black sea

The second stage of the Bulgarian expansion
to south took place in 812-815. By the peace treaty
of 816, the Byzantine Empire has lost Anchialos
and Mesembria, but received Sozopolis, Ranuli
(Ropotamo) and Agathopolis (Ahtopol). Develtos
was divided between the two states. 23 The western
coast was now entirely lost for Byzantum, except
the theme of Thrace.
In the North-Pontic space, a significant change
in the balance of powers was caused by the rise of
the Khazars in the region between Dnieper and
Volga, after the second third of the 7 th century.
The Khazars became the main power north of the
Black Sea, and Cherson entered under their control
in 711. Theoretically, this city remained in the
Byzantine Empire, but the real authority was
exerted by Khazarian governors, 24 as well as in
Bosporos (Kerch) and Phanagoria (Tamatarkha),
the cities located on the both sides of the Kerch
Strait. 25 In this way, the Byzantine monopoly in
the Black Sea turned into a power sharing with the
Khazars. The rise of the Khazars affected the
Byzantine positions in Crimea, influencing the
strategy applied in the northern space of security
of Constantinople. As long as the Khazars were
still powerful, the Byzantines avoided any conflict
with them, especially during the wars against the
Arabs, their common enemies. The Byzantine-
Khazarian power sharing enabled the return of a
real imperial administration in Crimea, in the form
of the new theme of Cherson, created in 841 by
emperor Theophilus. 26 Kerch was not a priority
for the Byzantines as long as the Khazars were
still powerful. 27 A recent interpretation suggests
that this harbor was recovered by the Byzantines
before 873, 28 but the Khazarian rule came back in
unknown circumstances, since it is sure that Kerch
was a Khazarian possession in 965, when it was
conquered by the Russians. 29
In 860, Constantinople suffered a surprise
attack caused by a fleet of 200 ships with 8000
warriors arrived by the Black Sea from the far
north. The invaders, called Rhos in the Byzantine
sources, ravaged the suburbs, taking a rich booty. 30
The Rus’ (Vikings mixed with Slavs) were a
potential danger not only for Cherson, but also for
other Byzantine regions, including the capital, and
also for the Khazars. The defence against them
required the strengthening of the Byzantine
positions in Crimea and the prevention of future
attacks by new and effective alliances. At
Constantinople, a new military district secured the
defence of Bosphorus. 31 The new danger which
emerged north of the Black Sea was counterbalanced
by the alliance with the Hungarians
established in 863. Their location between Don
and Bug was suitable for the prevention of the
Russian attacks. They were also in good position to
strike the Khazars, and to attack Bulgaria and the
Frankish Empire. For more than three decades,
the Hungarians, took the place of the Khazars as
the warrants of the North-Pontic space security,
with the difference that they did not intend to
control the Crimean harbors as did the Khazars. 32
A good defence against the Russian maritime
attacks required also the control over some
strategic points on the western and northern
shores of the Black Sea. The recovery of the
western harbors was necessary because they were
on the way of the Russian raids. In the war against
Bulgaria launched in 863, the emperor Michael III
(842-867) reconquered Develtos, Anchialos and
Mesembria. 33 At Mesembria was created after 864
a kleisura (small frontier district). The seals of its
commanders are dated through the archaeological
context between 864-917. Another kleisura was
established around 840 at Sozopolis. 34 It followed
the reestablishment of some positions on the
Danube. The existence of a Danubian theme called
Lykostomion was inferred from the dedication of
Patriarch Photios’ Lexikon, made for a certain
Thomas, protospatharios and archon of Lykostomion.
Hélène Ahrweiler has supposed that this
9 th century Lykostomion is the same with that
recorded in the Danube Delta in the 13 th -15 th
centuries. 35 The hypothesis was endorsed by
several historians 36 , but denied by Vasilka Tăpkova-
Zaimova, who supposed that this Lykostomion was
in Thessaly. 37 However, the location on an island
at the mouth of the Chilia channel, at Periprava,
could be taken into consideration, since the
existence of a Byzantine headquarter on the
Danube in the 9 th century is now supported by the
seals of two Byzantine dignitaries found at
Isaccea. 38 The base of Lykostomion was a stop in
the coast navigation to Chersones.
The new defensive system created after 863,
based on the harbors of Anchialos and Mesembria
and on the port of call of Lykostomion, ensured
the security of the capital against the Rus’ and
Bulgaria, while the alliance with the Hungarians
secured the stability in the north. It was a well
24 ����� Review of Military History �����