Operant Conditioning and its Application to Instructional Design

Operant Conditioning and its Application to Instructional Design
The following is an explanation of the relevance of operant conditioning to the instructional design
process, including its history and application in instructional strategies.
Operant conditioning is the foundation on which B.F. Skinner explored human behavior. A branch of
traditional behavioral science, operant conditioning came to the forefront of research in the 1930's
through the work of Skinner. Learning in operant conditioning occurs when "a proper response is
demonstrated following the presentation of a stimulus" (Ertmer & Newby, 1993, p. 55). This means that
learning has taken place when there is an observable change in the behavior of the learner after the
instruction has been delivered. Skinner was preceded by theorists such as J.B. Watson who studied the
objective data of behavior and Ivan Pavlov, often referred to as the Father of Classical Conditioning
(Burton, 1981; Driscoll, 1994). Classical conditioning focuses on the involuntary response of the learner
following a stimulus.
Similar to classical conditioning, operant conditioning studies the response of the learner following a
stimulus; however, the response is voluntary and the concept of reinforcement is emphasized. The
relationship in operant conditioning includes three component parts: the stimulus, a response, and the
reinforcement following the response. According to Burton, operant conditioning is based on "a
functional and interconnected relationship between the stimuli that preceded a response (antecedents),
the stimuli that follow a response (consequences), and the response (operant) itself" (1981, p. 50).
Skinner determined that reinforcement following a response would alter the operant, or response, by
encouraging correct behavior or discouraging incorrect behavior. Skinner referred to the operant as "any
behavior that produced the same effect on the environment" and the relationship between the operant
and its consequences was termed "contingency" (Cook, 1993, p. 63). Environmental factors influence
learning, but most important is the arrangement between the stimuli and the consequence, or reaction, of
the learner in his environment (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). Contingency, according to Cook, is a "kind of
'if-then' relationship: if the response is made, then the reinforcement is delivered" (1993, p. 63). For
example, by eliciting a stimulus- teacher asks a question, the learner responds- child raises hand,
reinforcement is issued- teacher calls on student with hand raised.
Reinforcement serves one of two purposes: strengthening a response or weakening a response. Types of
reinforcement include positive and negative to strengthen a response, and punishment, extinction,
response cost, and timeout to weaken a response. Positive reinforcement is the "presentation of a
reinforcer (satisfying stimulus) contingent upon a response that results in the strengthening of that
response" (Driscoll, 1994, p. 32). An example of positive reinforcement would be praise, a reward, or a
gift after displaying appropriate behavior. A negative reinforcer also strengthens a response, but by
taking away the aversive stimulus subject to that response (Driscoll, 1994). An example of negative
reinforcement would a child finally doing his homework just to stop his parents from nagging.
Punishment is used to weaken a response, or decrease an inappropriate behavior. It is what most of us
are familiar with. Examples include taking away a favorite toy when a child is acting up or grounding a
teenager for coming home past curfew. Other methods of weakening an undesired response include
extinction, removal of the reinforcement maintaining a response; response cost, removal of
reinforcement contingent upon behavior by imposing a fine; and timeout, removing the learner from the
environment that reinforces the incorrect behavior (Driscoll, 1994).
Maintenance of the newly acquired behavior is an important part of the operant conditioning theory.
Methods of maintenance include a ratio schedule of reinforcement and an interval schedule of
reinforcement. A ratio schedule relies on the number of times the appropriate response is made after the
stimulus is delivered. After a set number of correct responses, the reinforcement is delivered by the
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instructor (Driscoll, 1994). Interval scheduling depends on a set amount of time under which the correct
answer is given before reinforcement will be delivered. Both ratio and interval scheduling can be
delivered under fixed amounts of responses/times or variable number of responses or times (Driscoll,
1994).
Because the learner is reacting to the stimulus in the environment, behaviorism in general is widely
criticized for promoting a passive role of the learner in receiving information. According to Ertmer and
Newby, "the learner is characterized as reactive to conditions in the environment as opposed to taking an
active role in discovering the environment" (1993, p. 50). This is a misinterpretation of what Skinner
believed the role of the learner to be. He emphasized the active role of the learner. According to Skinner,
the learner "does not passively absorb knowledge from the world around him but must play an active
role" (Burton, 1981, p. 49). Skinner's statement is reinforced by the central premise of behaviorism: the
learner's change in observable behavior indicates that learning has occurred. Skinner identifies three
components necessary for learning: doing, experiencing, and practice (Burton, 1981). These three
components work together to determine what has been learned, under what conditions, and the
consequences that will support the learned behavior. The types of learning that are achieved in an
operant conditioning environment are discrimination (recall of facts), generalizations (define and
illustrate concepts), association (apply explanations), and chaining (automatically perform a procedure)
(Ertmer & Newby, 1993). Instructional strategies for teaching these learning outcomes include shaping,
fading, and chaining. Shaping is used to teach relatively simple tasks by breaking the task down into
small components (Driscoll, 1994). Chaining is similar to shaping but used to break down complex
tasks; however, there is a difference regarding the reinforcement schedule. In shaping, reinforcement is
delivered all throughout the steps, whereas with chaining the reinforcement is not delivered until the end
and the learner can demonstrate the task in its entirety (Driscoll, 1994). Discrimination, according to
Driscoll, is best learned using fading techniques. This involves the gradual withdrawal of the
reinforcement as the desired behavior is elicited (1994). These prescriptive strategies aid the instructor
in reaching the desired learning outcome.
In the 1960's, Skinner used Sydney Pressey's teaching machines as a basis for creating programmed
instruction. Pressey's teaching machines were developed in the mid-1920's first as a self-scoring testing
device and then evolved to include immediate reinforcement for the correct answer (Burton, 1981).
Research conducted on his teaching machines concluded that "errors were eliminated more rapidly with
meaningful material and found that students learned more efficiently when they could correct errors
immediately" (Burton, 1981, p. 23). Pressey's teaching machines were popular with the U.S. Air Force
after World War II. They were "variations of an automatic self-checking technique" and "essentially
allowed students to get immediate information concerning accuracy of response" (Burton, 1981, p. 53).
Skinner later applied behaviorist theory to the basis of teaching machines and created programmed
instruction.
Programmed instruction was popularized in the 1960's with Skinner. The technique was similar to
Pressey's teaching machines in the use of immediate feedback after the response and student-controlled
rate of instruction, but Skinner applied operant conditioning principles to programmed instruction. The
fact that learning is measured by the change in behavior and the maintenance of the changed behavior,
Skinner "required students to 'overtly' compose responses" (Burton, 1981, p. 54). Pressey had used
multiple-choice as the method of assessment; a method that Skinner thought left chance for mistakes.
Skinner required the student to write out the response as this behavior could be observed (Burton, 1981).
The content in programmed instruction is arranged in small chunks and organized in a simple to
complex sequence. The learner progresses by responding correctly, receiving feedback, and moving
forward. If the response is incorrect, the learner repeats instruction until there are no mistakes. This
allows the learner to set his own pace. The instruction is linear with no paths diverging from the directed
instruction.
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Although programmed instruction is effective in achieving certain learning outcomes, it is sometimes
characterized as boring because of the monotony, repetition, and small steps towards mastery. Crowder
attempted to alleviate this problem by introducing branching to programmed instruction. In branching,
there are several possible answers and larger units of instruction. This format also allows students to
skip over what they already know and to be branched into appropriate advanced or remedial sections
(Driscoll, 1994). Whereas Skinner's programmed instruction encouraged the overt response of the
learner, Crowder reverted to Pressey's approach and gave the learner multiple choice questions at the
end of instruction. This does not follow the principles of operant conditioning by not requiring an overt
response, but it does provide immediate feedback and reinforcement as in operant conditioning
principles. According to Burton, several studies compared found no differences in the type of response,
overt or multiple choice in the performance of the learner (1996).
Computer-based instruction originates from Skinner's programmed instruction. These computer
simulated instructional strategies follow closely Skinner's operant conditioning by presenting a stimulus,
eliciting a response, and providing immediate feedback. Computers added more options and variety the
instruction, and this solved some of the criticism of monotonous and boring instruction. Computers
changed the instruction by allowing for complex branching of content, record of student response,
graphics and speech, drill and practice, problem solving, and tutorials (Driscoll, 1994). It also provides
cueing and shaping techniques to guide the learner to achievement. Computer based instruction is used
currently in training and education based models such as CBT (computer-based training) and CAI
(computer-assisted instruction). Although the technology has allowed for a more sophisticated
presentation, the basis of the instruction is primarily behaviorist in nature and based on Skinner's
programmed instruction.
Behaviorism is influential on the standard instructional design process. Creators of programmed
instruction needed to determine when to begin instruction, and they did this by analyzing the learner's
prerequisite knowledge. The process of the learner analysis and identifying prerequisite skills in the
instructional design process was originated by behaviorists during the development of their instruction,
namely through teaching machines and programmed instruction. The Needs Analysis phase of the ID
process includes both the learner analysis and prerequisite skills.
One of the most important contributions of behaviorism to the instructional design process is the
identification and measurement of learning. Behaviorists agree that "learning has occurred when learners
evidence the appropriate response to a particular stimulus" (Smith and Ragan, 1999, p. 19). The
emphasis on producing observable and measurable outcomes led to the creation of performance
objectives (Driscoll, 55). In the instructional design process, performance objectives describe what the
learner will accomplish, under what conditions, and how the learner will be measured. These
components are included in the Task Analysis phase of the ID process and the assessment of the learner
at the end of instruction.
In programmed instruction, the learner is required to pass each section before continuing to the next
segment of instruction. This technique encouraged mastery learning. In order to achieve mastery, it is
necessary that the content be organized from simple to complex. The learner needs to grasp the basic
information prior to moving on to more difficult tasks. Instructional designers take this sequence into
consideration when developing material. They must first determine the prerequisite knowledge and then
lay out the steps of the new content in a format conducive to achieving mastery. Instructional designers
also use instructional strategies of cueing, shaping, and fading to guide the learner through the
instruction. This process takes place in the Task Analysis phase of ID. Before moving ahead with
instruction, the learner is given feedback on each answer. This is based on the reinforcement Skinner
believed essential to learning. The reinforcement of the learner impacts his performance. By
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encouraging the learner to achieve the correct response and discouraging incorrect answers, the
programmed instruction is using the instructional strategies based on operant conditioning:
reinforcement and feedback (Ertmer and Newby, 1993). Finally, the use of practice and shaping in
instruction has its roots in behaviorism. The sequencing of practice from simple to complex and the use
of prompts are strategies Skinner applied in his research of operant conditioning. Successive
approximations are reinforced until the goal has been reached (Driscoll, 1994).
Operant conditioning has influenced education and continues to be a guide in developing instruction.
Although some techniques have changed and technology evolved, programmed instruction is widely
used and modified to suit individual needs. The cognitive perspective has added to the instructional
strategies and finds itself combined with behaviorism when technology-based instruction is delivered.
The influence of behaviorism to the instructional design process is significant and still apparent in
current design.
References
Burton, J.K., Moore, D.M., & Magliaro, S.G. (1996). Behaviorism and instructional technology.
In D.H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research for educational communications and technology
(pp. 46-67). New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.
Cook, D.A., (1993, October). Behaviorism evolves. Educational Technology, pp. 62-77.
Cooper, P.A., (1993, May). Paradigm shifts in designed instruction: From behaviorism to
cognitivism to constructivism. Educational Technology, 33(5), 12-19.
Driscoll, M.P. (1994). Psychology of learning for instruction. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J., (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing
critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly,
6(4), 50-72.
Kunkel, J.H., (1996). What have behaviorists accomplished--and what more can they do
Psychological Record, 46(1), 21-38.
Smith, P.L., & Ragan, T.J. (1999). Instructional design. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
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