektrane Kostolac B. Ovo područje odlikuje se umereno 

kontinentalnom klimom u kojoj su naglašeni stepsko–kontinentalni klimatski uticaji susednog Banata. 

Zime su hladnije, a leta toplija. Relativna blizina ulaza u Đerdapsku klisuru utiče da košava, čija brzina 

ponekad prelazi 90 km/h, ima znatno dejstvo na klimu. Srednja godišnja temperatura je oko 10,9 °C, a 

srednja godišnja amplituda kolebanja temperature iznosi 21,3 °C. Na području rudarsko-energetskog 

Belgrade, 2012 302



bazena dominantan pravac vetra je jug-jugoistok i jugoistok, a zatim vetrovi zapadnog i zapadnoseverozapadnog 

pravca. 

Ulazni podaci za numeričku simulaciju, definisani su na osnovu ruže vetrova i merenja njihovih 

intenziteta, koja je izvršio Hidrometerološki zavod Srbije u Beogradu u periodu od 2000. do 2009. 

godine [2]. Zbog položaja dimnjaka termoelektrane i mogući uticaj zagađenja na muzej Viminacijum, 

za numeričke simulacije je odabran zapadni vetar, brzine 4 m/s, i severozapadni maksimalne brzine 9 

m/s i za uslove umereno stabilne atmosfere [2]. 

Slika 1. Mapa terena oko termoelektrane Kostolac B sa objektima: dimnjak termoelektrane i muzej 

Viminacijum, pogled odozgo [Google mapa] 

Brzina i temperatura dimnih gasova na izlazu, izračunati su na osnovu merenja prikazanih u ref. 

[3,4,6], i iznose je 19,1 m/s i 443 K. Analizirane su masene koncentracije svih konstituenata, koji se 

nalaze u sastavu dimnih gasova, ali će u ovom radu biti razmatrane samo masene koncentracije 

sumpordioksida i ugljendioksida. Putanje i brzina različitih zagađujućih tvari su identični, jedina razlika 

je vrednost njihovih masenih koncentracija. 

3. POSTUPAK NUMERIČKOG MODELIRANJA 

Prvi korak u numeričkom modeliranju strujanja obuhvata generisanje geometrije i generisanje mreže. 

Zatim se definišu parametri potrebni za numeričku simulaciju: 

- definisanje modela transporta višekomponentne mešavine; 

- definisanje modela turbulencije; 

- definisanje graničnih uslova; 

- izbor reda tačnosti numeričke diskretizacije; 

- inicijalizaciju strujnog polja; 

- praćenje konvergencije rešenja; 

- postprocesiranje i analizu dobijenih rezultata. 

Generisanje geometrije počinje sa izborom domena. Razmatrani domen ima dužinu 6000 m u pravcu 

istok-zapad i 5000 m u pravcu sever-jug. Visina domena je 1000 m. Geometrija tla je generisana na 

osnovu rasterske karte i digitalnog modela terena, za područje oko termoelektrane Kostolac B, 

Belgrade, 2012 303



površine 30 km 2 [1]. Visina dimnjaka je 250 m, sa izlaznim prečnikom 9.8 m. Numerička simulacija 

širenja aerozagađenja iz termoelektrane Kostolac B je izvedena na objektu Viminacijum-muzej 60 x 60 

x 2 m, slika 1. 

3.1 Definisanje modela transporta višekomponentne mešavine 

Za numeričku simulaciju širenja dimnog gasa i štetnih materija iz dimnjaka termoelektrane, korišćena 

je opcija kojom se modelira transport višekomponentne mešavine gasovitih elemenata i jedinjenja. S 

obzirom da se razmatra strujanje i promena koncentracije gasova nakon izlaska iz dimnjaka, problem 

je pojednostavljen jer nema hemijskih reakcija i njihove interakcije sa turbulencijom. 

Veoma je važno da se definišu fizička svojstva mešavine pre nego se definišu svojstva konstituivnih 

sastojaka, jer mogu zavisiti od metode koja je korišćena pri definisanju osobina mešavine. Fizičke 

osobine mešavine koje se definišu su: gustina preko zakona promene stanja ili kao funkcija sastava, 

viskoznost kao funkcija sastava, specifična toplota i termička provodljivost kao funkcije sastava, 

koeficijent difuzije mase i Šmitov broj od kojih zavisi difuzioni fluks mase. Za svaku komponentu 

mešavine moraju se definisati: molarna masa, entalpija formiranja, viskoznost ako je viskoznost 

mešavine definisana kao funkcija sastava, specifična toplota i termička provodljivost ako su ove 

osobine mešavine definisane kao funkcije sastava [8]. 

3.2 Definisanje modela turbulencije 

Za opisivanje efekata turbulentnih fluktuacija brzine i skalarnih veličina, korišćen je standardni k-ε 

model, u kome se turbulentna viskoznost određuje preko kinetičke energije i disipacije turbulentnih 

fluktuacija. Na osnovu ovako izračunate turbulentne viskoznosti izračunavaju se turbulentni naponi, 

uvodeći pretpostavku Busineska, da je izraz za turbulentne napone sličan onom za napone u 

laminarnom strujanju, a da umesto dinamičke viskoznosti stoji turbulentna viskoznost. Turbulentni 

naponi se dalje koriste u jednačinama promene količine kretanja i energije. 

3.3 Definisanje graničnih uslova 

Na ulazu u numerički domen definisana je brzina vetra. Korišćen je logaritamski profil brzine vetra, koji 

uzima u obzir uticaj graničnog sloja usled prisustva tla. Kod log profila kinetička energija i disipacija 

turbulencije se menjaju sa visinom. Na izlazu iz dimnjaka, specificiraju se masene koncentracije svih 

sastojaka višekomponentne mešavine, njena brzina i temperatura. 

Na izlaznoj granici numeričkog domena definisana je vrednost statičkog pritiska, koji je jednak pritisku 

okoline. Na ovoj granici definišu se i vrednosti masenih koncentracija sastojaka mešavine za slučaj da 

se javi povratno strujanje u početnoj fazi numeričke simulacije. 

Na čvrstim površinama (zidovima) za globalno strujanje, definišu se brzina i termalni granični uslovi. 

Za brzinu se standardno uzima da nema klizanja, odnosno da je relativna brzina između zidova i 

fluidnih delića u kontaktu sa njima, jednaka nuli. U razmatranom modelu sve čvrste površine (tlo, 

dimnjak i druge građevine) su nepokretne, pa je apsolutna brzina fluidnih delića na njima jednaka nuli. 

Za sve sastojke mešavine uzima se da je gradijent koncentracije u pravcu normale na čvrstu površinu 

jednak nuli, odnosno taj uslov znači da je fluks svih sastojaka mešavine kroz čvrstu površinu jednak 

nuli. 

Za termalne granične uslove na čvrstim površinama uzeti su adijabatski uslovi, odnosno da nema 

razmene toplote između zida i fluida, što je dovoljno tačno za razmatrano strujanje [5,7,9,10,11]. 

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4. REZULTATI NUMERIČKE SIMULACIJE 

Na slici 2. dati su vektori brzine dimnih gasova na izlazu iz dimnjaka i brzine okolnog vazduha usled 

dejstva vetra. Zbog velike brzine, dimni gasovi na izlasku iz dimnjaka znatno menjaju lokalno strujanje 

koje nastaje usled dejstva vetra. 

Slika 2. Vektori brzine dimnih gasova na izlazu iz dimnjaka i okolnog vazduha 

usled dejstva vetra 

Na slici 3. prikazana je masena koncentracija štetnih gasova SO 2 i CO 2 na samom izlasku iz dimnjaka. 

Masene koncentracije gasovitih polutanata se zadaju kao granični uslov i predstavljaju srednju 

vrednost merenih veličina. Na skali levo mogu se očitati njihove vrednosti. Očigledno su vrednosti 

masenih koncentracija sumpordioksida, na izlazu iz dimnjaka termoelektrane, veće od masene 

koncentracije ugljendioksida. 

Na slici 4. (a, b i c), prikazana je masena koncentracija sumpordioksida, odnosno njegovo širenje u 

vertikalnoj ravni koja je postavljena kroz Viminacijum – muzej. Prikaz je dat u obliku izolinija i punog 

profila. Može se primetiti da je uticaj, pod normalnim atmosferskim uslovima, zanemarljiv. Masene 

koncentracije i svih ostalih gasovitih polutanata ponašaju na kvalitativno isti način. Jedina razlika je 

samo u vrednostima masenih koncentracija. Iz tog razloga prikazano je širenje samo sumpordioksida 

pod delovanjem zapadnog vetra. 

a) b) 

Slika 3. Masena koncentracija gasovitih polutanata na samom izlasku 

iz dimnjaka a) sumpordioksid, b) ugljendioksid 

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Na slici 5. prikazana je masena koncentracija sumpordioksida istovremeno u dve vertikalne ravni, koje 

su upravne na pravac strujanja zapadnog vetra. Prednja ravan je postavljena tačno iznad 

Viminacijum-muzeja, a zadnja na udaljenosti ... m od nje, iznad Viminacijum – arheološkog lokaliteta. 

Strujna slika širenja polutanata u ravnima upravnim na pravac strujanja zapadnog vetra, pokazuje 

značajan pad masene koncentracije SO 2 na udaljenosti oko 1000 m. 

(a) 

(b) 

(c) 

Slika 4. Masena koncentracija sumpordioksida u vertikalnoj ravni koja prolazi 

kroz Viminacijum – muzej u pravcu strujanja zapadnog vetra 

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Simulacija širenja zagađenja je rađena i za severo-zapadni vetar, brzine 9 m/s. Na slici 6. je 

prikazana masena koncentracija CO 2 u vertikalnoj ravni postavljenoj kroz Viminacijum-muzej u pravcu 

sever-jug. Može se zaključiti da postoji znatna razlika u koncentraciji gasova u odnosu na raspodelu 

koja je dobijena za zapadni vetar. Razlog za to je znatno većoa brzina severozapadnog vetra. 

Simulacija širenja zagađenja je rađena i za severo-zapadni vetar, brzine 9 m/s. Na slici 6. je 

prikazana masena koncentracija CO 2 u vertikalnoj ravni postavljenoj kroz Viminacijum-muzej u pravcu 

sever-jug. Može se zaključiti da postoji znatna razlika u koncentraciji gasova u odnosu na raspodelu 

koja je dobijena za zapadni vetar. Razlog za to je znatno veća brzina severozapadnog vetra. 

(a) 

(b) 

Slika 5. Masena koncentracija sumpordioksida u dve vertikalne ravni 

upravne na pravac zapadnog vetra na udaljenosti oko 1000 m jedna od druge 

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(a) 

(b) 

Slika 6. Masena koncentracija ugljendioksida u vertikalnoj ravni postavljenoj 

u pravcu sever- jug, kroz Viminacijum – muzej, pod delovanjem severo-zapadnog vetra 

5. ZAKLJUČAK 

Numeričke simulacije širenja dimnog gasa sa gasovitim polutantima iz dimnjaka termoelektrane 

Kostolac B ka Viminacijum muzeju, izvedene su pri normalnim atmosferskim uslovima, za slučajeve 

zapadnog i severozapadnog vetra, pri čemu su uzete u obzir maksimalne merene brzine vetrova. 

Masene koncentracije gasovitih polutanata na muzeju su za nekoliko redova veličine manje od onih na 

izlasku iz dimnjaka, odnosno nemaju uticaja na njegovo zagađenje. 

Ne sme se zanemariti činjenica da bi se, pri nepovoljnim atmosferskim uslovima, kao što su jake 

padavine (kiša, sneg), gusta magla i nizak pritisak, višestruko povećalo moguće zagađenje muzeja 

Viminacijum gasovitim polutantima. U zimskim mesecima usled niskih temperatura okolnog vazduha, 

dolazi do bržeg hlađenja dimnih gasova nakon njihovog izlaska iz dimnjaka. Rezultat toga je da oni 

brže gube silu potiska, tj. brže padaju na tlo. Na širenje dimnih gasova zanemarljiv uticaj ima reljef oko 

termoelektrane. Ovo je posledica velike visinske razlike između dimnjaka i najviših kota na okolnom 

reljefu. 

Primer praćenja zagađenja iz termoelektrane Kostolac B, pokazuje velike mogućnosti primene 

numeričkih simulacija korišćenjem CFD metoda na istraživanja zagađenja životne sredine, kako od 

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industrijskih izvora zagađenja, tako i zagađenja od saobraćaja. Drumski saobraćaj je uzrok više od 

polovine emisija NOx i 35% emisija isparljivih organskih jedinjenja. 

Poseban problem u zagađivanju zemljišta čini emisija velike količine CO 2 , sumpor–anhidrida, različitih 

metala, ugljene kiseline. Industrijski objekti i saobraćajnice u degradaciji zemljišta učestvuju sa oko 

25%. 

CFD metode simulacije širenja zagađenja su koristan i neophodan alat u planiranju i projektovanju 

velikih industrijskih postrojenja i velikih saobraćajnica, koje mogu da budu uzrok zagađenja vazduha i 

degradacije plodnog zemljišta u njihovoj okolini. 

Zahvalnost: 

Zahvaljujemo se Ministarstvu za prosvetu i nauku Republike Srbije i PD TE - KO Kostolac, za 

finansijsku podršku u okviru projekta TR-34028. 

LITERATURA 

[1] Izveštaj, Rasterska karta 1 : 25000, Br. 431 – 3 – 2 i digitalni modela terena – grid, za 

područje oko termoelektrane Kostolac B (površine 30 km 2 ) u formatu DXF, Vojnogeografski 

institut VS, Beograd 

[2] Izveštaj, Ruža vetrova za područje Kostolca, period 2000. do 2009. god., Veliko Gradište, 

Hidrometerološki zavod Srbije, Beograd 

[3] Izveštaj o merenju emisija br. E-15/09, Rudarski institut-Beograd, Laboratorija za zaštitu 

sredine, Zemun, 2009. 

[4] Izveštaj o merenju emisija br. E-16/09, Rudarski institut-Beograd, Laboratorija za zaštitu 

sredine, Zemun, 2009 

[5] M.Kozić, S.Ristić, M.Puharić, B.Katavić, Comparison of Euler-Euler and Euler-Lagrange 

approach in numerical simulation of multiphase flow in ventilation mill, Third Serbian 28 th Yu) 

Congress on Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Vlasina lake, Serbia, 5-8 july 2011. 

[6] D.Stojiljković, A.Jovović, V.Jovanović, N.Manić, Đ.Milovanović, S.Petrović, L.Rubov, M.Gavrić, 

Z.Žbogar, "Izbor optimalnog tehničkog rešenja postrojenja za odsumporavanje dimnih gasova 

na TE Kostolac B", Termotehnika br. 2, vol. XXXV, 177-195, 2009. 

[7] Kozić M., Puharić M., Ristić S., Katavić B., Numerička simulacija strujanja u ventilacijskom 

mlinu i kanalu aerosmeše termoelektrane na lignit Kostolac B, Strojarstvo 53, 2, 2011, 83-90 

[8] ANSYS FLUENT 12.0 User's Gude 

[9] Kozic Mirko S., Ristic Slavica S., Puharic Mirjana A., Katavic Boris T., Numerical simulation of 

multiphase flow in ventilation mill and channel with louvers and centrifugal separator, Thermal 

Science, Vol. 15, No.3, pp.677-689, 2011, 

[10] M.Kozić, S.Ristić, M.Puharić, B.Katavić, Comparison of Euler-Euler and Euler-Lagrange 

approach in numerical simulation of multiphase flow in ventilation mill, Third Serbian 28 th Yu) 

Congress on Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Vlasina lake, Serbia, 5-8 july 2011. 

[11] Kozić M., Puharić M., Ristić S., Katavić B., Numerička simulacija strujanja u ventilacijskom 

mlinu i kanalu aerosmeše termoelektrane na lignit Kostolac B, Strojarstvo 53, 2, 2011, 83-90 

[12] Bundalo Z., Uticaj kombinovanog kopnenog transporta na zaštitu životne sredine, 4. 

Nacionalne konferencije o kvalitetu života, 21. 05. 2009., Mašinski fakultet u Kragujevcu 

[13] STRATEŠKO PLANIRANJE U SEKTORU PUTEVA, Deo 3: Preporuka o izradi plana zaštite 

životne sredine i bezbednosti na putevima, Izdavač JAVNO PREDUZEĆE „PUTEVI SRBIJE“ 

Beograd, 2009. 

[14] Preserving our heritage, improving our environment, Volume I, 20 years of EU research into 

cultural heritage, edited by Michel Chapuis Directorate-General for Research 2009. 

Environment 

[15] Koridor X Idejni projekat autoputa E-80 NIŠ – DIMITROVGRAD, deonica: Prosek – granica 

Bugarske, IZVEŠTAJ O ZAŠTITI ŽIVOTNE SREDINE, Maj 2009. 

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ECOTRACK - NEW TYPE OF BALLASTLESS TRACK SYSTEM 

Prof.dr.sc. Stjepan Lakušić Građevinski fakultet Sveučilišta u Zagrebu, Croatia 

Abstract 

Modern ballastless railway structures find ever wider use on conventional railway lines as well as 

urban tracks. In order to achieve better mechanical and durability properties of the ballastless railway 

structure and to preserve the environment through better waste management, on Faculty of Civil 

Engineering University of Zagreb was developed innovative concrete ballastless track prototype called 

ECOTRACK. In its nutshell, ECOTRACK is a concrete based solution that incorporates waste 

materials obtained during mechanical recycling of waste tyres. Application of recycled rubber assures 

this innovative type of track alignment with all relevant EU Directives in the field of waste management 

on one side, and on the other produce of the high performance concrete with enhanced resistance to 

impact loads, toughness, but also present degradation mechanisms. 

keywords: ballastless track, high performance concrete, tyre recycling, waste management, 

ECOTRACK – novi tip kolosijeka na betonskoj podlozi 

Sažetak 

Moderne kolosiječne konstrukcije na betonskoj podlozi bez zastora nalaze sve veću primjenu kako na 

konvencionalnim željezničkim trasama tako i na urbanim kolosijecima. U cilju poboljšanja mehaničkih i 

trajnosnih svojstava kolosiječne konstrukcije na čvrstoj podlozi te očuvanja okoliša poboljšanjem 

gospodarenja otpadom, na Građevinskom fakultetu Sveučilišta u Zagrebu razvijen je inovativni tip 

kolosijeka na betonskoj podlozi pod nazivom ECOTRACK. Kolosijek tipa ECOTRACK je betonska 

konstrukcija zasnovana na ideji korištenja produkata reciklaže automobilskih guma. Primjena 

reciklirane gume osigurava ovom inovativnom tipu kolosijeka usklađivanje sa svim relevantnim 

direktivama EU u području gospodarenja otpadom te dobivanja betona visokih uporabnih svojstava s 

poboljšanom otpornošću na udarna opterećenja, žilavost, ali i prisutne mehanizme degradacije. 

Ključne riječi: kolosijek na betonskoj podlozi, beton visokih uporabnih svojstava, reciklirana guma, 

gospodarenje otpadom 




TRANSPORTATION DEMANDS OF OIL AND OIL DERIVATES 

ALONG THE CORRIDOR X ON TERRITORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF 

SERBIA 

dr Branko Milovanović, dipl.inž. Saobraćajni fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu, Srbija 

Prof. dr Vojkan D. Jovanović, dipl. inž.Saobraćajni fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu, Srbija 

Abstract 

In this paper, the transportation demands of oil and oil derivatives along the corridor X is presented. 

For the whole service area, the modal split and the total volume of transported oil and oil derivates for 

each of the modes of transport, ie road, rail and water transportation is defined. Based on the total 

amount of petroleum products that each refinery and oil installations attracted and produces, in order 

to assess the risk and potential contamination of the environment, is burdened by the entire route of 

the Corridor X flows of goods, the flow of oil and oil derivates. At the end of the paper is the proposal 

of measures to reduce the likelihood of incident situations and consequence size along the Corridor X 

on the basis of risk assessment in all sections of Corridor X. 

Key words: corridor X, incident situation, oil derivates, risk. 

VELIČINA TRANSPORTNIH ZAHTEVA NAFTE I NAFTNIH DERIVATA DUŽ KORIDORA X NA 

TERITORIJI REPUBLIKE SRBIJE 

Apstrakt 

U okviru rada dat je prikaz veličine transportnih zahteva nafte i naftnih derivata duž koridora X. Za 

celokupno područje opsluge, definisan je i modal split ukupnih količina transportovane nafte i naftnih 

derivata po svakom od vida prevoza, odnosno za drumski, železnički i vodni vid prevoza. Na osnovu 

ukupnih količina naftnih derivata koje svaka od rafinerija i instalacija nafte atrakuje i produkuje, u cilju 

procene rizika i potencijalnog zagađenja zivotne sredine, opterećena je celokupna trasa drumskog 

koridora X tokovima robe, odnosno tokovima nafte i naftnih derivata. Na kraju rada dat je i predlog 

mera u cilju smanjenja verovatnoće nastanka incidentih situacija i veličine posledica duž drumskog 

koridora X na osnovu procene rizika po svim deonicama koridora X. 

Ključne reči: koridor X, incidentna situacija, naftni derivati, rizik. 

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POSTER PREZENTACIJE 

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

We express our gratitude to the collective of Transportšped eminent shareholding 

company for international and domestic freight forwarding and its leader, 

Mr. Branislav Baćović, for their support in organizing this conference. 

Conference organizers 

This conference is one of the results of the project TR 36012 financed by the Ministry 

of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia in 

the period of 2010-2014. 

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Zbornik radova Koridor 10 - Kirilo SaviÄ