1jIl0Vh

PART II — THeMATIC eSSAYSPreventive actionsStrengthening managementIn many countries, school management often includesnot only senior education staff but also a schoolmanagement committee composed of communityrepresentatives. However, particularly in unstablesettings, school management may be politicized orbiased, discriminating against members of certaincultural, linguistic, ethnic or religious minorities,thereby potentially making schools more vulnerable toattack. 236 Ensuring the full participation of excludedgroups in school management committees mayreduce threats to schools, teachers and students. 237 InNepal, there seemed to be a correlation betweendemocratic elections to select committee membersand reduced threat of attack. 238 In Afghanistan,community involvement in the management ofschools encouraged greater vigilance againstattack. 239 In addition, representative managementstructures may more effectively implement otherprotective actions outlined below. However, thevoluntary nature of these committees can lead to slowprogress, high turnover or lack of willingness to participate.240NegotiationMany instances have shown that local actors,including school management committees,community and religious leaders, and village elders,may be effective at negotiating with potential perpetratorsof attacks, particularly when the attackers aretrying to gain the community’s support or arecommunity members themselves. Religious leadersand religious groups may also have greater success innegotiating with parties to conflict when they drawfrom similar belief systems. 241In one case in Nepal, a Village Development Councilsuccessfully lobbied to locate election booths incommunity buildings instead of schools to ensure thateducation facilities retained a politically neutralprofile. 242The approach taken to negotiations depends upon theperpetrators and motives of attack. At times, transparentand public negotiations may be most effectivesince they ensure awareness of agreements, forexample, through public ceremonies. 243 Alternatively,back-door negotiations may be more appropriatewhere discussion with certain parties to the conflictwould present a risk for negotiators. For example, inNepal, secret negotiations took place with Maoistrebels so that individuals – mostly women – involvedin discussions on the subject of Schools as Zones ofPeace would not be put in jeopardy. 244Codes of Conduct/Zones of PeaceCodes of Conduct are a particular type of negotiationthat can be long-term and prevent school attacks.‘Schools as Zones of Peace’ (SZOP) have been establishedin many areas and international organizationscan play a major role in encouraging communities toengage in such a process. A mid-term evaluation bySave the Children noted 12 of 16 of their projectschools in Nepal had Codes of Conduct regardingSZoP. 245UN agencies and NGOs promoting SZOPs have oftenfound it beneficial to work through local partners,whose staff speak local languages and understand thecontext, enabling long-term relationship-building,meaningful participation from all stakeholders,including schools and their communities, andcontextual relevance. 246 The negotiation process maybe lengthy and requires patience, flexibility and trust.In Baglung, Nepal, for example, Maoists initiallyrejected a declaration of the school as a SZOP, butallowed it as they became more integrated into thecommunity. 247Additionally, including clauses that target all participants’behaviour – not just armed groups and forces –has been effective in places like Nepal. There, clausescovered concerns such as armed activities andweapons in school; use of children in political activities;abduction; use of inappropriate language; anduse of alcohol and tobacco. 248Adaptation of education deliverySchools may be targets for attack because they arelarge physical structures, are a source for humanresources or have symbolic meaning. Consequently,changes in physical set-up or content may beprotective; for example, reducing visibility by means ofboundary walls, relocating schools or holding classes84