Fighter Combat

410 APPENDIXtrolling airspeed, keeping weight and drag to a minimum, and configuringhis aircraft to provide maximum L/D for the high-G condition. Stillanother technique is to maintain the aircraft CG at the rearmost positionpracticable (assuming a tail-configured fighter) in order to minimize trimdrag, as explained earlier.A feature that is less well known among fighter pilots is a phenomenonknown as "gyroscopic precession," which may cause a fighter's turn performanceto vary depending on the direction of its turn. High-speed rotationalcomponents, such as propellers or jet compressor and turbine rotors,behave as large gyroscopes when the aircraft turns. Gyroscopic precessiongenerates a torque about an axis that is perpendicular to both the rotationalaxis of the gyroscope (generally near the fuselage axis of the aircraft) andthe axis about which the fighter is turning (i.e., the vertical axis for a levelturn). For a level turn this results in a gyroscopic nose-up or nose-downmoment (relative to the earth) which must be compensated for by increasedupward or downward lift from the pitch-control surfaces, and byuse of the rudder. Whenever this gyroscopic moment must be offset largelyby the pitch controls, there will be an increase or decrease in trim drag,depending on the turn direction. This phenomenon affects both sustainedand instantaneous turn performance in a manner that is similar to theeffect of an actual weight change in the aircraft.The significance of the gyroscopic effect is increased by large, heavyrotating parts (high moment of inertia) in relation to total aircraft weight,and by faster rotational speeds. Faster turn rates, slower speeds, levelskidding turns, lower G, and shorter distances between the CG and thepitch-control surface also increase the impact of the gyroscopic effect onturn performance.As fighters have developed over the years they have generally becomelarger, heavier, faster, and capable of developing more G but less turn rate.All these factors have served to reduce the impact of the gyroscopic effectto the point where it may be insignificant to a modern fighter. This wascertainly not the case, however, during World War I, when many fighters ofboth sides, including some Sopwiths, Nieuports, and Fokkers, werepowered by rotary engines. The rotary engine was an air-cooled designwith cylinders arranged radially around a central crankshaft. The prop wasconnected directly to the cylinders, and the cylinders and prop rotated as aunit around the fixed crankshaft. With more than one-quarter of their totalweight comprised of rotating parts, some of these fighters earned reputationsfor being extremely maneuverable—at least in one direction. Thissame characteristic, however, made these fighters very tricky to handle,and they probably killed nearly as many of their own pilots as they didthose of the enemy.Torque may also have an effect on turn performance, particularly withhigh-powered prop fighters at slow speed. The effects of engine torquemust generally be offset by rudder power to maintain balanced flight.Normally under these conditions considerable right rudder will be requiredto balance the torque of a prop turning clockwise (when viewedfrom behind), and vice versa. Another consideration here is called "P-