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4438 J. Med. Plants Res. Figure 1. Comparison of sulfate and chloride levels in the herbal tea samples. Table 2. Fluoride, chloride, and sulfate set standard limits. Organization Anions (mg/L) Fluoride Chloride Sulfate US EPA 2.0* and 4.0** 250.0** 250.0** US FDA 1.7 250.0 250.0 WHO 1.5 - - EC 1.5 250.0 250.0 * US EPA permissible level, under the NPDWR; ** US EPA permissible level, under the NSDWR. de-ionized water, and then homogenized, filtered through a 0.2 μm membrane filter (Schleicher & Schuell, Germany), and degassed by sonication. A 50 μL injection volume was used for the standards, and depending on the concentration of the anions in the samples, a 5 to 100 μL injection volume was used for the samples. A 1.0 mL/min IC flow rate was used. A standard stock solution was prepared from a multi-ion standard (Seven Anion Standard II Standard, Dionex, USA) and was used for preparing the different calibration curves (correlation coefficient ≥ 0.99) for all of the measured anions. The calibration curves were prepared with a concentration range of 0 - 10 mg/L fluoride; 0 - 50 mg/L chloride; and 0 - 50 mg/L sulphate. The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantitation (LOQ) for the measured anions are as follows, for fluoride 0.10 and 0.35 mg/L, for chloride 0.39 and 1.29 mg/L, and for sulfate 1.16 and 3.88 mg/L, respectively. For the measured anions, the recovery of the applied method of analysis was accomplished by spiking the prepared herbal tea samples with aliquots of the anion standard, and then analyzed. Recovery of fluoride was 108.05 – 127.67%, chloride was 93.75 – 94.46%, and sulfate was 91.92 – 92.77%; with a standard deviation ranging from 0.000 - 0.014 for fluoride, 0.004 - 0.010 for chloride, and 0.086 - 0.199 for sulfate. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION SO4 The fluoride, chloride and sulfate levels were measured for all the herbal tea brands (Table 1 and Figure 1). The US EPA, US FDA and European Commission (EC) have set standard limits or suggested values for fluoride, chloride and sulfate in drinking water (Table 2) based on the probable effects that they may have (EC, 1998; US EPA, 2009; US FDA, 2009). Unlike the other organizations, the WHO provides no guideline value for chloride and sulfate, but only for fluoride (Table 2) (WHO, 2011). Some of the contaminants that are in drinking water are considered under the National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NPDWR) standards and cause
Figure 2. Chloride levels in herbal tea samples compared to the set standard limit ( 250 mg/L). health problems, while others cause more of cosmetic and aesthetic effects and are considered under the National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations (NSDWR) standards (US EPA, 2009). Under the US EPA regulations, some of those contaminants (e.g., fluoride only in this research) fall under both the NPDWR and NSDWR, as depending on the level of contamination, they could have different side effects (US EPA, 2009). Fluoride anion Fluoride is found in soil, water, and rocks naturally (Sendesh Kannan and Ramasubramanian, 2011). Fluoride is usually added to drinking water for dental care, but if fluoride is present above the permissible levels in drinking water (Table 2), it could lead to teeth and bone problems (US EPA, 2009; D’Alessandro et al., 2008). None of the analyzed herbal tea samples (Table 2) showed fluoride contamination. Chloride and sulfate anions Chloride is present naturally in the environment (soil and water) as a result of weathering of rocks (Chutia and Sarma, 2009; WHO, 2003). Human activities increase the levels of chloride in the environment through the use of inorganic fertilizers and discharge of agricultural waste water, runoff from de-iced roads, leachate from landfills, industrial and septic tank effluents, animal feed, and intrusion of sea water (D’Alessandro et al., 2008; Chutia and Sarma, 2009; DNHW, 1978; WHO, 2003). All such activities can lead to contamination of water bodies and Abouleish and Abdo 4439 as a result, contaminate our environment, water and food. Chloride is considered under the NSDWR regulations according to the US EPA; therefore, it has an aesthetic and cosmetic effect (US EPA, 2009). At concentrations higher than 250 mg/L, the taste of the water or product will change (WHO, 2011). Chloride is present in nature in different forms, e.g., calcium chloride, sodium chloride and potassium chloride (WHO, 2003). Therefore, depending on the cation (e.g., calcium, sodium or potassium), the taste threshold changes (WHO, 2003). In this study, samples 1 and 7 demonstrated chloride concentration above the permissible levels for the US EPA, US FDA, and EC (Tables 1 and 2, and Figure 2). The other samples demonstrated high chloride levels (68.42 - 186.52 mg/L range), but below the permissible levels set by the U.S. and international organizations (Tables 1 and 2). The chloride contamination in the samples is from the herbal ingredients, as the water used in this research for the preparation of the herbal tea samples contained no chloride. The presence of such high levels may have an effect on the taste of the herbal tea product. Sulfates are present naturally in the environment as a result of decaying animals and plants, yet human activities, such as the excessive use of sulfate fertilizers and the release of industrial and residential waste into the environment, cause the contamination levels to increase in rivers, lakes, and groundwater (Chutia and Sarma, 2009; WDHS, 2000) and eventually contaminate our drinking water and food. Standard limits are set for sulfates by the US EPA, US FDA, and EC (Table 2) (EC, 1998; US EPA, 2009; US FDA, 2009). Sulfate is considered under the NSDWR regulations, according to
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B Journal of Medicinal Plants Resea
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Editors Prof. Akah Peter Achunike E
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Electronic submission of manuscript
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Fees and Charges: Authors are requi
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ences Table of Contents: Volume 6 N
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supplement of dietary minerals. The
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several studies. MO leaves ethanoli
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(Nandave et al., 2009). In ocular d
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Journal of Medicinal Plants Researc
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Table 1. Pa and Pi of PTK inhibitor
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Journal of Medicinal Plants Researc
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Table 1. Plant collection and stora
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Table 2. Count’d. Psydrax livida
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Mukandiwa et al. 4385 Figure 3. Chr
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Page 35 and 36: REFERENCES Hui et al. 4393 Figure 1
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Page 39 and 40: Table 2. Analysis of variance of yi
Page 41 and 42: Pirzad 4399 Table 3. Correlation co
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Page 59 and 60: Lippia spp. using gas chromatograph
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Page 89 and 90: Percentage mortality Percentage mor
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Page 95 and 96: Table 1. Percentage yield extracts
Page 97 and 98: application of betalian pigment of
Page 99 and 100: Conferences and Advert September 20
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