Status report on global Neem usage - Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal

ivi
Division 45
Rural Development
Working field „Non-synthetic Pesticides“
Project: Improving the Quality of Agricultural Produce“
Peter Förster, Gerald Moser
<strong>Status</strong> <strong>report</strong> on global
Neem usage
Eschborn 2000

Published by
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH
P.O. Box 5180, 65726 Eschborn, Germany
Internet: http://www.gtz.de
Division 45 – Rural Development
Project: Improving the Quality of Agricultural Produce
pietfoerster@hotmail.com
Responsible: Dr. Peter Förster
Second revised edition
Printed and distributed by:
Universum Verlagsanstalt, 65175 Wiesbaden, Germany

Table of Contents
Page
Foreword for the 2 nd Edition 3
Summary 4
1. Introduction 6
2. Global Neem Dissemination and Usage 7
2.1 Geographical Distribution and Types of Usage 7
2.2 Potential Uses of Neem 11
2.3 Neem Processing 14
2.4 Evaluation of the Questionnaire "Global Neem Usage":
General Questions Pertaining to Neem 17
3. Neem as a Non-synthetic Pesticide 22
3.1 Historical Importance of Neem as a Non-synthetic Pesticide 22
3.2 How Does Neem Work? 22
3.3 Comparison of Neem with Other Pesticides 25
3.4 Economic Efficiency of Neem the Pesticide 27
3.5 Current Uses of Neem as a Pesticide 33
3.6 Evaluation of the Questionnaire "Global Neem Usage":
Questions on Neem as a Pesticide 39
4. Neem in Development-Cooperation Projects 44
4.1 Supraregional Projects 44
4.2 Bilateral or National Projects 47
5. Prospects and Possibilities for Future Neem Usage 98
6. Outlook 101
Annex
Literature and Source Materials 104
Selected References on Neem 108
Proceedings of International Neem Conferences 109
Proceedings of Regional or National Neem Conferences and WS 109
Technical Leaflets 110
Adresses of Projects 111
List of Publications on Neem of GTZ Staff and Co-operators 115
Abbreviations
FINIDA Finnish International Development Agency
GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit GmbH
IPP Integrated Plant Protection
NGO Non-government organisation
PSD Pesticidel
GO Government organisation
TC Technical Cooperation

Notes
(figure) The figure relates to literature or source references in Annex A.
Tables
Page
2.1 Overview of the ways of using the different parts of neem
trees and their raw materials 11
2.2. Estimated occurrence of neem by world regions 11
2.3 Quality standards of raw material 15
2.4 Analysis of neem oil for micro-organisms 17
2.5 Ocurrence and usage of neem by world regions 18
3.1 Neem Usage as a pesticide 24
3.2 Comparison of biological pesticides with neem 26
3.3 Comparison of one-step and two-step extraction methods 29
3.4 Prices of selected neem pesticides 30
3.5 Overview of the various technologies involved in the usage of neem
as a pesticide 33
3.6 Commercial neem-based pesticides in various countries 37
3.7 Market value of dried neem seeds in US$ 40
3.8 Key crops and pests for neem application 41
4.1 Azadirachtin content of neem kernel in samples from different origins 97
6.1 Merits and benefits of neem 102
Figures
Page
2.1 Chronological diagram of neem usage 18
2.2 Population’s knowledge about respective types of neem usage 19
2.3 Use made of the various parts and raw materials obtained from
the neem tree 19
2.4 Ways in which the most important neem components and
raw materials are used 20
2.5 Commercial neem products by country/region 20
3.1 Forms of application of neem as a pesticide 39
3.2 Forms of applicaton of neem as a pesticide by region 39
3.3 Neem users 41
3.4 Farmers’ sources of neem 42
3.5 Reasons for neem’s low level of acceptance as a pesticide 43
Graphs
Page
2.1 Global occurrence of neem trees 10

Foreword for the 2 nd Edition
FOREWORD
During the five years since its first publication the “<strong>Status</strong> Report on global Neem Usage” has
gained considerable popularity and demand. This can be seen from the fact that the <strong>report</strong>
prepared by Gerald Moser on behalf of GTZ’s Pesticide Service Project with experienced
input and assistance of my colleagues Dr. Irmgard Hoeschle-Zélédon and Dr. Carsten
Hellpap, is frequently cited in various publications and that similar questionnaires and
research has been carried out later elsewhere.
Although some people expected that with the termination of the former long time runner
“Neem Project” (cf 4) the neem activities will decline, there has been an amazing boom of
interest on this topic in the last 4 years, indicated by the facts that
• GTZ is receiving constantly a high number of inquiries every year on and relatd to neem
• several other TC organisation have recently started to work on neem
• commercial neem pesticides are offered in a wide number of countries, both in industrial
and what is most important, also in developing countries.
etc.
Despite this obvious demand for information and technical assistance from a wide range of
interested organisation covering all social levels, ranging from UN organisations via entrepreneurs
to community groups, the obvious positive impact of this service and the still
existing huge gab between the potentials of the neem tree and its practical usage, the agricultural
division of GTZ decided, due to the change of its policy, to close down this activities,
at least on supra-regional level and to consider neem activities on bi-lateral level only. For
the near future GATE of GTZ will be in charge for assisting any people from developing
country interested in neem as part of its Question & Answer Service.
This <strong>report</strong> summarises the information provided by the respondents of the questionnaire in
1996 but also all the information provided in an often constructive and long time lasting
dialogue by all the of neem workers and activists in a wide range of developing countries and
TC organisations.
Beside the still valid results of the questionnaire carried out in 95/96 and an up-date of the list
of neem projects, we add in the 2 nd edition a chapter on quality management which turned
out to me one of the most decisive factors of successful neem projects. Additionally we discussed
the economy of neem pesticides. Unfortunately only few investigations addressed
this aspect of neem processing and very few data is available on this important aspect.
Future activities should emphasis this aspect of neem application and should consider short
and long time effects of neem in farming systems.
Moreover we extent the list of references by a list of proceedings of conferences and workshops
and publications of GTZ staff which are related to specific aspects of neem usage.
It gave me a great pleasure to be part of this often fruitful information exchange and I would
like to thank you all for your contributions during the last 5 years!
Peter Foerster
May, 2000, GTZ
3

SUMMARY
Summary
This study <strong>report</strong> aims to provide an overview of the current status of neem usage throughout
the world, its key focus being on the use of neem as a non-synthetic pesticide. Those projects
with neem components conducted to date by the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische
Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH and those projects by other organisations and institutions
which concentrate on neem as a key area of activity are taken as a basis on which to present
the various methods and technological approaches as well as the problems involved in the
usage and acceptance of neem.
This summary is designed to provide a brief overview of the key results obtained in the study:
The neem tree is found in no less than 78 countries world-wide and is used in a further nine.
The overall global occurrence is estimated at somewhere between 64 to 91 million trees,
whereby South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa constitute the main areas of distribution.
The neem tree has been used for over 3000 years, the following forms of usage being
common in more than 50 countries: natural pesticide, planting and afforestation as shade
trees and to protect against erosion, medicinal plants.
The greatest potential for use focuses on the various neem-tree components, in particular
the seeds or their contents as natural pesticides. Both simple home-made insecticides and
ready-to-use, neem-based pesticides are applied. Until the mid of the nineties, home-made
insecticides were the most wide spread and are used either directly in the form of raw materials
or as simple aqueous extracts. The farmers mainly obtain the requisite raw material
from the seeds of their own neem trees or from trees in the surroundings.
Pesticides formulated on a neem-basis are offered meanwhile in many markets. During the
last 5 years a range of small and middle-sized producers has started production and marketing
in industrialized, after having taken the often time consuming required registration
procedures. In USA we have observed an concentration process aiming to offer alternative
pest control packages including neem as a fungicide, out from one hand.
However also in developing countries a range of entrepreneurs started manufacturing neem
based pesticides. Currently in India 10 production units of reliable quality products are set up.
From a technical point of view, they no longer pose any serious production problems.
Neem's economic efficiency as a pesticide is predominantly determined by the price of the
seeds. In countries where neem is endemic, the prices range from between US$ 0.05 to
1.60 per kg of dried seed. In most countries, the cost of seeds needed to treat a hectare of
field crops once are between US$ 5.00 to US$ 20.00. When assessing the economic efficiency
of neem, care should be taken not to overlook the fact that other by-products can be
obtained and marketed, thus considerably enhancing neem's overall profitability.
Neem is used successfully as a pesticide in a wide range of crops and against numerous
pests but most of all in vegetables, ornamentals and fruits.
4

SUMMARY
Indeed, neem has been effective in animal husbandry where it has been applied in the
treatment of ectoparasites such as ticks.
The main problems hindering greater acceptance of neem by farmers include poor dissemination
of neem-related knowledge and the fact that farmers have no access to neem either
as raw material or ready-to use products. E.g. in those regions such as vegetable growing
areas in which neem could be used successfully, there are not enough trees or none at all.
Another important reason is the lack of funds for the often small neem manufacturing companies
to invest in professional marketing and distribution strategies.
This document presents more than 120 projects, organisations, institutions and microindustries
and companies in 58 countries that are working on neem. The most important
activities when working with neem in this context are to disseminate both the tree itself and
knowledge of its potential uses, in particular as a non-synthetic pesticide.
India, Myanmar, Thailand, Kenya and the Dominican Republic are cited as examples of the
way in which neem can be successfully propagated and used as a pesticide.
Those areas suffering from erosion could be reafforested with neem trees and given the
tree’s many possible uses, villages could set up micro-industries which would help improve
the income situation in rural areas. In addition to using the seeds as a raw material for the
manufacture of pesticides, soaps, fertilisers etc., the wood from the tree can be used for construction
and fuel and the leaves for medical, cosmetic and agricultural purposes.
By referring to main references on neem, proceedings of conferences and workshops as well
as publications of GTZ staff and the work conducted in a number of industrialised countries,
the <strong>report</strong> then goes on to show just how vital and promising biological, non-synthetic
pesticides are for the future.
5

1. INTRODUCTION
1. Introduction
"The neem tree, the tree of the future" - this is more or less how all articles start when the
Indian press features its neem tree. There is no doubt that the role this exceptional tree with
its manifold uses could play in securing food supply and protecting our environment should
not be underestimated. The tree holds great potential for the reafforestation of eroded soils,
for use as a natural pesticide and in medicine - to name just a few of the most important
areas.
The Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH started propagating
the neem tree in development-cooperation projects in the 70ies. Initially, the GTZ focused
on researching its active principles and various possible uses, but later channelled its efforts
into disseminating the tree and knowledge of its practical uses, adressing first small farmers
and ngo and later small scale entrepreneurs (7,8,16-19, 40). Today, the GTZ is working
towards making this experience and knowledge available to broad sections of the population.
To do so, work at project level alone is not sufficient. Instead, neem usage has to be
anchored on a broad basis in the population itself, a task requiring not only the commitment
of state-run programmes, which propagate the neem tree and its various uses, but one which
also relies on private organisations and the private sector. For only when a varied group of
sponsors has come together will it be possible to integrate the neem tree sustainably and
appropriately into the respective social setting.
This study aims to document the current status of neem usage across the globe as well as
the experience gained to date, with a view to generating a basis for future neem projects.
The key focus is on neem's use as a non-synthetic pesticide; probably neem's greatest
potential beside medecin for use.
In addition to the information concerning neem's dissemination and potential uses, this <strong>report</strong>
also presents the key projects, organisations and institutions that work with neem or have
worked with it in the recent past. In so doing, the <strong>report</strong> looks into the various methods and
technological approaches as well as the level of acceptance and the difficulties encountered
in using neem. Various countries' activities with neem are given as examples.
To gain as complete an overview as possible of the current status of neem usage, four
different methods were used to obtain the requisite information:
1. Evaluation of the latest literature and publications on the subject of neem.
2. Dissemination of a questionnaire concerning global neem usage to GTZ projects and
other organisations, as well as institutions or private people who work with neem; subsequent
evaluation.
3. Compilation and evaluation of documents pertaining to projects that have just been
completed, as well as evaluation of documentation on existing projects which did not
return the questionnaire.
4. Review of our backstopping and project planning activities during the past 5 years.
Technical data on the questionnaire: 111 questionnaires were sent out in 1996 worldwide, 41
to ongoing GTZ projects, 30 to GOs (institutions and projects), 34 to NGOs and 6 to private
individuals. The response rate totalled 42 %.
6

2. Global Neem Dissemination and Usage
2.1 Geographical Distribution and Types of Usage
2. GLOBAL NEEM DISSEMINATION AND USAGE
The neem tree, also known as the "Indian neem tree" (Azadirachta indica) is native to South
Asia, whereby the South of India and Myanmar are the main areas of origin (2, 13, 15, 19). In
the course of this century, however, the neem tree has spread globally along the tropical belt
(see world map, page 10).
The tree is most widespread in India - from the most southerly region around Kerala up to the
Himalayas. Estimates currently run at approx. 14 to 20 million neem trees throughout the
country, with roughly 10 million trees in the two provinces of Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu
alone (2, 13, 15, 19, 23).
All of today’s uses of neem can be traced back to traditional forms of usage in India. Nowadays,
uses range from simple and extensive to modern and intensive. Smallholders and the
rural population collect neem raw materials which they then use for medicine, stock protection,
etc. Numerous small to medium-sized companies in India manufacture commercial
neem products of varying quality which are marketed almost exclusively on a domestic scale.
The seeds are the most important raw material for exploiting neem. They are collected by the
rural population and are then mainly sold on markets or to dealers. The seeds are chiefly
pressed to obtain oil for soap production. The press cakes thus produced are in turn the
parent material for manufacturing formulated pesticides. The wood, bark and leaves have
only a limited market value and are predominately used by the rural population.
In Myanmar the neem tree is particularly well established in the central regions of Mandalay,
Magwe and Sagaing. Only a few ten thousand neem trees are to be found in the lower part
of Nepal (Terai), whereas in Bangladesh and Pakistan, the neem is a typical and common
sight. What is more, it has been found in Sri Lanka's northerly, mid-easterly and southeasterly
semi-arid areas in numbers of more than 1 million stems (4, 19, 23, 26, 28).
Knowledge of neem's many possible uses is not as widespread in these countries as in
neighbouring India. But nevertheless, neem is still an important natural resource here too.
In the People's Republic of China the first hundreds of neem trees were planted in the early
1980s on the peninsula of Hainan and the southern part of Guangdong and are now thriving.
In the mid-1990s larger-scale reafforestation with some 100 000 neem trees took place in
Hainan and the southern valleys of Kumming province (27).
In Southeast Asia the neem tree is mostly found in the hot, lowland areas with marked dry
periods. In Thailand the neem species encountered most frequently throughout the country is
called "Thai neem" (Azadirachta siamensis) which makes up 2/3 of all the neem trees there.
Viet Nam planted its first neem trees a few years ago. However, the trees are not growing
and fruiting well in the northern provinces due to the cold temperature and in the southern
region due to the typhoons. In Indonesia neem can be found in the eastern and more
7

2. GLOBAL NEEM DISSEMINATION AND USAGE
northerly, lower-lying regions of Java, although neem is also endemic to the eastern, drier
islands such as the northern part of Bali, Lombok etc. in several hundred thousand stems.
Several thousand neem trees can been found in the low-lying areas of Papua New Guinea,
mainly near the capital Port Moresby and a few in the Markam valley and on East New
Britain and other smaller islands of the Bismarck Archipelago. Here the tree is, however, only
exploited on a very small scale, as is the case on a few other Pacific Islands on which it is
found (19).
In Fiji several ten thousand fruiting neem trees exist in the drier western parts of Veti Levu
and there have been activities there to set up neem plantations.
Neem has also been introduced on a number of larger islands such as Cebu, Negros etc. in
the Philippines. However the trees are not growing well due to frequent typhoons.
With the exception of Thailand, knowledge about the various uses of neem is not very widespread
in these countries (4, 19, 23).
In Queensland in the north-east of Australia, no less than half a million neem trees have
been planted in recent years. Besides reafforestation and erosion protection, the Australians
have set great hopes on the use of neem as a non-synthetic pesticide (6, 19).
In Western Asia neem is found in the southern, low-lying regions of Iran and in the
Euphrates-Tigris valley in Iraq. Neem trees have also been planted on the Arabian
Peninsula, mostly as shade trees. Indeed, large numbers have been planted near Mecca in
Saudi Arabia (19).
The tree most likely made its way to Africa as a result of British colonialism at the start of this
century along with servants and immigrants from India. Today neem is found in considerable
numbers along the east coast from Eritrea (an estimated 500 000 trees, 46) and Somalia via
Kenya (several million trees) and Tanzania northwards to Mozambique. It is very widespread
– with several hundred thousand trees - in the dry, south-westerly and western regions of
Madagascar (39) and is found throughout the island of Mauritius. Many neem trees are also
to be found in some central regions of East Africa, e.g. in Uganda (25 000), Kenya, Tanzania
and Malawi (350 000 stems) (19, 21, 29).
Neem is frequently encountered in sub-Saharan Africa: many millions of neem trees are
located through the entire area from Ethiopia with roughly 30 000 trees growing in the lower
parts and Sudan (several million), to Senegal (6 million) and Mauritania (approx. 100 000).
The climatic conditions are particularly favourable here between the 10th and the 15th
northern parallels where the climate is hot with a precipitation level of between 500 and 1200
mm/a falling in a rainy season lasting a few months. Neem's northerly expansion is capped
by the decreasing levels of rainfall. This is why, north of the 15th parallel, neem is only ever
found along stretches of water or in villages, where it can be watered. Neem occurs frequently
in Senegal, Ghana (approx. 6 million), Nigeria (some 10 million), Mali, Burkina Faso
and Niger (2.5 million) (1, 14, 19, 21).
8

2. GLOBAL NEEM DISSEMINATION AND USAGE
Neem’s key applications in Africa include use as a shade tree and as a source of firewood.
Knowledge of neem’s efficacy as a traditional medical plant is widespread; however, its potential
for use as a natural pesticide is by no means common knowledge.
How and when the neem tree reached America is not known. There are a few old, isolated
specimens on some of the Antilles islands, which might possibly date back to Indian immigrants
in the former English colonies (19).
In the meantime, the neem tree population in Central and South America has continued to
grow; the largest number of neem trees on the American continent is located on Haiti where
several hundred thousand specimens were planted back in the 1960s to restock the forests
and protect against erosion. In the last ten years, numerous neem trees have been established
in the Caribbean states, namely the Dominican Republic, Cuba, St. Lucia and Jamaica
and also in Central American countries such as Nicaragua, El Salvador and Honduras. The
neem tree is also found for example in Baja California and Yucatan, and has recently been
established in plantations in the hotter, lower regions of Mexico (19, 45).
In South America, neem trees are planted particularly in the lower-lying, drier areas of
Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador and Bolivia. The neem tree has great potential in the dry,
central savannah and north-east of Brazil. Recently more than 300 000 trees were planted
there (10, 19, 21, 24, 25) as part of huge afforestation programmes aiming to plant some ten
million neem trees by the year 2003.
In the USA a few trees have been planted in Florida, Oklahoma, Arizona and California.
9

10
USA
Mexico
Guatemala
Honduras
El Salvador
Nicaragua
Dom. Rep.
Haiti
Cuba
Jamaica
Costa Rica
Panama
Colombia
Ecuador
Peru
Puerto Rico
Virgin Islands
Antigua
Montserrat
Trinidad-Tobago
Venezuela
Guyana
Surinam
Brazil
Bolivia
Global occurrence of neem trees
= areas where neem trees are found
Canary Islands
Cape Verde Isl.
Mauritania
Senegal
The Gambia
Guinea Bissau
Guinea
Sierra Leona
Liberia
Mali
Côte d’Ivoire
Burkina Faso
Ghana
Togo
Benin
Niger
Nigeria
Kamerun
Chad
Namibia
Egypt Iraq
Sudan Saudi Arabia
Eritrea Yemen
Ethiopia Qatar
Djibouti Madagascar
Somalia Mauritius
Kenya
Uganda
Tanzania
Mozambique
Malawi
Iran
Pakistan
India
Nepal
Sri Lanka
Bangladesh
Myanmar
Thailand
China
Viet Nam
Malaysia
Philippines
Indonesia
Papua New Guinea
Australia
Fiji Islands
2. GLOBAL NEEM DISSEMINATION AND USAGE

2.2 Potential Uses of Neem
2. GLOBAL NEEM DISSEMINATION AND USAGE
The neem tree has numerous potential uses; in fact, a use can be found for all parts of the
tree (1, 2, 5, 13, 15-19).
Table 2.1: Overview of the ways of using the different parts of neem trees and their
raw materials
Part of plant/
raw material
Potential Usages
Seeds Oil extraction, plant protection, raw material for producing commercial
pesticides, stock protection, medicine, animal care
Oil Soap production, raw material for producing commercial pesticides and
cosmetics, plant protection, stock and textile protection, medicine, animal
care, refining to edible oil, lubrication oil for engines, lamp oil, candle production
Press cake Plant protection, raw material for producing commercial pesticides, soil
additive, fertiliser, animal fodder and hygiene
Fruits Oil extraction, ripe fruits as food, medicine
Leaves Medicine, cosmetics, mulching material, plant protection, stock protection,
animal care, animal fodder, vegetables
Twigs Feathery leaf stalk (twigs) for dental hygiene
Wood Firewood, construction material, furniture
Bark Toothpaste and dental hygiene, medicine, cosmetics
Roots Medicine
The tree is found in at least 78 countries and is used in a further nine (for details, refer to the
table in the Annex: “Occurrence and usage of neem by countries”).
Table 2.2: Estimated occurrence of neem by world regions
Neem occurrence
in millions
Worldwide
- Medicinal Plants (13, 15, 19, 47)
Asia/
Oceania
Africa Caribbean/
Latin America
Industrialised
countries
64.1 - 91.1 27.1 - 39.1 31 - 45 5.5 - 6.5 ca. 0.5
The oldest known use of neem is as a medicinal plant. The therapeutic properties of the
fruits, seeds, oil, leaves, bark and roots, which have a long tradition in Indian Ayurveda and
Unani medicine, are expounded in 3000-year-old Sanskrit writings.
11

2. GLOBAL NEEM DISSEMINATION AND USAGE
Today neem is widespread and well known as a traditional medicinal plant in many rural
areas in Asia and Africa. Teas and infusions made from leaves are used to alleviate intestinal
complaints, malaria attacks and other febrile illnesses and also to treat numerous skin
diseases. The use of aqueous extracts from seeds to treat head lice is widely known. Neem
oil has good antiseptic properties and is applied in the treatment of such skin complaints as
eczema and furuncles and to relieve intestinal worm infections.
Neem is also gaining greater attention in modern medicine; the antiseptic, anti-inflammatory,
antidiabetic, antibacterial and antifungal effects of various components of the leaves, bark,
seeds and roots are uncontested and the various parts are found in numerous commercial,
medicinal neem-based products available in India. Great hopes are also attached to treatment
of the widespread malarial and Chagas’ diseases.
Neem is also used as a contraceptive: leaves are chewed or imbibed mostly by rural African
women in the form of infusions as this prevents the fertilised egg from implanting itself in the
womb. However, neem oil would seem to be more effective, since this affects sperm whilst
concomitantly inhibiting implantation of the egg. A contraceptive preparation based on neem
oil is already being marketed successfully in India.
- Mosquito repellent
The good repellent effect makes neem oil an ideal material for mosquito repellent products.
Mosquito incense sticks are being marketed in India. Commercial mosquito repellents in the
form of skin creams have recently become available on the European market. These
products contain neem oil, along with other aromatic oils to give a pleasant smell.
- Textile protection
Neem can be used to protect textiles against parasites such as moths, mites and fungi. In
Germany and India products are available on the market based on neem oil extracts. Actually
the principal use is for hygiene, especially for people allergic to house-dust mites. The
product also can be used in the textile and carpet industries to replace pesticides responsible
for many allergies and diseases.
- Dental Hygiene, Soaps and Cosmetics (13, 15, 19)
Dental hygiene using thin neem twigs is one of the plant’s traditional uses. Chewing the thin
stalks helps prevent paradontosis, caries and other gum-related diseases in the oral cavity.
Commercial toothpastes containing neem bark extract have recently come onto the market in
India, USA and Germany.
Soap production from neem seed oil is widespread in India and Africa. Both simple household
soaps containing up to 80% neem oil and toilet soaps with 50-60% neem oil (the rest is
mostly coconut oil) are manufactured. Neem leaf extracts are often added to the soaps to
give the greenish colouring and to enhance the beneficial effects on the skin.
In India dried leaves and purified neem oil are added to face and skin creams; shampoos
and body oils containing neem oil are also available. In Germany and some other European
12

2. GLOBAL NEEM DISSEMINATION AND USAGE
countries neem raw material such as oil and leaves are found in various cosmetic products,
such as hair tonic, shampoo, body lotion, skin cream, face cleansing milk, alcoholic face
tonic or cleansing pads.
- Shade Tree, Erosion Protection, Timber Production and Forestry (1, 13, 15, 19, 21, 28)
In almost all regions where neem grows, it is highly appreciated as a shade tree, very often
planted in cities, village gardens and along avenues. Its broad crown and dense foliage
provide people and animals alike with an ideal shady place that is generally avoided by irksome
insects. In many areas in Africa women choose to conduct their daily chores in the
shade of neem trees.
Thanks to neem’s minimal ecological demands on soil and water, millions of trees have been
planted to protect against erosion. This is the case in many Sahel countries and the
Caribbean where extensive neem-tree planting was carried out so as to combat soil degeneration
and to halt the onward march of desertification.
In many African countries the neem tree is used primarily for firewood. It grows in semi-arid,
tropical climates very quickly, thus allowing timber to be harvested without jeopardising the
tree's existence. Older trees can be used by the construction trade and the furniture industry.
Neem wood is especially suitable for windows and doors, since it is resistant to termites. In
rural regions, it is also used for simple furniture like chairs and tables.
- Non-synthetic Pesticide
Biological pest control, one of the key topics of this study, is described in more detail in
Chapter 3.
- Stock Protection (13, 15, 19)
One of neem's traditional usages is in stock protection. In India leaves have been placed
amongst stored grain for many years now; indeed, entire stock rooms and barns have been
lined with neem leaves, thus enabling stock to be stored free from pests for 3-6 months.
Small cotton bags containing dried neem leaves and other herbs e.g. lavender flowers have
become available on the market in Germany to repel moths in food and clothes.
Neem oil has proven to be very effective against grain weevils on beans and other types of
leguminous plants. Beans mixed with small quantities of oil can be kept pest-free for at least
six months, whereby neither taste nor germinative capacity are affected. However care has
to be taken that the neem oil is free of Aflatoxin.
Nowadays jute sacks are also treated with neem oil or neem extracts prior to filling, to keep
pests at bay.
- Soil Additives, Fertilisers and Control of Soil-borne Pests (2, 13, 15, 19)
Neem press cakes from seeds whose oil has been removed are particularly suitable as soil
additives, positively affecting soil structure, soil organisms and plant growth in a variety of
ways. The press cake is an organic form of soil enrichment and fertilisation. Together with
13

2. GLOBAL NEEM DISSEMINATION AND USAGE
nitrogen (N) fertilisation, neem press cakes are a very effective nitrification inhibitor (preventing
N leaching and loss, and a constant and regular source of N for plants). This effect is
marketed successfully in India in the form of a urea fertiliser which is pelletised with neem
press cakes.
To ward off and combat soil-borne pests and numerous species of nematodes, neem can be
worked into the soil. The press cake is most effective, although seeds and leaves can be
used as well.
Leaves can also be worked into the soil as mulching material. This method has proved to be
particularly effective with such perennial crops as tea and coffee. Besides regulating weed
growth and controlling nematodes, this method also helps to improve the availability of
nutrients.
It was recently discovered that neem also works systemically. Young plants in particular
absorb the insecticidal agents through their roots, thus rendering themselves unattractive to
pests.
- Animal Hygiene and Feed (13, 15, 19)
In animal hygiene and care, use is made of dried seeds in the form of simple aqueous extracts
and oil. The aim is to combat parasites of the skin, coat and intestines. Commercial
products are obtainable in India, Thailand, Australia and Germany.
Fresh leaves and shoots, as well as fruit that has fallen from the tree, are eaten by goats and
camels in West Africa.
The press cake can also be used in animal fodder; it contains 35% digestible protein and is
used as a fodder additive for ruminants in India. The bitter taste does pose something of a
problem and so only small quantities can be added to the fodder, unless of course the bitter
substances are removed.
2.3 Neem Processing
Neem usage requires high-quality raw material from suitable sources at an acceptable price.
In many regions it is a serious problem attaining such quality standards. It is necessary to
follow specific working steps when harvesting, storage and processing.
Harvesting
The seeds are the most important part of the tree due to the numerous ways of using them. If
neem trees are available, the following steps have to be followed to obtain high quality
seeds:
1. Harvest/collect neem fruit
The fruits should be collected ripe from the trees, best if the colour turns from green to
yellow. Normally the harvesting season lasts for up to 100 days.
14

2. GLOBAL NEEM DISSEMINATION AND USAGE
2. Remove pulp
Before drying the pulp should be totally removed from the seeds. This requires washing
and scrubbing of the seeds.
3. Dry the seeds
Normally neem seeds are spread out in thin clean layers under shade and dried for several
days. If the air is very humid, it may be necessary to dry the seeds directly in the sun for
some hours before drying for several days in the shade. If the drying conditions are not
adjusted, seeds begin to go mouldy, which can lead to a larger quantity becoming infected.
Infected seeds or other impurities such as broken seeds, stones, soil or parts of other plants
should be sorted out. Contamination with storage pests, fungus or chemicals (pesticides)
may cause problems when using or processing the seeds.
Storage
Only good quality seeds can be stored for longer periods of time. The husk of the seeds must
be intact and they should be kept in clean cloth bags or pots in dry conditions. It is important
that after drying the moisture content of the seeds is around 8%. Ideally they should be
stored at a low ambient temperature (10 – 20°C) and for no longer than one year. Each batch
of harvested neem raw material should be stored and marked separately.
Quality standards of neem raw material
The following table shows the minimum quality standards for all uses of neem.
Table 2.3: Quality standards for raw material
Raw
material
Quality
parameter
Seeds Azadirachtin
content
Crushed
neem
seeds
Moisture
content of the
seeds
Degree of
purity or contamination
Storage of dry
seeds
Storage and
packaging
Requirements Notes
Minimum 1.5 µg/g Lower values indicate faulty harvesting,
drying or storage; or the seeds are to old
Drying under 8 % Faulty drying; the seeds cannot be stored
for a long time; they begin to go mouldy.
Clean seeds without
pulp, impurities
and no contamination
In large, well-ventilated
sacks for no
more than 2 years;
Vacuum-packed in
quality plastic
bags (PE/PA);
bags should be
recyclable
Problems processing the seeds; impurities
such as stones, soil or parts of other plants;
no contamination with storage pests or
fungi, nor with chemicals (pesticides)
Store-room have to be dry, clean, ventilated
and without contamination of storage
pests or fungus; neither chemicals
Storage maintains constant quality and
freedom from impurities and moisture for at
least 2 years; this means that moisture and
air should not penetrate the bag
15

2. GLOBAL NEEM DISSEMINATION AND USAGE
Raw
material
16
Quality
parameter
Requirements Notes
Oil Milling Only from fresh
neem seeds of
good quality; cold
pressed;
Storage and
packaging
Vacuum-packed in
clean barrels,
cans or bottles
(PE/HDPE/PP)
Cake Milling Like oil As for oil
Leaves
and bark
Storage and
Packaging
Moisture
content
Degree of
purity or contamination
Storage of dry
leaves
As for crushed
neem seeds
To obtain 100 % pure neem oil only from
natural ingredients, without chemical additives
or treatment
Storage maintaining constant quality and
freedom from impurities and moisture for at
least 2 years
As for crushed neem seeds
Drying under 5 % Faulty drying; the leaves cannot be stored
for a long time; they begin to go mouldy.
Clean leaves, with
no impurities or
contamination
(principally microorganisms)
In paper sacks for
no more than 1
year;
Problems when processing; impurities such
as stones, soil or parts of other plants; no
contamination by storage pests, fungi or
chemicals (pesticides)
Store-room has to be dry, clean, well-ventilated
and free of contamination by storage
pests, fungi or chemicals
When neem is used as a pesticide, for crop protection, as a plant groom, a soil additive,
fertiliser or against soil-born pests, the quality standards indicated above are sufficient. But
when neem is used in cosmetics, medicines or repellents for pets and other animals, the
quality standards must be expanded.
The principal raw material used for cosmetics and repellents is the neem oil. The oil must
have a high concentration of active ingredients and a high degree of purity, and the raw
material (and consequently the products) must not be contaminated by micro-organisms and
– most importantly - aflatoxins.
It is necessary that the oil is analysed and certified by an independent laboratory. The oil
should be analysed for the following micro-organisms:

Table 2.4: Analysis of neem oil for micro-organisms
2. GLOBAL NEEM DISSEMINATION AND USAGE
Micro-organisms Permitted concentration *
Aflatoxin (B1, B2, G1, G2) Total: 4µg/g
East fungus, mould fungus and bacteria Total: 500 units/g
Enterobacter, Staphylococcus aureus and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
No contamination
* According to the regulations in Germany foodstuffs and cosmetic products should not contain
more than 4 µg aflatoxin (B1, B2, G1, G2) per kg. Three specific pathogens must not be present:
Enterobacter, Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Three groups of aerobic
micro-organisms are analysed together: yeast fungus, mould fungus and bacteria. The total of
these three groups should be below 500 units per gram.
The best method for obtaining a high quality oil is to mill seed of the best quality. Another
possibility is to filter it through a special membrane, but this method is very expensive and it
is possible that the oil loses some important ingredients.
When leaves and bark are used in cosmetics best quality raw material should be taken. The
best harvesting period for high-quality leaves and bark is just after the main seed harvest
season. This is also the best time to make a formation cut on trees, so that leaves, twigs and
bark are available automatically. As with the seeds, it is important that the harvested
materials are dried rapidly under clean conditions. Storage conditions also must be clean and
dry.
2.4 Evaluation of the Questionnaire "Global Neem Usage“
- General Questions Pertaining to Neem
This chapter focuses on the results obtained on evaluating the general questionnaires, the
key emphasis being on neem usage.
To enable a better comparison, the results of the evaluation were put into different groups.
The general questions were grouped according to regions such as Asia, Africa and the
Caribbean/Latin America, with the industrialised countries as a separate group. The specific
questions, which allowed for several responses, were grouped together.
The diagrams show the frequency of positive responses in relation to the number of completed
questionnaires. It has to be pointed out at this juncture that the relation between the
responses received are not a fully appropriate reflection of the relations between the regions/
countries. Conclusions could only be made as to the presence or absence of the criteria
referred to in the questionnaires. Conclusions as to the number of trees and their distribution,
in particular the various forms of neem usage in the given regions/countries, are frequently
based on estimates by the individuals and institutions questioned.
17

2. GLOBAL NEEM DISSEMINATION AND USAGE
Table 2.5: Occurrence and usage of neem by world regions
(number of countries)
Types of usage Worldwide
18
Asia/
Oceania
Africa Caribbean/
Latin America
- occurrence and usage 78 19 32 24 3
Industrialised
countries
- use only 9 - 1 - 8
- plant protection 55 11 18 15 11
- stock protection 18 3 11 3 1
- fertilisers, soil additives 16 3 6 3 4
- medicine 55 12 30 12 1
- soaps, cosmetics 25 6 14 3 2
- dental hygiene 12 4 7 - 1
- shade tree, forestry 59 14 31 12 2
- animal hygiene, fodder 15 2 10 2 1
- wood, furniture and fuel 52 12 29 10 1
Question: How many years has neem been in use in your country?
The responses confirm that in those countries where neem has been grown for many years,
it has also been utilised for a long time. This is the case in many countries in Asia and Africa
where the majority of answers were "used for more than 50 years". This contrasts with the
countries in the Caribbean and Latin America where neem has only been around for a few
years and its usage mirrors this. The responses from the industrialised countries, which see
neem almost exclusively as a highly promising, non-synthetic pesticide of the future, clearly
reflect the intensive neem research of the last 25 years.
Figure 2.1: Chronological diagram of neem usage, in % of the responses from the
given regions
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
79
0
7
14
57
10
24
9
12
88
0 0 0 0
Asia Af rica Car ibean/ Lat in Amer ica Indust rialised count r ies
> t han 50 year s 25 - 50 years 10 - 25 year s < t han 10 year s
50
50

2. GLOBAL NEEM DISSEMINATION AND USAGE
Question: What does the population know about the neem tree and its various
uses?
Figure 2.2: Population’s knowledge about respective types of neem usage, in % of
the responses from the given regions
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
71
71
100 100
43
57
38
29
25 25
14 13
93
86
63
50
Question: What parts/raw materials from the neem tree are used and for what
purpose?
Figure 2.3: Use made of the various parts/raw materials obtained from the neem
tree, in % of the responses from the given regions
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
This diagram shows what parts or raw materials from the neem tree are used. The seeds are
by far the most important raw material and are used in some ¾ of the countries which exploit
neem. The further processing of seeds to oil and press cakes, a process suggesting more
intensive and more widespread usage, is practised in only 1/3 of the countries using neem.
Leaves and wood are also widely used. The fruit, bark and roots are the least used.
50
29
25 25 25
Insecticide Stock prot. Fertiliser Medicine Soaps Dental hyg. Shade tree Forestry
71
67
100 100
43
38
50 50
50
Asia Af rica Caribean/ Lat in Amer . Indust rialised countries
63
25 25
19 19
14 13
86
The following diagram shows how the most important neem components or raw materials are
used.
24
62
50
75
50
71
38
52
13
38
86
14
91
33
88
50
43
29
24
0 0 0 0 0
Seeds Oil Cake Fruits Leaves Wood Bark Root s
Asia Africa Caribean/ Latin Amer. Industrialised countries
75
0
19

2. GLOBAL NEEM DISSEMINATION AND USAGE
Figure 2.4: Ways in which the most important neem components/raw materials are
used, in % of the responses from the given regions
The seeds and the raw materials obtained from them are used in most countries/regions for
plant protection. In quantitative terms, oil pressing and subsequent processing into soap by
far exceeds usage as a pesticide. However, neem oils and soaps are produced in only relatively
few countries, predominantly South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.
Neem leaves are mainly used for medicinal purposes or for plant protection. They are most
often used as pesticides in countries in which a lot of neem trees are grown and where they
mostly constitute a source of fuel, leaving large quantities of leaves as a by-product.
Question: What commercial neem products can be purchased in the country?
Figure 2.5: Commercial neem products by countries/regions, in % of the responses
from the given regions
Commercial neem products have only gained greater significance on the Indian subcontinent
where there is a commercially marketed product for virtually all types of usage. Many products
occupy a large share of the market; e.g. soaps, toothpaste, and also neem-based
20
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
67
46
68
40
9
23
46
11
8
4
2 2
0 0 0 0
0
0
32
27
3 3
0 0 0 0
Insecticide Medicine Oil pressing Stock prot. Fertiliser Soaps Cultivate
71
38
50
100
50
14
13
25
Seeds Oil Cake Leaves
43
38
25
0
50
29
13
43
25 25
Insecticide Fertiliser Medicine Soaps, Cosmetics Dental hyg.
Asia Africa Caribean/ Latin Amer. Industrialised countries
9
10
0
0

2. GLOBAL NEEM DISSEMINATION AND USAGE
pesticides. In all other countries, commercial neem products account for only a modest share
of the market.
Seen globally, neem-based pesticides are already the most important commercial neem
products.
21

3. NEEM AS A NON-SYNTHETIC PESTICIDE
3. Neem as a Non-synthetic Pesticide
3.1 Historical Importance of Neem as a Non-synthetic Pesticide
In comparison to the traditional, centuries-old neem applications, the use of neem as a nonsynthetic
pesticide is a relatively new one, although one exception here is stock protection
using neem oil and leaves, which has been practised on the Indian subcontinent for many
centuries (2, 13, 15, 19).
Neem’s insect-repellent effect was first described by Indian researchers in the 1920s.
Greater recognition was granted to the observations made by the German entomologist
Heinrich Schmutterer at the end of the 1950s in Sudan who described how huge swarms of
locusts swept over the country destroying every type of plant but the neem tree. There had to
be a reason for this phenomenon and intensive research was conducted into the possible
insecticidal agents in the neem tree. Since then, numerous research projects in India, initiated
by Germany and the USA as well as some other industrialised countries, have illustrated
neem’s multifaceted potential for use as a pesticide (2, 13, 15-21, 24).
In recent years, know-how stemming from this comprehensive research into neem has increasingly
found its way into TC projects. As a result, knowledge about the neem tree and its
insecticidal properties has been disseminated in many countries throughout Africa, Asia and
Latin America. It is significant that in many countries in which neem has now been commonplace
for a long time, the potential for its usage as an environmentally friendly pesticide is
very great indeed, but by no means fully exploited (3, 5, 7, 8, 11).
3.2 How Does Neem Work?
Numerous research results have shown that neem and its components have a variety of
effects on pests (2, 13, 15-21, 24). More than 140 active principles (MORGAN 1999,
Vancouver Int. Neem Conf.) have been identified to date which occur in different parts of the
tree. The most important agents include the azadirachtin derivatives, which belong to the
group of triterpenoids. Azadirachtins are among the most effective known insecticides and
are found in greatest concentrations in the seed core (0.1 - 0.9%). 30 - 60 g azadirachtin per
hectare suffice to combat and repel the key biting and sucking pests (5, 7).
Besides its effect on insects, neem can also be used to control nematodes, phytopathogenic
fungi, spider mites and snails (2, 13, 15, 19).
Below are neem’s key forms of application as a pesticide (13, 15, 19):
• Use as an insecticide
22
Neem’s usage as an insecticide is the most widespread and widely researched. Its insecticidal
effect is known to work in various ways:

• Repellent and inhibition of feeding:
3. NEEM AS A NON-SYNTHETIC PESTICIDE
Plants that have been treated with neem are no longer attractive to insects and are
avoided by them. Larvae or sedentary insects which cannot escape eat and suck on
considerably fewer leaves.
• Metamorphosis-inhibitor:
Insect larvae that chew or suck on neem-treated plants suffer irreversible damage
caused by hormonal disturbances. They are unable to moult.
• Impaired fitness and reproductive ability:
Eating and sucking on neem-treated plants renders many insects unable to fly or
copulate, which results in reduced infestation by subsequent generations.
• Egg-laying deterrent:
Many insects make a point of avoiding plants that have been treated with neem.
The seeds are primarily used as insecticides. They can be used in the form of simple aqueous
extracts or as a basic raw material for formulated pesticides. Leaves are also used in
simple aqueous extracts to repel insects.
• Use as a nematicide
Using neem to control soil-borne pests such as nematodes is a subject that has undergone
much research and practical testing in India in particular. The most common form
of application is the press cake which is worked into the soil a few weeks before sowing.
In this way it is possible to reduce, to a considerable extent, the reproduction and
population density of numerous phytopathogenic nematode species. There are many
indications that neem’s efficacy against nematodes is heavily dependent upon the
prevailing soil conditions.
• Use as a fungicide
Using neem against phytopathegenic fungi has not been so intensively investigated as
yet as its effects on insect pests. However, neem has been proven to be effective in the
case of certain economically important fungal diseases. The most effective preparations
are emulsions based on neem oil. It was found that fungicidal activity was due to the
mixture of several compounds (both additive and synergistic effects); single isolated
substances were not found to be effective against fungi. The addition of certain salts
such as sodium hydrogen carbonate can enhance fungicidal action against certain species
of fungi (e.g. powdery mildew).
Press cake and leaf extracts are also used against soil-borne fungal diseases.
• Use as a molluscicide
Neem is only being used to control these types of pests on a small scale. Deterrent effects
on land snails have been observed and in tropical countries neem has proven to be
23

3. NEEM AS A NON-SYNTHETIC PESTICIDE
24
very effective against numerous types of water snail that often transmit illnesses to
humans (e.g. bilharzia).
• Use as acaricide
Neem oil emulsions and alcoholic neem extracts have a negative effect on the reproductive
capacity of spider mites (44). The oil also affects the habitats of mites, which
become stuck in their webs and thus cannot propagate properly; neem oil also causes
severe dehydration of these animals.
• Use as bactericide and viricide
All raw materials from neem have been found to have bactericidal properties, although
their efficacy is not comparable with other known bactericides such as antibiotics. However
neem may be able to play an important role in long-term prevention of bacterial disease
when applied regularly.
Neem can affect the course of viral diseases of plants for the better. The exact mechanism
of such effects has not yet been investigated sufficiently, although it seems that a
large number of factors are involved, e.g. the population density of most vectors is severely
depleted.
The positive effects are also enhanced by the general plant-strengthening effects of
neem as well as by its positive effects on growth, nutrition and the immediate environment.
Table 3.1: Neem usage as pesticide
Neem use as: Examples of principal pests
Insecticide More than 400 species are <strong>report</strong>ed, most of them from the following
insect orders: Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Homoptera, Diptera, Heteroptera,
Caelifera, Thysanoptera
or
...insect groups: larvae of butterflies and beetles, grasshoppers, leafhoppers,
thrips, true bugs, aphids, whiteflies, midges and flies
Nematicide Endoparastic species of Meloidogyne and Globodera
ectoparastic species of Hoplolaimus and Tylenchorhynchus
semiendoparasitic species of Rotylenchus and Pratylenchus
Fungicide Fusarium oxysporum, Rhizoctonia solani, Sclerotium rolfsii, Sclerotinia
slerotiorum, Botrytis cinera, Penicillium expansum, Glomerella cingulata,
Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus niger, Curvularia lunata,
Sphaerotheca fuliginea, Plasmopara viticula, Diplocarpon rosae, Oidium
sp. and rust pathogens
Moluscicide Water snails as vectors of diseases such as Melania scabra (schistosomiasis)
phytophagous land-snails in greenhouses and horticulture
Acaricide Tetranychus cinnabarinus, T. urticae, Panonychus citri
blood-sucking parasites of man and domestic animals
Bactericide Plant pathogens
Viricide Animal and plant viruses

SOURCES:
• mainly. Schmutterer (1995): The Neem Tree...
3. NEEM AS A NON-SYNTHETIC PESTICIDE
• Govindachari, T.R., Suresh, G., Gopalakrishnan, G., Banumathy, B. and Masilamani, S.
(1998): Identification of Antifungal Compounds from the Seed Oil of Azadirachta indica,
Phytoparasitica 26 (2),
• Musabyimana, T. & Saxena R.C. (1999): Efficacy of Neem Seed Derivatives against
Nematodes Affecting Banana, Phytoparasitica 27 (1): 43-49.
3.3 Comparison of Neem with Other Pesticides
Neem’s most striking advantage in comparison to synthetic pesticides is that it is not toxic to
warm-blooded organisms, which means that neem and its components do not pose a danger
to users, consumers or pets. Furthermore, in spite of its broad spectrum of activity in the field
of pest control, neem is harmless to the majority of beneficial organisms (including honey
bees). The same applies to fish and birds; no neem residues have been found in soil or
water to date (5, 13, 19, 20,). Trials with insect and mammal cells revealed that the active
ingredients showed specific effects in the insect cells where the active ingredient did not
interfere with the physiology of mammals. In addition to these noteworthy ecological
characteristics, certain other requirements have to be met in order to establish neem as a
modern, non-synthetic pesticide. A series of positive aspects can be listed in favour of neem
in this respect:
• high level of efficacy
• long-term application with low risk of pest resistance developing, since many of the
agents differ in their mode of action
• specific effects on pests, while safe for humans and with only minimal side-effects on
non-target organisms
• generally good availability due to its geographical distribution
• a range of technologies can be employed
• limited persistency; i.e. rapid breakdown to harmless metabolites
• usage possible for many years thanks to the seeds
In addition neem offers a range of further advantages over other pesticides:
• Strengthening the plants treated: plants’ ability to withstand pest attack is increased as is
their threshold resistance to pests and disease. For example, following application of
neem for several years in citrus plantations, there was a positive physiological effect due
to plants becoming more robust. The levels of secondary parasites and diseases are
significantly reduced and their threshold resistance is raised.
• Plant nutrition: raw materials from neem contain many macro and micro nutrients, in addition
to which neem regulates micro-organisms in the soil which have beneficial effects
on nutrition
25

3. NEEM AS A NON-SYNTHETIC PESTICIDE
• Many possible types of usage since in addition to the use of neem seed as pesticide,
neem oil, wood, bark and leaves can be used, and indeed the tree as such can be
planted to provide shade, protect against erosion and to aid recultivation land and degenerated
forests.
Because of these characteristics, neem products are also suitable for developing countries
where accidents and poisoning with synthetic pesticides are commonplace owing to a lack of
knowledge of how to handle and apply pesticides.
Even in comparison with other biological pesticides, neem is found to stand out as exceptionally
good, as the table below illustrates:
Table 3.2: Comparison of biological pesticides with neem (9)
Name and type of
pesticide
Bt. Bacillus thuringiensis
bacterial toxin
Pyrethrum
Blossom components
Melia sp. Plant seeds
(same plant family as
neem)
Nicotine
Plant component
Rotenone
Plant components
26
Mode of action Comparison with neem
Feeding insecticide Highly selective, only one insect family per
bacteria strain;
Contact insecticide Extremely low level of persistency, only
partly selective against beneficial insects;
“knock-down” effect; highly toxic to fish
Feeding and
contact insects
Feeding and
contact insecticide
Feeding and
contact insecticide
Fruits are poisonous to warm-blooded
organisms; not as effective as neem
Generally cytotoxic; no selective effect;
highly toxic to warm-blooded organisms
Highly toxic to fish; no selective effects
In spite of neem's many positive characteristics and its exceptional standing in comparison
with other non-synthetic pesticides, there are nevertheless a number of aspects which impede
its use as a pesticide. The key reasons for this are given below (5, 10-12):
• Knowledge about neem is not widespread
• Neem trees are frequently not available in those areas with a high usage potential
• Harvesting and processing neem seeds is very labour-intensive and certain procedures
must be carefully applied to produce raw materials of the desired quality. The required
effort and the know-how are frequently underestimated
• Neem harvesting and processing come at the same time as other bottlenecks in agriculture
(labour constraints)
• Neem products are often more expensive than other pesticides and only a few countries
market them professionally on a large scale; synthetic pesticides are easier to obtain
and use
• Doubts as to neem's efficacy, as there is no "knock-down" effect

• Use of neem as a home-made pesticide does not have high social status
• Technical problems in processing and use as a home-made product
3. NEEM AS A NON-SYNTHETIC PESTICIDE
• Neem raw materials can only be stored for a limited period in humid tropical conditions.
Many of the above drawbacks are closely related and could be remedied quite easily. By
disseminating knowledge about neem, it is possible to do away with some restrictions on
use, such as doubts as to its effectiveness or the low esteem in which neem usage is held in
many societies. The problems associated with processing and application could be resolved
with specifically targeted promotion, e.g. by state extension services.
In many developing countries it is principally NGOs and small businesses which are active in
spreading knowledge about neem and its uses. One advantage here is that the spread of
raw neem products does not require a large starting capital, nor sophisticated know-how.
This means that a lot can be achieved even with very modest means (see examples given in
Chapter 4). This could also be a promising area for Technical Cooperation (TC), e.g. in
promoting small and medium enterprises.
Yet another complex obstacle to using neem is the insufficient number of neem seeds for
producing pesticides. However, professional marketing, be it of raw materials or ready-formulated
pesticides, could provide a way out of this dilemma. At the same time, in those regions
with large stands of neem trees, there is the obvious opportunity of diversifying income.
SOURCE: Own studies: MOSER, G (1996): <strong>Status</strong> Report on Global Neem Usage, GTZ.
Chamberlain, J.R., Childs, F.J., and Harris, P.J.C. (1999): Results of Neem Electronic
Workshop, 1-18 November, 1999. HDRA, Coventry, UK, 67pp. & Internet-e-mail/neemworkshop
1999: www.hdra.org.uk/neem.htm
JABBAR, A. ROBIN, H. & C. STRANG 1997: A Comparison of the Effects of Azadirachtin A
on Cultured Insect and Mammalian Cells, TRIFOLIO Proceed 7 th WS, pp 5-9))
3.4 Economic Efficiency of Neem as a Pesticide
The costs of neem pesticides are mainly determined by the price of the seeds. This price can
vary greatly from one country to the next and is due to the relatively labour-intensive inputs
needed for seed collection and drying but also for any transport, storage and further processing
that might be necessary. A further important factor is the structure and efficiency of
the marketing chain i.e. the shorter the chain between collector and final processor of neem
the cheaper is the price and the better the price for the raw material. The varying availability
of seeds also contributes to price fluctuations (5, 10-12, 14, 34 -38).
Throughout those countries where neem trees are grown, the prices given for dried seeds
range between US$ 0.05 and 2.00 per kg. (5, cf. also table 3.4). The price depends very
much where the seeds are collected (farmgate, rural areas, district town, capital) and on the
quality of the seeds.
27

3. NEEM AS A NON-SYNTHETIC PESTICIDE
The tendency is that the prices for neem seeds in India are the lowest. Neem seeds in India
however were traditionally processed into oil for soap manufacturing, where the quality of the
seeds are not as decisive as for pesticide production. Comparable low prices as in India are
paid in remote poor areas in Africa e.g. Nigeria, Benin, Niger, Madagascar. At these sites
however quality problems, the trading through middlemen and transport costs increase the
prices for those who want to manufacture neem seeds into pesticides and need high quality
seeds. About 0,30-0,4 US$/kg minimum has to be paid by manufacturers for neem seeds
which should be processed to pesticides.
The prices for neem raw material can be much higher if the quality is excellent and seeds are
intended to be used for pharmaceutical products.
To make some rough calculations the following aspects must be taken into consideration:
To effectively control most pests, one hectare of crops must be treated once with between 20
to 60 g of the main active ingredient azadirachtin. Thus, given the fact that there are approx.
2 g of azadirachtin in average per kg of seeds, somewhere between 10 and 30 kg of neem
seeds are needed in all. This means that the seed costs alone for the single treatment of one
hectare of crops vary between US$ 1.00 and US$ 60.-, although in most countries they are
somewhere in a narrower range of between US$ 5.00 and US$ 20. This rough calculation
indicate again the importance the quality has (taking the azadirachtin content as an
indicator).
Calculations by researchers and governmental extension services in Sri Lanka (Cf chapter 4
Sri Lanka), Thailand and Madagascar (39) in the 90ies revealed that based on the preparation
and application home-made neem kernel water extracts and despite the labour intensity
required the application of neem is (much) more economical in high value crops such as
vegetables than conventional cheap toxic broad spectrum pesticides. Environmental effects
and health hazards were not even considered in this calculations. It has to be mentioned that
only few economical investigations in this field exist or are published and that the economy of
home made neem pesticides strongly depends on the costs and availability of labour.
At this juncture it should again be pointed out that while azadirachtin is one of the major
active principles in neem, its action is enhanced by many of the other substances occurring
in the plant. Many of its effects, e.g. that against phythopathogenic fungi, are only apparent
when the mixture of substances is used or ingredients other than azadirachtin are concentrated
in further processing steps. Strange enough often single components on their own
have shown no or poor effects.
For half-finished product such as dry neem kernel, neem cake or neem oil no economical
evaluation is known to us. The products are cheaper than the ready-to-use pesticides but still
has the disadvantage that their preparation is labour intensive and that they are often not
standardised. On the other hand also these form of neem products proved to have their markets
and they are sold to a certain extent, especially if advise and training is available how to
apply them in the right way.
28

3. NEEM AS A NON-SYNTHETIC PESTICIDE
If e.g. neem oil and emulgator are supplied at the same time there is only little economical
difference and difference in handling to products such as ready-to use formulated neem oil or
standardised neem cake powder.
Concerning commercial EC formulations additional factors such as the cost of extraction has
to be taken into consideration, when calculating the cost of manufacturing formulated neembased
pesticides.
This group has be differentiate in a.) products based on one step extraction methods and b)
products based on two step (aza-enrichment) extraction method. The quality of the products
is reflected in the price of the products (cf table 3.4).
Table 3.3 Comparison of one-step and two-step extraction methods
(acccording to Ermel, 2000, pers. com.):
One-step (alcoholic) extraction Two-step extraction plant –
Azadirachtin enriched extracts
ADVANTAGES:
- comparable simple technology products can be easily stored (small volume)
and have a longer shelf life
- lower investment required better quality in terms of Azadirachtin content
- made use of all products: no waste easier to fulfill the registration requirements
since they contain no oil and/or additional
substances
- Homogenous quality (no difference between the
batches)
DISADVANTAGES:
- Quality of the final product depends
strongly on that of the raw material
- Often lower stability/shelf live of the
products
higher concentration of Azadirachtin, which is
required for certain pests which leads to a
better efficacy of the pesticide
less phytotoxicity due to the elemination of the
wax
more easy to formulate
higher investment required
more complicated technology
technology protected by patents and therefore
often not available for small entrepreneurs
For economical evaluation a product/target pest/crop-matrix is required. The effects of further
active substances (except azadirachtin) and synergistic effects of the formulations must be
taken into consideration. Further criteria such as abundance of resistant pests, pesticide
management, limits of pesticide residues are also of importance. To compare the product
29

3. NEEM AS A NON-SYNTHETIC PESTICIDE
prices alone is not very helpful, if the above mentioned additional information are not
provided. Even comparison of prices per application per ha are only of limited information
value. The best would be to compare cropping systems which make use of different neem
products. However hardly any models and study exists on this topic.
The importance of information on the cropping system is indicated by questionnaires in
Thailand which revealed that farmers among others apply neem because they observed are
reduction of pest occurrence and a more stable environment (interactions were not
specified). A further example is <strong>report</strong>ed from Kenya where the application of neem
effectively control leafminors in Carthamus flowers, which were already resistant to synthetic
pesticides. The application of neem allow a natural parasitoid Diglyphus isaea to recover
which contribute to control the leafminors effectively in the following cropping periods. This in
turn led to a reduction of neem application. The system neem/parasitoid is much more
economical and sustainable than the application synthetic pesticides (37).
Table 3.4: Approx. Prices* of selected neem pesticides:
Name Country Price/litre
Neemix 4.5
USA, Israel, Egypt etc Approx. 156.00 US$
AMBAC/ FORTUNE 3%
USA
Approx. 120.00 US$
NeemAzal T/ 1%S
Germany 45.00 US$
NeemAzal T /5%
154.00 US$
NeemAzal F, Fortune other products and
others
30
India Approx. 10.00 US$
Neem oil and Emulsifier Germany 11.00 US$
Formulated neem oil
EC formulations
* Due to changes and negoting
Kenya, Thailand,
Dominican Republic
10.00 US$
15.00 US$
One general approach has been chosen in the recent economical evaluation and marketing
study (34) where a rough calculation and comparison of local available neem products and
with neem competing pesticides has been carried out.
LEUPOLZ in Dominican Republic concluded that if only the product price is considered, no
toxicological benefits and middle and long time effects such as the stabilisation of the production
system, in average the prices for neem products are 25-40 % higher than for
synthetic pesticides (35). There are however still a number of selective synthetic pesticides
i.e. products with the same properties and advantages as neem, which are much more
expensive than the application of neem is.
QUENTIN in Kenya has found that the application of the locally produced EC neem formulation
is cheaper than 14 other synthetic competing pesticides while neem cake powder is
cheaper than 28 other competing pesticides (36). For the latter is has to be taken into consideration
that often the application is much more laborious than for EC formulations.

3. NEEM AS A NON-SYNTHETIC PESTICIDE
As mentioned above more economical in depth investigation are necessary and all criteria
has to be taken into consideration to get a more precise picture about the economy of neem
based pesticide application.
Given the above figures there is still the perception that neem pesticides are too expensive
and can only compete under the given frame conditions in niche markets. Therefore the
following questions are of importance:
• Are the current prices determined by the technology, management skills or form of
marketing or
• if all the factors are optimised – are the current product prices reflecting the laborious
provision of raw material.
Additionally it would be of interest which frame conditions must be changed to enable neem
pesticides a higher market share. Details of the study are presented elsewhere (34, 37):
Based on the one step extraction technology the following results were gained:
• The scale of production costs decreases when a greater quantity of pesticide is produced.
• Marketing and distribution system of the present neem products are underdeveloped
Both factors alone would enable a price reduction of 25%-30%, which would make the neem
pesticides much more competitive with standard synthetic pesticides. Precondition would be
higher investments in machinery and most of all in effective marketing and distribution
systems. A constraint might be in the long term a shortage of high quality raw material.
Concerning the frame conditions main recommendations where:
• Governmental research and extension systems should work out integrated cropping
systems which make use of neem products (e.g. IPM, organic farming systems) and
• demonstrate and train farmers to use these systems.
• The import of neem raw material and products should be free of tax (as it is currently the
case with synthetic pesticides in many DC)
• Environmental and forestry departments should consider the planting of neem trees for
fruit production in their programmes (planting space)
One great handicap is the poor marketing and the resulting limited access that farmers have
to neem pesticides, particularly in those developing countries where neem products are
manufactured. The manufacturers are generally NGOs or small scale businesses with
comparatively small capital available to be invested in the marketing the products. In
addition, most of them are not integrated into the existing structures for distributing
pesticides. India is the one exception, since here there is a series of small, medium-sized
and larger enterprises manufacturing neem pesticides (of varying quality) and other neem
products. The marketing is professionally organised and demonstration and training of IPM
systems which are integrating neem products are supported by the government.
31

3. NEEM AS A NON-SYNTHETIC PESTICIDE
Comparing the economic aspects of a biological neem pesticide with synthetic pesticides is
something that needs to be considered separately for each country concerned, since the
prices of synthetic pesticides and neem seeds differ from country to country. Although there
is a general tendency to abolish subsidies in many DC based on the pressure of the World
Bank and other donors, yet cheap synthetic pesticides are one decisive factor inhibiting the
spread of neem pesticides. Chemical pesticides are still often subsidised by governments or
even made available by them, to encourage the growers to use pesticides in the first place.
However, even in countries where pesticides are not subsidised, neem products have to date
been relatively expensive and are offered at prices 30%-40% higher than such standard products
as Karate, Decis etc. (34, 36,37) since it is more promising for the small manufacturers
to go for the high-quality, high-priced niche markets (35, 36).
Still, a potential market already exists for neem pesticides in niche markets where neem
competes more with other high-priced conventional and biological pesticides such as IGR, Bt
products etc.
Niche markets served include organic farming, cases of pest resistance where conventional
pesticides have failed, and crops where pesticide residue cannot be allowed due to consumer
sensitivity. The latter case is of increasing significance due to the recently enforced
EU regulation and the Consumer Act in the US.
Additionally, neem pesticides have a good future potential application as a standard in certain
cash crops, and there might also be the possibility of moving into mass markets, reducing
the price and competing with conventional pesticides. This however bears a risk for
small neem manufacturers who do not have sufficient capital to offer pesticides at low rates
to establish themselves on a particular market, as the huge supra-national agro-chemical
suppliers do.
It is also doubtful whether such a way of marketing is necessary, since there are several
examples of neem being applied less frequently and therefore working out cheaper in the
medium-term than conventional pesticides. This is due to the fact that the agro-system is
more stable when neem is used than when conventional pesticides are applied, and favours
natural antagonists. In addition neem is also strengthen the physiology of the plants.
It should not be forgotten that until now the long-term costs of synthetic products have not
been considered – that is, their lasting effects on the natural environment. For example,
synthetic pesticides may contaminate water or cause poisoning or allergies, which in turn
may incur immense costs for society in general. The authorities should cover the long time
costs by taxes on pesticides according to their toxicity. Indeed we can find that governments
in DC often subsidise or permit the import of pesticides free of taxes (in contrast to other
investment goods) because they want to promote local agricultural production with the import
of production factors such as agrochemical (High External Input Agriculture, “Green
Revolution”)
However, when assessing the economic efficiency of neem, it is important to remember that
other secondary products can be obtained from the tree, which not only constitute additional
potential forms of usage but also forms that can be marketed in their own right. Another
32

3. NEEM AS A NON-SYNTHETIC PESTICIDE
factor is that neem very often grows in disadvantaged dry regions where there are very few
opportunities for work or earning an income. Specific promotion of the use of neem leads to a
demand for its raw materials, which can generate additional income. This constitutes a
positive development due to neem in such disadvantaged regions.
(SOURCE: own studies and evaluations, 34 - 37)
3.5 Current Uses of Neem as a Pesticide
In practice three types of pesticide are employed: simple, "home-made" insecticides, halffinished
products and ready-to-use neem-based pesticides (3, 5-7, 30).
Table 3.5: Overview of the various technologies involved in the usage of neem as a
pesticide
Simple
approach:
Technological approach Part used Form of application
• Home-made
insecticides
• Direct usage of
raw materials
∗ Seed powder Scattering, soil additive, stock
protection
∗ Oil ULV, stock protection
∗ Press cake Soil additive, stock protection
+ ∗ Leaves Soil additive, stock protection,
repellent
Processed to
half-finished
products
More advanced
approach:
• Formulated
pesticides
• Simple aqueous
extract
- Home-made insecticides
∗ Seed powder Spray
∗ Press cake Spray
∗ Leaves Spray
• Oil-water emulsion ∗ Oil (+emulsfier) Spray
• Alcoholic extracts ∗ Seeds Spray
∗ Oil Spray
∗ Press cake Spray
The basic technology and know-how needed for home-made insecticides are simple and can
be learned easily by the users (7). The farmers can do everything themselves, from planting
the trees to applying the raw materials harvested later on (7).
If neem trees are available, the following steps are required to produce and use an aqueous
extract:
33

3. NEEM AS A NON-SYNTHETIC PESTICIDE
1. Harvest/collect neem fruit
2. Remove pulp
3. Dry seeds
4. Grind seeds
5. Mix aqueous extract
6. Sieve aqueous extract
7. Apply aqueous extract
(In many areas in Africa and Asia, birds and fruit bats facilitate the first two steps. They feed
on the pulp and spit out the seeds around the tree; the seeds can then be easily collected.)
50 g of ground neem seeds are used per litre of water which means that around 10 to 20 kg
of neem seeds are needed for one treatment of one hectare of field crops. Since a mature
neem tree can yield between 5 and 50 kg of seeds a year, acquiring neem seeds does not
usually pose a problem.
This simple technology could without doubt be an important plant-protection method in many
tropical, semi-arid areas. On the one hand, it is a method that is readily available locally, and,
on the other, it has the potential to replace synthetic chemical pesticides. Farmers would not
have to spend their limited financial resources on synthetic pesticides, and at the same time
would not be exposed to the health risks associated with their use. This approach is
particularly expedient and most definitely to be recommended for the many small-scale farms
which supply the (limited) local markets with fruit, vegetables and basic foodstuffs especially
in remote areas.
Half-finished products are based on “home-made” pesticides but require additional processing
steps such as packing and basic standardisation. They are marketed commercially
in small units. Dividing labour time and costs in this way (preparing the raw material and
preparing half-finished neem pesticides) means that neem products can be distributed to
regions where the neem tree does not grow but where there is nevertheless a demand for its
benefits. This would be a good way of supplying a lot of vegetable-cropping areas at high
altitudes in the tropics with a very effective pesticide. At the same time, the people in the
lowlands, where the neem-tree grows, would have a chance to benefit from the income
generated by vegetable production and to diversify their income.
This type of home-made pesticide is also being exported to Europe where it is currently
mostly used in private homes and small gardens. Export opportunities of this kind give cooperatives
and small entrepreneurs the chance to establish local neem markets, because the
export market provides income and employment in the local “off season”.
The most popular semi-finished neem product is crushed vacuum-packed neem seeds in
quality plastic bags. Sealing should prevent moisture and air from penetrating into the bag.
The vacuum-packing should not be too strong, however, because the high pressure may
make the crushed material clod like a stone. Raw-material packed in this way can be stored
at a lower temperature (between 10 and 25 °C) in a dark, dry place with constant ambient
34

3. NEEM AS A NON-SYNTHETIC PESTICIDE
conditions for at least 1 year. Practical sizes for bags of crushed seeds are 250 g and 2 kg.
Their principal use is for water extracts in households and gardens.
The press cake is packed and handled in the same way as the crushed seeds. It is used
directly to control soil-borne pests and as a fertiliser. Normally 30 g per square metre is
added to the soil a few weeks before sowing.
The most common way of using neem oil as a pesticide is on the basis of an oil-and-water
emulsion, which needs an appropriate emulsifier. Around the world many different emulsifiers
are used. The principal ingredients are various vegetable oils and detergents. It is important
that additives are properly biodegradable so that the ecological benefits of neem are not
counteracted. Neem oil and the emulsifier have to be mixed in the right proportions to get the
ideal emulsion in water (the neem oil should not float on the water). Normally the mixture of
oil and emulsifier is used diluted to between 0.5 and 1.0 % in water. The dilution chosen
depends on the type of plant: 0.5% is used on plants with soft leaves (e.g. many vegetables);
1 % can be used on plants with hard leaves (e.g. many fruit trees and ornamentals). A third
component can be added: sodium salt, normally known and used as “baking powder”, but at
the same time it is very effective against many phytopathogenic fungi, especially mildew.
According to many users, the home-made pesticides are more effective than the formulated
neem-based pesticides. The reason is that in addition to the insecticidal effect, the raw
material has strong repellent and feeding-inhibitory effects. On the other hand the raw material
is a plant nutrient and fortifies the plants treated. Formulated neem-based pesticides do
not have these advantages. Most of the users of home-made pesticides are hobby gardeners.
After a period of time they tend to stop using any other garden additives like fertiliser
or pesticides.
- Formulated neem-based pesticides
Formulated pesticides can only be made from neem using more advanced technology and
know-how. And yet, such neem-based pesticides no longer pose any considerable or insurmountable
problems from the point of view of production. Manufacture is carried out by
laboratories in small and medium-sized companies in semi-industrial extraction plants (7, 8,
30, 31, 34, 37).
The most common raw material is dried neem seed. The neem oil is generally pressed out
and the resulting press cake is then used to make a pesticide rich in azadirachtin.
There are four stages of production:
1. Alcoholic extraction
2. Alcohol recovery
3. Purification and concentration
4. Formulation and stabilisation
35

3. NEEM AS A NON-SYNTHETIC PESTICIDE
Neem oil is often added to the formulation to enhance the effect. Numerous formulated,
neem-based pesticides have been developed in recent years in the USA, Germany and
particularly in India.
In the 80 and beginning 90ies the registration of neem based pesticides was frequently a
problem in many countries and it is still is for example within the EU. Pesticide regulation in
many countries requires many comprehensive tests to ensure the agent’s effectiveness and
its harmlessness for humans and the environment. Such legislation is expedient for synthetic
pesticides, it is a hindrance for biological preparation such as neem. The reason is that
pesticides from plants consist often of a mixture of several active ingredients with unknown
synergistic and additive effects (32). Its various high-molecular-weight ingredients are a
problem when it comes to registration, since each one would have to be tested for its effectiveness,
long-term toxicity and environmental impact (33). The attendant costs would be
immense (5, 7, 8, 19). Such substance does not fit to the “one ingredient/one impact” testing
models of the registration authorities. The problem was eased with the registration of neem
products in the US in the mid of 80ies, where neem products only have to go through a
curtailed registration procedure, registration of neem products. Meanwhile due to the
registration of neem products in a range of industrialised countries a wealth of toxicological
and environmental fate studies and data are available beside the bulk of efficacy tests of
neem products on target pests. Beside the submission of the compiled literature on
toxicological, environmental fate and residue data usually efficacy tests for the specific neem
product in registration are required which has to be carried out by authorised national
institutions (33).
In other countries the authorities only have to be notified of the non-synthetic pesticides. IN
some countries the manufacturers and sellers of neem products receive assistance from the
government how to register the products. In many countries registration is not really a
problem.
A further often more difficult problem to overcome is more likely to be competition from highly
poisonous chemical pesticides which are offered to the farmers at low prices and without
enforcement of the plant protection regulations.
The following table provides an overview of the current neem-based pesticides on the market
and their respective registration status. The table can however provide only an idea of the
current status which is due to rapid changes.
36

Table 3.6: Commercial neem-based pesticides in various countries
Region/
country
Asia
• India
No. Of
products
Approx.
100
3. NEEM AS A NON-SYNTHETIC PESTICIDE
Type of product Registration status
All kinds of products,
formulated pesticides,
formulated oils, etc
• Indonesia 1 Alc- extract from India
Seeds, oil, cake
Some registered, some without
any restrictions
About to be registered
No registration required
• PR China 1 Alco extract, provisional registration
• Myanmar 3 Formulated alcoholic
extract, press cake
Registered
• Nepal 1 Formulated pesticide Registered, imported from India
• Pakistan 2 Formulated pesticides Unclear
• Sri Lanka 1
1
Formulated pesticide
Formulated powder
Press cake, oil, seed
Locally prod. Extracts
Registered, imported from India
unclear
No registration required; on trial
basis
• Saudi Arabia 4 Formulated pesticide Registered, imported from USA
• Fiji 1 Seed kernel powder Registered
• Thailand 2
1
Africa
Locally produced
formulated alc. Extract and
formulated oil;
Several products from India
• Niger 2 Enriched alc. Extract,
formulated oil
Registered
About to be registered
About to be registered
• Togo 2 Seeds, press cake, oil No registration required
• Ghana 3 Alc extract
Formulated oil
• Benin 1 Formulated oil Unclear
• Kenya 2
2
4
Formulated enriched oil,
standardised press cake,
Formulated insecticides
Further products
• Uganda 2 Formulated enriched oil,
standardised press cake,
• Senegal 1
1
Formulated oil
Alcoholic extract
Provisional registration or not
registered, imported from India,
USA and Germany
Registered
Provisional registration
Imported from India and USA,
about to be registered
Registered, imported from Kenya
Provisional registration
• Mauritius 1 Formulated pesticide Registered, imported from India
• Egypt 5 Formulated insecticides
Fungicides
Registered, imported from Israel,
Germany and Sweden
37

3. NEEM AS A NON-SYNTHETIC PESTICIDE
Region/
country
Region/
country
Latinamerica
• Dominican
Republic
38
No. Of
products
No. of
products
• Costa Rica 1
1
Type of product Registration status
Type of product Registration status
3 Seeds, press cake, formulated
oil
Formulated alc. extract
Formulated oil
• Nicaragua 4 Seed, press cake, formulated
oil
• Dutch Antilles 1
1
Formulated alc. Extract
Formulated oil
• Cuba 3 Seed, press cake, formulated
oil
• Ecuador 4 Formulated oil and alc
extract
• Brasil Formulated pesticides and
oil
Registered
Registered
Registered
Registered
Registered
• Columbia 3 Alc. Extract and oil Unclear
• Venezuela 3 Alc. From US Unclear
Industrialised Countries
• USA 5 Formulated pesticides Registered
From USA and locally produced
imported from Germany and
Dom Republic, not yet registered
• Australia 2 Formulated pesticides About to be registered
• Germany 2 Formulated pesticides Registered
3 Seeds, press cake, formulated
oil
Offered as raw material
• Switzerland 1 Formulated pesticide Limited registration for fruit crops
• Italy 1
1
• Israel 2
1
2 Seeds, formulated oil Offered as raw material
Formulated pesticide From India, registered,
from Germany about to be
registered
Formulated pesticide
Fungicide
• Sweden 2 Formulated pesticide Registered
Registered, 1 imported from USA
Locally produced
• Denmark 2 Under registration
• Austria 3 Formulated pesticide
Seeds, press cake, formulated
oil
Registration for eco-cropping
• Spain 2 Formulated pesticides Registered
Seeds Registration requirements unclear

3.6 Evaluation of the Questionnaire "Global Neem Usage":
- Questions on Neem as a Pesticide
3. NEEM AS A NON-SYNTHETIC PESTICIDE
The responses to the questions concerning the use of neem as a pesticide are shown in the
following diagrams. Again no comparisons with absolute figures can be made; the results
merely show whether the criteria being researched apply or not (cf. Chapter 2.3).
Question: What form of usage does neem take as a pesticide?
Fig. 3.1: Forms of application of neem as a pesticide, in % of the responses
(multiple answers were possible)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
28
16
8
7
More than 2/3 of all respondents named raw material usage, i.e. home-made insecticides, as
the predominant form of application in their country/region. Since more than one response
was permissible, it became apparent that in some countries where neem has been used as a
pesticide for some time, both raw materials and also commercial pesticides based on neem
are used. The best example of this is India where virtually all possible forms of usage are
employed.
Fig. 3.2: Forms of application of neem as a pesticide, in % of the responses from
the given regions (multiple answers were possible)
100 %
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Seeds Neem oil Leaves Cake
32
17
Use made of raw -material Commercial pesticide
27 27
68 73 73
A sia Af rica Latin A merica/Caribbean Industrialiesed countries
Use made of raw -material Commercial pesticide
3
15
60
40
5
39

3. NEEM AS A NON-SYNTHETIC PESTICIDE
The overview by region/country confirms the findings from the previous chapters, namely that
the use of raw materials (home-made insecticides) is the prevailing type of usage, with the
exception of the industrialised countries.
Since the seeds are the raw materials used to manufacture oil and press cakes, they are the
most important raw materials for pesticide manufacture (cf. Figs. 3.1 and 2.4). The value of
this market for raw materials is illustrated in the table below:
Question: What is the local market value of 1 kg dried neem seeds?
Table 3.7: Market value of dried neem seeds in US$/kg
Region/country Estimated value
US$/kg
Asia: Africa:
40
Region/country Estimated value
US$/kg
- India 0.05 - 0.35 - Benin 0.12 – 0.20
- Sri Lanka 0.22 - Kenya 0.1-0.40
- Pakistan 0.10 - Tanzania 0.25 –0,5
- Myanmar 0.75 - 1.15 - Madagascar 0.12
- Thailand 1.00 - 1.20 - Ghana 0,35-0,6
- Indonesia 0.5 - Nigeria 0,08-0,30
Industrialised countries: Latin America/Caribbean:
- Australia 1.00 (?) - Dominican Republic 1.6
- Nicaragua 1.00
- Haiti 0.60
Most countries <strong>report</strong>ed that neem seeds had no market value in their country. Some countries
only deal with germinative seeds costing between 3.00 and 8.00 US$/kg.
Question: Which farmers use neem as a pesticide?

3. NEEM AS A NON-SYNTHETIC PESTICIDE
Fig. 3.3: Neem users in % of the responses (multiple answers were possible)
Only approximately 1/5 of all responses were made by subsistence farmers. A far greater
number of responses came from producers who definitely earn an income from neem. This
shows that neem is not only a pesticide for poor farmers, as is often thought. On the contrary,
neem can clearly be applied in practically all types of agriculture and is used on most
types of crops (cf. following table).
Question: Which crops is neem used to protect and what pests is it used to
control?
Table 3.8: Key crops and pests for neem application
Grain/
Basic foodstuffs
Subsistence farmers
Animal producers
Cash-crop producers
Key crops Key pests
Maize, rice, grain, millet, beans,
potatoes
Vegetables Cabbage species, tomato, onion,
cucumber, lettuce, aubergine,
okra, garlic
Fruits Lemon, mango, banana, apple
and other species of rosaceae
family, strawberry, grape, melon,
papaya, avocado
Stalk borers, caterpillars, beetle
grubs, leaf and plant-hoppers, bugs,
locusts, gall midges, nematodes, soilborne
pests, termites
Caterpillars, aphids, thrips, leaf
miners, white flies, fruit flies,
nematodes
Caterpillars, spider mites, aphids,
thrips, leaf miners, fruit flies,
nematodes
Stock protection Beans, maize, rice, grain Corn borers, bruchids, moths, weevils
Others Tobacco, cotton, sugar cane,
ornamental plants
Fruit and vegetable
producers
Grain producers
Caterpillars, aphids, stalk borers,
locusts, nematodes
41

3. NEEM AS A NON-SYNTHETIC PESTICIDE
Neem usage on more valuable crops such as fruit, vegetables and other cash crops is
mentioned quite frequently. Such crops usually require a high level of input with regard to
seed, care, fertiliser and irrigation, thus representing an investment that the farmer has to
protect in order to yield the greatest possible profit. What is more, these plants are often very
susceptible to pests and disease.
Question: Where do the farmers get their neem from?
The most frequent responses were that farmers obtained their neem from their own trees or
by collecting it from their local surroundings. Since a lot of projects working with neem were
questioned, a very frequent reply was "neem is provided by the project".
Trade in neem raw materials or products is not very widespread at the moment. Neither the
raw materials nor the commercial neem-based pesticides are traded on a large scale at
present. The lack of such professional and commercial trading practice with neem was also
often named in connection with the next question, namely the reason for its low level of acceptance.
Fig. 3.4: Farmers’ sources of neem, in % of the responses
(multiple answers were possible)
Question: What are the main problems affecting the acceptance of neem?
42
ow n trees
collected from the surrounding
barter transaction
raw material purchased
commercial neem-based pesticide
provided by the project
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
yes in parts no

3. NEEM AS A NON-SYNTHETIC PESTICIDE
Fig. 3.5: Reasons for neem’s low level of acceptance as a pesticide, in % of the
responses (multiple answers were possible)
not enough neem trees available
know ledge not spread w idely enough
farmers have no confidence in neem
neem is too labour intensive
neem is not economical
synthetic pesticides are easier to use
synthetic pesticides are cheaper/ easier to obtain
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100
%
yes in parts no
Most of those asked said that the reason neem is not used as a pesticide on a wider scale
was because they did not know enough about it. Thus there are many rural areas in Asia and
Africa with plentiful stands of neem trees, but the local population does not know how to
manufacture pesticides from them.
The response "there are not enough neem trees" was often accompanied by the comment
that in regions in which it would be useful to exploit neem, too few or no trees at all are available.
This response also indicates that one of the main factors hindering greater neem usage
is its availability. Likewise, some of the responses identified the lack of professional marketing
options for neem products (see Chapter 3.3) as one of the main obstacles to greater
usage.
43

4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
4. Neem in Development-cooperation Projects
Section 4 offers a survey on ongoing or recently terminated German Technical Cooperation
projects, mostly those assisted by the GTZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit)
GmbH. Also projects of other organisations and institutions which are working on
neem are considered. This chapter lists neem activities for each country (alphabetically) ,
starting with supra-regional projects.
4.1 Supraregional Projects within the Scope of German Technical
Cooperation
Supraregional: "Production of Natural Insecticides"
Time frame: 1987 - 1994
Short description of the project: Supraregional project geared to researching and disseminating
the various possible types of usage to which the neem tree can be put, especially that
as a non-synthetic insecticide. The project was located at the Institute for Phytopathology
and Applied Zoology at the Justus-Liebig University in Gießen, Germany and was overseen
by Prof. Dr. H. Schmutterer. The project's field station was located in the Dominican
Republic.
The results of a preliminary project (1978 - 1987) whose scientific investigations focused
primarily on the use of neem as a non-synthetic insecticide served as a basis for this project's
activities (results published in 16 - 19 ).
Project objective: To introduce farmers in pilot regions to the use of neem-seed (mainly self
prepared water) extracts and oil as standard insecticides for pest control.
Key project activities: Research into the possible uses of neem and its constituent components;
dissemination of the neem tree and knowledge of its manifold uses in pilot regions;
development of concepts with NGOs in several countries for manufacturing and applying
simple neem products; dissemination and promotion of know-how concerning the correct use
of neem among farmers and interested institutions in developing countries.
Target group: Farmers in developing countries, especially in areas with pests resistant to
synthetic agents and where there are many sorts of human-toxicological and eco-toxicological
problems as a result of the excessive use of chemical pesticides.
Project field station: Dominican Republic
The project's field station was attached to the "Instituto Politécnico Loyola" in San Cristóbal.
The areas of activity included dissemination of the neem tree and its usage as a natural
pesticide, and the provision of simple neem insecticides for farmers in the pilot region.
Furthermore, procedures for making simple neem insecticides were developed and applied
at farmer level. Many field trials were conducted so as to research the potential uses and
dosages of neem products.
44

4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
Other external projects: The counterpart organisations included various NGOs such as the
Centro Manabita de Desarrollo Comunitario (CEMADEC) in Ecuador, the Gami Seva Sevana
(GSS) in Sri Lanka and the Niger Caritas in Niger (cf. 4.2, Ecuador and Sri Lanka).
These counterpart organisations helped to apply in the given regions the experience and
knowledge concerning the dissemination and usage of neem as a non-synthetic pesticide
gained at GTZ Head Office and the field station. Here again, numerous field trials were
conducted into the possible uses and dosages of various neem products.
Literature:
HELLPAP, C. (1989). Insect pest control with natural substances from the neem tree, Proceedings
7th International Conference of the International Federation of Organic
Agricultural Movements (IFOAM), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 2. - 7. January 1989
HELLPAP, C. (1989). Possibilities and problems of the utilization of neem products in pest
control in tropical and subtropical countries, Proceedings of the International Symposium
of the Deutschen Landwirtschafts-Gesellschaft about Integrated Pest Management
in Tropical and Subtropical Cropping Systems, Bad Dürkheim, 8. - 15.
Februar 1989
DREYER, M. & HELLPAP, C. (1991). Neem - a promising natural insecticide for small scale
vegetable production in tropical and subtropical countries. J. of Plant Dis. and Prot. 98
(4), 428-437
HELLPAP, C. (1992) a) Potential and problems of natural pesticides, b) steps for developing
botanical pesticides, c) quality requirements, processing of plant material, extraction
technology and formulation, d) registration and socioeconomics of botanicals, e) the
neem tree as a model of botanical insecticides, Workshop on bio/botanical pesticide
development, United Nations Industrial Development Organization, Bangkok, Thailand
11 - 18 December 1991
HELLPAP, C. & DREYER, M. (1995). The Smallholder's Home-made Products. In:
H. Schmutterer (Ed.) The Neem Tree, Source of Unique Products for Integrated Pest
Management, Medicine, Industry and Other Purposes, 367-375, VCH, Weinheim
CONTACT: carsten.hellpap@gtz.de, GTZ/GATE, PO Box 5180, 65726 Eschborn
Pesticide Service Project
Time frame: 1994-1999
Short description of the project: Supraregional project geared to disseminating the various
possible types of usage to which the neem tree can be put, especially that as a non-synthetic
insecticide and to offer backstopping for all projects working in that field.
Project objective: To promote the application of lower-risk alternatives to synthetic pesticides
in developing countries.
45

4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
Key project activities: development of concepts in cooperation with small entrepreneurs,
projects and NGOs in several countries on manufacturing and applying simple neem
products; dissemination and promotion of know-how concerning the correct use of neem
among farmers and interested institutions in developing countries, support of the working
group neem analysis; conducting fact-finding and feasibility studies on the possible use of
neem, socio-economic studies on neem manufacturing, and create awareness on the advantages
of neem
Target group: entrepreneurs, NGO, decision makers, extension workers and farmers in developing
countries.
Literature:
BRODESSER, J. (1998): Collaborative Study for the Determination of Azadirachtin A in
Neem Seed Kernels, Aqueous Formulation and oil. 19 pp. GTZ.
FOERSTER, P. (1998): Standardisation of Analytical Methods for Neem based Products –
latest Developments. In: Kleeber, H. & CP Zebitz (eds): Practice oriented Results on
Use and Production of Neem Ingredients and Pheromones, Proceed. of the 8th WS,
1998. Trifolio, Germany. 47-54.
FOERSTER, P. (1998): Activities and Experience with the Use of Neem Tree. In: The Potentials
of the Neem Tree in Ghana, Proceedings of a Seminar, Dodowa, Ghana, 75-92.
FOERSTER, P. (1999): Development Process of a Small-Scale Neem Processing Plant:
Experiences of a GTZ Project in Kenya, In: Stoll, G. (1999): Natural Crop Protection
in the Tropics – Let in Information come to Life, Verlag Markgraf, Weikersheim, 400 p.
FOERSTER, P. (1999): Registration Requirements for Neem Based Pesticides in Selected
Countries. In: Proceedings of the International Neem Conference, Vancouver, May
19th-21th, Canada, in press
FOERSTER, P., HELLPAP, C. & WILPS, H. (1999): Activities of the Deutsche Gesellschaft
für Technische Zusammenarbeit – GTZ*1 in the field of Neem (Azadirachta indica,
Juss), In: Proceedings of the International Neem Conference, Vancouver, May 19th-
21st, Canada, in press.
MOSER, G. (1996): <strong>Status</strong> Report on Global Neem Usage. 39 pp.
CONTACT: doris.guenther@gtz.de, pietfoerster@hotmail.com
PO Box 5180, 65726 Eschborn,
FAO Neem Forestry Network
Established in 1994 collaborative partners of 22 countries are participating in the Neem forestry
network. The main activities were surveying and documenting seeds sources, pilot
seed collection and exchange and training for this.
1 German Technical Cooperation
46

4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
A total of 25 seed sources from 11 countries, representing the entire eco-geographical
variation in the range of distribution of the species were described and collected around
agreed common guidelines. 25 seed lots were exchanged among 21 countries.
Field trials were established, assessed and evaluated until 2000 to get information on the
extent of the genetic variation of neem. Provenance recommendations for planting at different
sites will become available based upon the results of the assessments. In addition, information
will be provided on genetic resources to be conserved either in situ or ex situ.
In addition to the main Network activities on exchange of seed and establishment of international
provenance trials, the Network has a number of associated supportive research
components related to
• Genetic variation and reproductive biology
• Seed physiology and technology
• Genetic variation in chemical compounds
Literature:
A range of publications are worked out by the members of the network
CONTACT: Pierre.Sigaud(a)fao.org, +39-0657055137 fax., Dr. Pierre Sigaud, Forest
Genetic Resources, FAO, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 001 00 Rome, Italy;
Henry Doubleday Research Association/Oxford University/DIFD
Organised and conducted in November 1999 and E-mail conference on different topics of
neem research, use and application in Ghana and India. The workshop was covering topics
such as global use of neem, tackling constraints and identifying opportunities in India and
Ghana – needs and prospects of neem usage, improving productivity, silviculture and genetic
improvement, commercialisation of neem, etc.
Inputs, contributions and results of the workshops can be taken from the WEB
www.hdra.org.uk/neem.htm
4.2 Bilateral or National Projects
ANTIGUA
In St. Lucia a project funded by the Ministry of Agric. & Organisation of American States is
working to promote the use of plants with pest control properties within a sustainable agriculture
project.
Currently about 5000 mostly young trees are growing in St. Lucia, a few older are thriving
near government buildings. Trials on station and on farm has been carried out, neem
nurseries established and training in how to produce and apply neem water extracts with
47

4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
NGOs and farmers conducted. It is planned to cooperate with the neighbouring countries in
the eastern Caribbean. Further it is planned to start neem processing on a higher technical
level later on and to set up a neem processing plant in the near future.
Literature:
COOPER, B. (1999): Neem Use in Agricultural Management systems in the Caribbean. In:
the Proceedings of the International Neem Conference in Vancouver, in press.
CONTACT: Dr. Brian Cooper mintouren@candw.ag,
AUSTRALIA
University of Queensland
There exist a range of activities on the commercial level to make use of neem for reafforestration
and seed production in the dry northern and western parts of Australia including
Darwin which obviously had attracted some investments. Some hundred thousand neem
trees are planted in plantations. Action has been taken to find investors to set up a
processing plant and produce neem on large scale.
To date neem is playing to date an insignificant role as a pesticide. No neem pesticides are
registered in Australia and neem is only in use in private and home gardens. Products such
as “Neem Peace” and others mainly based on neem rawmaterial but are available in the
country. They are manufactured from raw material purchased from other countries e.g.
Indonesia, Nigeria, Mauritania, Madagascar etc. Commercial neem products include neem
leaf, neem leaf powder, neem oil, neem cake, neem litter, neem aqueous kernel extract and
neem aqueous leaf extracts. Neem cake is used as a soil amendment, while the liquid
products are used as foliar sprays or through irrigation. Neem cake is sold in Australia as a
fertiliser and Neem oil is also available as a wetter/sticker for organic fertilisers or as a liquid
fertiliser ingredient.
Pharmaceutical products include neem skin tonic, neem body lotion, neem soap, neem haircare
products including shampoo, conditioner and lice treatments, neem cosmetics and
neem toothpaste.
Other products include Neem mosquito repellent, Neem pet food and flea powder. Neem leaf
teas are also popular for their healing potential.
Individual initiatives are taken by researchers to carry out research on certain aspects of
neem, such as the
48

Project: "Neem Cake as Nematicide"
Time Frame: 1995 - 1996
4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
Short description: Project by the University of Queensland, Department of Plant Production in
Gatton, which focuses on researching the nematicidal efficacy of neem cakes.
Activities with neem: Collection and production of scientific data on the efficiency of neem
cakes in the control of soil-borne phythopathogenic nematodes (in particular Meloidogyne
spp. on tomatoes); development of scientific methods; applicability of commercial neem products;
registration of these products.
Target group: Tomato growers
Supported by other universities and the private sector
BENIN
As in most west African countries you can find considerable numbers of neem trees in Benin.
A number of projects supported by UN- and other volunteers were carried out. NGOs or
women groups were trained to produce neem oil and neem soap on village level. Videos on
neem soap on village level were produced. One example for an NGO is the
"Coopération de Soyeux"
(Soyeux Coopérative, Promoting Cooperatives and Technology)
Founded: 1990
Short description: The NGO "Coopération de Soyeux“ in Allada in the south of Benin is
focusing on the processing and marketing of oil-seed crops produced on site, most particularly
as soaps.
Activities with neem: Manufacture of favourably priced pesticides and soap; production of
hand-presses; procurement of seeds; marketing of oil, soaps, press cakes and compost.
The project has obviously achieved some sustainability, which is once more proof that there
is a market for medicinal, skin-healing soap based on neem in west Africa - and also for
export to Germany. Other groups are “Grou Pere” in Sé and the “Agenion Women Group”.
Projet Bénino-Allemand : Protection des Végétaux”
Benin: "Vegetable Protection Service "
Time Frame: July 1984 - December 1996
Short description of the project: Plant-protection project within the scope of TC between
Benin and Germany that is actively involved nation-wide in extension services and integrated
49

4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
pest management (IPM) in vegetable cropping and in the elaboration of plant-protection
legislation. The project included smaller neem components and published some leaflets on
the use of neem such as “ La Conservation du Niébé avec l’huile de Nim” and “l’utilisation de
la bouillie de Nim contre les insectes des cultures maraîchères” which were also available in
local languages (Baatounnue and Fongbé).
Activities with neem: Dissemination of know-how pertaining to neem usage as an alternative
pesticide in the field and as stock protection.
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture - IITA
Time frame: 1990-1992
Short description of the project: In depth investigations on the effect of neem powder, -extracts,
-insecticides, -oil and suitable emulgators on locust Schistocerca gregaria has been
carried out at IITA as part of a ph. thesis. It could be demonstrated that neem product effects
the mortality, fitness, morphological development of S. gregaria.
Other researchers investigated the effects of neem cake on nematodes.
Literature:
LANGEWALD, J. (1996): Zur Wirkung und Anwendung von Produkten des Niembaumes A.
indica gegen die Wüstenheuschrecke Schistocerca gregaria und andere Schadheuschrecken
in Westafrika und Madagaskar. Diss., University of Giessen, 156 pp.
COLIN, J.E. & L.D. PUSSEMIER (1992): The neem Azadirachta indica as a means to control
soil nematodes and its application in vegetable cultures in Benin. Tropicultura, 3, 89-
92.
CONTACT: IITA: IITA-benin@CGIAR.org
BOLIVIA
The climatic growing conditions in Bolivia are not suitable for neem trees, however recently
some products have been imported on small scale from the Caribbean Islands.
BRAZIL
With the dry provinces in the north east and central part, Brazil offers a huge potential for
growing neem. Compared to the potential for growing neem trees only minor activities has
taken place so far.
ESPLAR- Centro de Pesquisa e Assessoria
Since the beginning of the nineties the NGO ESPLAR is planting and creating awareness for
the potential of neem in cooperation with church groups in north-east Brazil. The NGO pro-
50

4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
duced extension material such as posters and manuals and is running workshops on how to
produce home-made pesticides on neem basis.
Several thousand trees are planted so far and came into production, offering a resource for
seeds and a basis for small scale application of neem.
CONTACT: Mr. P.J. Lima, Rua Princessa Isabel, 1968, Benfica, CEP, 60015-061,
Fortaleza, CEARÁ, esparcp@brhs.com.br, fax 085-252 24510
Centro de Integracão de Educacão Ruals – Vila Pavão-ES- CIER
CIER is supported by several donor and TC organisations to promote appropriate technologies
(such as KFW, DED, EU , Banco de Brazil, etc). Around the nineties CIER introduce
neem trees in the area of Nova Venecia. CIER has worked out and translated extension and
training manuals. CIERS carry out workshops and seminars on how to make use of neem.
CONTACT: Espírito Santo, Nova Venecia-ES joe@escelsa.com.br, Fax 027-7681290
IFAS, Instituto de Formação e Assessoria Sindical
Founded: 1985
Short description: NGO in Goiânia, Goiás, is working in the field of union organisation where
it is focusing in particular on formation, education and integration of the poor rural and urban
population to increase their standard of living and self-help promotion.
Activities with neem: Dissemination of knowledge pertaining to neem's usage as a natural
pesticide and as medicinal plant. Planting neem in land reform areas.
Target group: Poor farmers, agricultural technicians,
CONTACT: IFAS, PO Box 245, CEP 74.001-970 Goiânia, Goiás, fax 062-2337492,
phone 062-2337575
EMBRAPA
The governmental extension organisation EMBRAPA is said to have planted about 400 000
neem trees in Goias and Mato Grosso, Tocantins. EMBRAPA is about to promote the use of
commercial neem pesticides for farmers and carried out some trials to evaluate the efficacy
of neem product under the local growing conditions.
In total it is planned to re-afforest huge areas with some million neem trees until 2003.
EMPRAPA is cooperating with research institutions such as
51

4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
DEPA, Fitossanidade
Some research is carried out by DEPA against pests such as Spodoptera frugiperda, in
maize, Mononychellus tanajoa (Cassava green mite) in Cassava, Tuta absoluta in Tomato
and against cabbage pests such as Diamondback moth.
Other efforts to make use of neem’s excellent potential for pest control are known from
chemical laboratories, which however to date have to rely on raw material supply from
abroad.
No neem based pesticide was registered in 1999, but some Indian products were about to
receive registration.
CONTACT: Recife -Pe, Fax: (081)- 441-1711
BURKINA FASO
As in all Sahelian countries you can find considerable numbers of neem trees. This is also
true for Burkina Faso.
A comparable high number of NGOs and farmers groups are processing neem on village
level, partly specialised in oil production or soap making etc. especially in the north of the
country.
The University of Ouagadougou
in conjunction with external research institutions had conducted research with neem formulations
against pest of rice, groundnut and vegetables. Also a <strong>report</strong> is available about a local
industry which uses neem leaves in mosquito coils for repelling mosquitoes in the wet
season.
Service Inter-Africain sur les Technologies Appropriées - SIATA
The GATE/GTZ-supported NGO network SIATA is based in Burkina Faso and has supported
some NGOs/CBOs to carry out training on the neem-processing, such as the production of
oil, soap and natural insecticides.
In addition SIATA produced a range of technical <strong>report</strong>s and readers, not only on neem processing
but also on other topics of appropriate technology.
CONTACT: SIATA 03 BP 7190, Ouagadougou 03, Burkina Faso,
phone: +226-361655, fax +226-360857, e-mail: siata.gtz@fasonet.bf
“Centre Ecologique Albert Schweitzer” (CEAS)
An other active group is CEAS founded in 1980, which is based in Bamako. Since 1995
CEAS have had a “natural pesticide” component in their training programme. The group runs
52

4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
an "applied research" programme with neem as a major component. CEAS is running trials
with neem on a 4 ha plot.
Neem cake, kernels, leaves and oil are being applied and investigated for their efficacy
against pests of cabbage, onion, tomato, eggplant, sweet potato, French beans, lettuce and
local vegetables. Recently some promising trials in organic cotton have also been conducted.
Theatre groups have been formed to create awareness and to train farmers how to use and
apply neem, and also to demonstrate the potential danger of conventional pesticides for the
farmers. CEAS has trained 40 farmers’ groups and more than 1600 individual farmers in how
to process and apply neem. They have also supported women’s groups by showing them
how to collect and process neem kernels and make soap out of them.
Canadian Sheabutter Project
The processing of neem was a side effect of the sheabutter processing project in Burkina
Faso assisted by the Canadians (CECI). It was found that the improved and modified
presses can also be used for neem processing.
In addition to the listed ones, many other NGOs and CBOs are actively involved in neem
promotion in Burkina Faso.
Literature:
ALTERNATIVE PESTICIDE/PAN (1998): Agroécologie et lutte phytosanitaire: L’expérience
du CEAS. Pesticides & Alternatives, No. 6, pp. 10-12.
CECIDEC (1997): Natur neem – un insecticide naturel, Le Grenier 4, p. 12 + 13.., Bul.
Semestriel, SIATA.
FOERSTER, P. (2000): Regional Outlook: Present Situation in Using Neem Trees in West
Africa and Sahel. 1-12 pp In: BRIMAH, A. K. (ed) (2000): Efficacy and Commercialization
of Neem Products in Ghana, Proceedings of an Opem Forum Organized by
Goethe Institut from 19 to 21. October, 1999. Woeli Publ. Services, 77 pp; ISBN 9964-
978-71-5s.
MAERZ, U. (1989): The Economics of Neem Production and its Use in Pest Control. Wissenschaftsverlag
Vauk, Farming systems and resource economics in the tropics. Vol 5.
pp153.
RADCLIFFE, E., OUEDRAOGO, G., PATTEN, S., RAGSDALE, D. & P. STRZOK (1996):
Neem in Niger: a new context for a system of indigenous knowledge, pp 34-70. In:
Warren, D.M, Slikerveer, J.L. & D. Brokensha (eds.): The Cultural Dimension of
Development, ITDG, UK.
53

4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
CHAD
PSANG/GTZ
Millions of neem trees are available in Chad. The Pesticide Service Project/GTZ in cooperation
with the “Projet de Sécurité Alimentaire au Nord Guréa” and assistance of “Fond
International de Développement Agricole” (FIDA) has carried out training of farmers and
extensionists on how to produce neem soap and neem based pesticides on village level.
Reports of the missions are available by Pesticide Service Project.
APICA/FID/SIATA
A similar approach took place in a cooperation with the NGOs APICA (Chad) and FID
(Senegal) funded by the NGOs and the GTZ assisted network SIATA:
Training in processing and use of neem as bio-pesticides but also for oil and soap production
on village level.
APICA has also produced a video on neem soap production on village level.
Literature:
BAUMGART, M. (1997): Mission d’Étude et de Formation dans le Domaine de l’Utilisation de
l’Arbre Nim (Azadirachta indica) pour le Développement agricole au Nord-Guéra/
Tschad. Report of Mission du 2 au 16 juillet 1997 for the Pesticide Service Project.
61 pp.
BAUMGART, M. (1996): Etude et Formation dans le Domaine de l’Utilisation des Plantes
insecticides au Nord-Guéra/Tschad, pour Projet Service Produits Phytosanitaire/GTZ,
FIDA et PSANG. 54 pp.
FOERSTER, P. (2000): Regional Outlook: Present Situation in Using Neem Trees in West
Africa and Sahel. 1-12 pp In: BRIMAH, A. K. (ed) (2000): Efficacy and Commercialization
of Neem Products in Ghana, Proceedings of an Opem Forum Organized by
Goethe Institut from 19 to 21. October, 1999. Woeli Publ. Services, 77 pp; ISBN 9964-
978-71-5s.
CONTACT: APICA: Secrétariat Général, BP 5946, Akwa Douala,
phone- 237-370405, fax 237 – 370402, e-mail: apicasg@cyberkoki.net
(Peoples Republic of) CHINA
Currently too few fruit bearing neem trees are available to produce sufficient raw material for
manufacturing neem based pesticides in PR China. Still the interest in low residue pesticides
to be applied in vegetables grown for export (to Hongkong and Japan) is high.
54

UNIDO/GTZ
4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
Severe efforts were undertaken to plant neem trees in considerable numbers of several
hundred thousand trees in the three southern Chinese provinces (Hainan, Guangdong and
Kunming).
The activities are initiated and scientifically back-stopped by Universities in Guanghzou,
Kunming and Hainan. The initiative of the organisations in Kunming to set up a neem plant
were supported by UNIDO and GTZ.
University in Guanghzou
To date raw material and extract for manufacturing neem based pesticides in China is imported
from the neighbouring Myanmar but also from other countries (Tanzania). The technology
how to manufacture Emulsified Concentrate (EC) - formulations based on neem, has
been developed by the University of Guanghzou. The Uni in Guanghzou has a focus on
research on plant derived pesticides. The neem based pesticides are mainly applied for
export vegetable.
Literature:
FOERSTER, P. (1998): Mission Report on a Fact-Finding Study on Neem in PR China.
GTZ/UNIDO. 12 pp.
COLUMBIA
Individuals have planted some hundreds hectares with neem trees some years ago. The
trees are meanwhile producing seeds. Some agricultural advisors and companies working on
alternative pest control are integrating neem in their pest control concepts. Mr. J.A. Reyes
from CIA has together with others a company in Palmira, which sells bio-products (natural
enemies, biopesticides etc.).
Obviously also some researchers, e.g. from the University in Medellin, are selling neembased
products.
Literature:
WELLER, J. (1995): Biologischer Pflanzenschutz im Obstbau von Kolumbien, Thesis of
Humboldt Univers., Berlin, 135 pp.
CONTACT: Biocaribe/Medellin: bioca@epm.net.co
COSTA RICA
A Swedish company, Gabrol Productor SA, is growing neem on a peninsula in north-west
Costa Rica. Gabrol Productor’s neem products are registered in Costa Rica. Successful trials
e.g. in coffee against stemborer has been carried out in Costa Rica.
55

4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
CÔTE D’IVOIRE
In contrast to the neighbouring Ghana neem trees are much less abundant in CI and often
replaced by cashew nut plantation or sheabutter trees. Subsequently comparable few neem
activities are going on in CI.
The GTZ assisted agriculture extension organisation ANADER in Korhogo, is training farmers
to apply crude neem water extract on neem seed basis as a home-made pesticide in
vegetables.
In addition the Canadian NGO CAUSE, based in Korhogo, is training some women and
village groups in neem soap production in the northern part of the country.
In addition some trials were set up by researchers to test commercial neem based pesticides
such as Neemazal in cash crops.
CUBA
INIFAT, Instituto Investigación Fund. Agricola Tropical
(Tropical Agriculture Research Institute)
Founded: 1991
Short description: The GO "INIFAT, Instituto Investigación Fund. Agrícola Tropical, Departamento
Protección de Plantas y Productos Bioactivos" is, inter alia, researching neem in its
capacity as a biological pesticide and promoting its dissemination.
Activities with neem: Planting and afforestation of neem for agricultural purposes and as
erosion protection; development, manufacture and marketing of neem-based pesticides.
The project is supported by the German KATALYSE Institute, GATE/GTZ and some other
Spanish and German NGOs. Currently the project intend to launch a country wide
programme to exploit the potentials of neem, not only in the field of agriculture.
CONTACT: Proyecto@anap.org.cu
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
The first neem trees were planted in the Dominican Republic about 25 years ago. Today the
stocks are estimated at over 1 million stems and new trees are being planted continuously.
This is all thanks to a comprehensive programme geared to disseminating the tree and
know-how pertaining to its varied uses. The main sponsor of this programme was a GTZ
development-cooperation project which focused in particular on neem's usage as natural
pesticide. At the beginning, the chances of establishing neem as a pesticide looked quite
slim. Synthetic pesticides were broadly in use, even though they had caused numerous
accidents and a good deal of environmental damage. Even if the situation has not changed
that much in a lot of regions, a great many farmers are using neem today. They have planted
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4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
neem trees around their fields and gardens or obtain neem raw materials or simple, readymade,
neem-based pesticides that are marketed nationally by an NGO. The know-how
established here and some of the neem products produced in Dom. Republic are also exported
to other countries.
The NGO FAMA (see below) continued the work of the former GTZ project to a certain extent
after the termination of the project with assistance of several donors. FAMA relies heavily on
the sales of neem products at home and abroad to enable it to continue disseminating the
neem tree , training of farmers and knowledge pertaining to its various uses.
Fundación Agricultura y Medio Ambiente
Founded: 1995
Short description: An NGO working in the field of appropriate agriculture, environmental
protection and alternative sources of energy in the semi-arid, southern areas of the
Dominican Republic. One of the key areas of activity is the dissemination of neem as a
natural insecticide. Developed from the field station of the former GTZ project "Production of
Natural Insecticides" (see above) in San Cristóbal, Dominican Republic.
Activities with neem: Production of neem insecticides for farmers and agriculturists; development
of neem products both, for internal and regional markets and for export, taking care
of existing neem plantations; training in the harvesting and processing of neem seeds and in
the manufacture and application of simple, home-made insecticides; manufacture and
marketing of commercial neem products such as pesticides, fertiliser, soaps and other cosmetic
articles.
Target group: in pesticide application - 200 farming families and other rural population
groups, other interested NGOs.
Literature:
BRECHELT, A. & C. HELLPAP (eds) (1994): Memorias del 1er Congreso Latinoamericano y
del Caribe sobre Nim y otros Insecticidas Vegetales. 377pp., GTZ/Loyola.
HELLPAP, C. (1993): Experiences with neem in the Dominican Republic, In: Practice
Oriented results on Use and Production of Neem- Ingredients and Pheromones,
Proceed. of the 2 nd Triofolio Workshop. 39-44.
LEUPOLZ, W. (1996): Sozioökonomische Einflußfaktoren bei der Einführung von biolgischbio-technischen
Pflanzenschutzverfahren in bäuerlichen Betrieben – eine international
vergleichende Untersuchung am Beispiel der Produktion, Verarbeitung und Anwendung
von Niemextrakten in Ländern der dritten Welt. Diss. Uni Hamburg, pp 1998.
LEUPOLZ, W. (2000): Kleinindustrielle Herstellung von Niempflanzenschutzmitteln in der
Dom. Republik and Nicaragua. Report on behalf of GTZ, 79 pp.
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4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
CONTACT: Fundación Agricultura y Medio Ambiente - FAMA, Apartado Postal 21064
(huacal), St Domingo, Dom. Rep.,
Famam@codetel.net.do, 001809-5284786 fx, 00809-5286314 ph.
ECUADOR
CEMADEC, Centro Manabita de Desarrollo Comunitario
Founded: 1984
Short description: The NGO "CEMADEC, Centro Manabita de Desarrollo Comunitario" operates
in the rural regions on the Pacific Coast in the dissemination of appropriate farming
methods and biological pest control, in particular using neem.
Activities with neem: Planting and dissemination of the neem tree; usage of the leaves and
seeds as a pesticide; shade tree and forest cropping. Development and manufacturing and
selling of neem products such as formulated oil and alcoholic extracts, cake, seeds.
Target group: Rural population in the regions of Olmedo and Tosagua
The project has received financial and technical support from the GTZ project "Production of
Natural Insecticides” and Deutsche Welthungerhilfe.
Literature:
WENDT, U. (1990): GATE Newsletter 4/90, p. 25-27;
WENDT, U. (1991): Untersuchungen zur Anwendung einfacher Niemprodukte gegen Schädlinge
an annuellen Kulturpflanzen in der Küstenprovinz Manabí, Eucador, Thesis, Uni
Giessen, 129 pp.
CONTACT: CEMADEC, Córdoba 910 y 18 de Octubre, 1er piso, Apartado Postal 13-01-
0281, Portoviejo, Ecuador, Fax 00593-(0)5-634077,
EGYPT
Only few neem trees are growing at the upper Nile (Assuan) but not in sufficient numbers for
preparing neem extracts.
In contrast commercial neem products, insecticides as well as fungicides (of American,
Israelian and German origin) are applied to certain extent by vegetable growers mainly in
green houses in the Nile delta.
Egyptian –German Cotton Sector Promotion Program
As a sub-component, research took place in a Egyptian-German cotton project to investigate
the effects of commercial neem pesticides and other non-synthetic pesticides such as
pheromones, trap crops and biocontrol agents on pests of (organic) cotton.
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4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
CONTACT: Prof. T. Basedow, Inst. f. Phytopathologie & Angewandte Zoologie
Alter Steinbacher Weg 44, D-35394 Giessen Tel.: 0049-641-99-37580
E-Mail: Thies.Basedow@agrar.uni-giessen.de
EL SALVADOR
CLUSA/PROEXSAL
The NGO PROEXSAL assisted by CLUSA is promoting organic cropping of lettuce, onion,
carrots and brassicas for the local markets and is applying among others neem oil.
In addition, CLUSA is promoting organic cropping of coffee, cashew, sesame, cocoa, soya,
plantains, groundnut and are using neem beside Beauveria bassiana, soaps “Bioinsectril"
(extract of 40 plants), garlic oil and others.
The GTZ assisted company AGRO-INAGOR, started in 1995 to produce organic manure,
and is now selling natural medicine, cosmetics and a herbicide based on plant extracts. They
intend to manufacture neem based pesticides in future.
The companies AGRIPLAN and SUPERIOR are selling agricultural inputs including imported
neem extracts from Dom. Republic.
ERITREA
Considerable numbers of neem trees (some hundred thousand) are growing in Eritrea, e.g.
east of Kerren and the western part of Eritrea at the border with Sudan, in the Gashbarka
province. Some horticulturists are occasionally applying neem but no systematic awareness
campaign or exploitation took place so far and is hampered to date by the war with Ethiopia.
A pre-study was undertaken by Pesticide Service Project which revealed that there is a good
potential for neem processing for several purposes: plant protection, soap production,
pharmaceutical products. Technical leaflets on neem are available in Tigrini language by
GTZ.
EUROPE
Neem products are registered so far in Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Switzerland, Italy and
are about to receive registration in Spain, France, Portugal, Greece.
To date to the following neem manufacturing companies exist in Europe: Trifolio GmbH,
Germany and Gabrol Productor SA, in Sweden.
CONTACT: TRIFOLIO, Sonnenstr. 22, D- 35633 Lahnau, Germany, Trifolio@aol.com,
0049-6441-64650 Fax
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4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
GAMBIA
As in all west African and sahelian countries neem trees are thriving also in Gambia. The
Agricultural Research Station “Cap St. Mary” carried out applied research on some aspects
of neem usage.
GHANA
Based on the some million self seeding neem trees, some of them are about 50 years old,
Ghana offer an excellent potential for manufacturing neem products.
NGOs
Some NGOs are actively promoting the use of simple neem preparation such as neem water
extracts for pest control such as ECARSARD, GOAN, Friends of the Earth. The Catholic
Church is promoting neem preparations and - within an exchange programme with Church
communities from the neighbouring Burkina Faso – manufacturing of neem based soaps in
the north of Ghana. The UNDP/FAO nation-wide supported IPM programme carried out
some training and research on the application of crude neem kernel water extracts for pest
control in their programme.
GTZ PPRSD Project
As part of its extension component the Ghanaian- German IPM project PPRSD is training to
a certain extent poor farmers in NW Ghana to use neem seeds in vegetable production such
as okra and maize.
In addition the project assisted a laboratory at Cape Coast University to be capable to carry
out azadirachtin analysis and to check the quality of imported neem based pesticides.
The project carried out in cooperation with the Pesticide Service Project a feasibility study on
setting up neem processing units in Ghana.
University of Ghana, Legon
Several researchers are working on neem. The crop protection section summarised past and
ongoing research (mainly with neem water extracts) on key pests. In conjunction with an
FAO programme field tests are carried out to integrate neem into IPM programme in
vegetables and rural development programmes. In cooperation with
Goethe Institute, Accra
The first national seminar on neem was initiated by Goethe Institute in 1998 and took place
in Dodowa with a follow-up in Accra in 1999. Key representatives and speakers from relevant
Ministries, Uni Legon, Cape Coast, FORIG, CSIR, pharmaceutical institutions, NGOs and
others participated in the first Seminar, while the second was open to the public. The first
seminar was a key - initiative in bringing together decision makers, researchers, NGOs and
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4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
entrepreneurs and resulted in a countrywide awareness for neem and smaller neem
processing activities. Proceedings of the first conference are available by GTZ, the second
by Goethe Institute, Accra (see below: Literature).
First neem products were manufactured in Ghana in 1999 by commercial companies, several
other companies were interested in the production.
Literature:
BRIMAH, A. K. (ed) (2000): Efficacy and Commercialization of Neem Products in Ghana,
Proceedings of an Opem Forum Organized by Goethe Institut from 19 to 21. October,
1999. Woeli Publ. Services, 77 pp; ISBN 9964-978-71-5s.
FOERSTER, P. (ed) (1998): The Potential of the Neem Tree in Ghana, 127pp. GTZ Publication.
FOERSTER, P. (1999): Feasibility Study on the implementation of a Neem processing Plant
in Ghana. 25 pp, GTZ
MANU, J.; E. ANTWI, FJ CHILDS, JR CHAMBERLAIN, HARRIS, PJC: Improvement of
neem an its potential benefits to poor farmers in developing countries. Report on the
current and potential use of neem in Ghana. R 7348. HDRA; CNRD, DFID, 47 pp.
- Dito: Proceedings of the e-mail workshop by HDRA.
TANZUBIL, P.B. (1986): The Use of neem products in controlling the cowpea weevil,
Callosobruchus maculatus, In: Schmutterer, H. & Ascher, K. (1996) Natural Pesticides
from the neem tree and other tropical plants, GTZ Publ. 206, 517-524 p.
GUATEMALA
"Fomento y desarrollo del cultivo del Nim"
(Promotion and development of neem)
Time Frame: since July 1995 - 1998
Short description: The NGO ALTERTEC as project-executing agency is promoting various
methods of appropriate agriculture in two areas in the south of the country and, within this
context, is propagating the neem tree and its many and varied uses.
Activities with neem: Planting of the neem tree as a means of protecting against erosion, for
afforestation purposes, as wind protection and as a shade tree and for obtaining seeds;
dissemination of know-how pertaining to neem’s usage as a pesticide.
ALTERTEC was receiving both financial and technical support from the GTZ’s "Pesticide
Service Project" until 1998.
In addition the German NGO “Friedrich Naumann Stiftung” is assisting NGOs in planting
neem trees and creating awareness on the potential of neem trees in Guatemala.
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4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
CONTACT: ALTERTEC: phone: (502) 765-2069, e-mail: altertecxela@mail 2.guate.net
address: 4 Calle 16-73, Zona 1, Quetzaltenango, Guatemala
HAITI
Since the seventies US NGOs such as Catholic Relief Services were assisting community
groups and the Road Departments in planting neem along the roads and as shade trees in
the villages. Today community groups and Road Department are growing about 5 million
neem trees in Haiti e.g. along most streets leading from the capital Port au Prince to the
provinces. In north-western region near Port de Paix even plantations exists.
Neem seeds are processed and exported e.g. to USA or Dominican Republic.
The NGOs CARE and “Operation Double Harvest”, USA are promoting the application in
vegetable production in the Cul -de Sac region in north Haiti.
Literature:
STRZOK, P. (1992): Cost Benefit Analysis of Neem Tree Product Technologies: South Asia,
Haiti and the Sahelian Zone, West Africa, p. 61, <strong>report</strong> for USAID.
HONDURAS
Some neem trees are growing at the river Zamorano in the south of the country, however no
fruits are produced so far. The GTZ IPM Project in Honduras included awareness creating
and training on the use of neem for vegetable production and produced and disseminated
extension material.
Some commercial neem products are registered in Honduras.
NGOs: Cooperación Hondureño-Alemana de Seguridad Alimentaria (COHASA)
& El Proyecto Conservación y Silvicultura de Especies Forestales de Honduras (CON-
SEFORH), Land Use and Productivity Enhancement (LUPE), Proyecto de Apoyo a la
Política Forestal - PROFOR
COHASA has planted since 1988 in about 35 municipios of Choluteca near the border to
Nicaragua neem trees as the projects of CONSEFORTH, LUPE and PROFOR did later in
the Department of Choluteca of some 30 000 stems. The trees were use mainly for shade
and hedges and occasionally for medicinal purposes.
CONSEFORH tested the performance of neem on the Experimental Station of La Soledad,
and distributed seeds.
The agricultural school “Escuela Agrícola Panamericana el Zamorano” is producing small
scale crude neem extracts for demonstration and testing. La Escuela Nacional de Agricultura
de Catacamas (ENA) have a small plantation of 350 neem plants which started to
produce seeds in 2000. ENA provides information on the use of neem.
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The GTZ SAVE project assisted the school “Escuela de Agricultura Luis Landa de
Nacaome,” in the region del Litoral Atlántico of Honduras to establish a small plantation of
400 neem trees.
According to the Servicio Nacional de Sanidad Agropecuaria (SENASA), about 100 kilo of
neem pesticides has been imported by NUTRICOM in 1999 from FAMA of Dom. Republic.
INDIA
is regarded as neem's country of origin (2, 13, 15, 19). All known forms of neem usage
across the globe can be traced back to the several thousand years-old traditional forms of
application in this country. Even though the tree is classed as “holy” in India and is mostly
used in a variety of ways by the rural population, India is nevertheless the country with the
most industrially manufactured and marketed neem products. The products themselves
range from soaps, toothpastes and skin creams to medicines and contraceptives and even
formulated pesticides and fertilisers. These neem products are produced by numerous enterprises
whose technological capacity spans simple manual production through semi-industrial
production to modern, fully-automatic production methods. These companies not
only serve the domestic market but foreign ones as well; indeed, in some branches export
has a very important role to play; e.g. Indian, neem-based pesticides can be bought in some
Asian (Nepal, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh etc) and African countries (Mauritius, Ghana etc).
Many companies, NGOs and projects are involved into neem business. It would require a
book of its own to list here all of them.
Neem seed collection systems are existing since decades and are setting the standard
concerning the prices for neem raw material. The collection system for neem seeds and oil
processing industry on village level was originally set up to use the neem oil for soap
production. Neem oil was used mainly because of the price less for its medicinal effects.
Today the decreasing price for palm oil leads to a substitution of neem oil in the Indian soap
production. Despite this long tradition of collecting and processing neem seeds the neem raw
material is often of low quality since this was not a so decisive issue if the oil is used for soap
production only (38).
It should be mentioned here that there are about 100 Indian neem pesticide manufacturing
companies and 10 which have set up proper extraction plants, which fulfil international
quality standard requirements such as reliable quality e.g. of concentration of active
ingredients, shelf life etc.. Due to the heavy competition between the 10 companies (only 20-
40% of the plants full capacities are currently used) EC formulations are sold very cheap
within India.
On the other hand the one sided promotion of high external input agriculture, the concept of
“green revolution” by the Indian government, leads to the fact that in many Indian regions the
farmers has forgotten their “indigenous knowledge” on neem which is now promoted by a
number of NGOs and projects. Fortunately the Indian agricultural policy changed since the
nineties. Now the proud of own resources has been recovered and use and application of
Indian’s own biological resources are promoted. This happened first e.g. with the
comprehensive and systematic research at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore,
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in the seventies and eighties and later in an bio-emphasised IPM programme from 1995-
2000.
The following brings only (a very limited) selection of the main initiatives and companies.
Neem Mission
Founded: 1980
Short description: NGO in Pune, India, is an information centre on neem topics of the “first
hour” and advocating the intellectual properties of India on neem. The focus is on the dissemination
of simple forms of application in agriculture: e.g. pesticide, fertiliser, fodder and
for animal husbandry.
Neem Foundation
Promoting neem, providing information on neem, organising (international) conferences and
publishing books and the neem newsletter.
Neem Foundation work on initiating projects such as the Sub-programme on Technical Support
for Development and Production of Neem Products as Environment Friendly
Pesticides implemented by UNIDO.
This sub-programme aims to promote production, processing and use of neem based products,
thereby aiding waste land development, generating rural employment, providing farmers
with eco-friendly/biodegradable pesticides and producing neem based medicinal products.
The proposed Sub-programme will cover the following mayor areas of operation:
Two Neem Sheds are thought to be developed in different parts of India viz. east, and north
central region. These sheds intends to become Centres of Learning for the farmers and
provide technical backup and material for promoting agro-based products for sustainable
eco-friendly agriculture.
Development of improved varieties of neem trees containing higher Azadirachtin content
through application of bio-technology undertaking extensive planting in the waste lands
through establishment of neem Sheds. Neem Sheds are thougth to be established in places
which are otherwise wasteland for promoting large scale plantations of neem tree. These
sheds are thought to be centers of neem germplasm, assess them for increased productivity,
develop techniques for improved seed viability and high bio-active principles, disseminate
knowledge and techniques in propagating latest varieties of neem trees to the farmers.
Besides, the neem sheds have demonstration plants producing various products for
generating income through the development of sustainable agriculture in wasteland and at
the same time preserving the environment and enriching the ecosystem.
The project intends to work on process development for the neem based products and the
existing production technologies and develop a more cost effective process based on scale
production units which could be set up at the village level. The various neem products should
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4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
be developed which include pesticides, neem cake for use with urea as nitrification inhibitor,
etc.
Additionally neem based formulations and its analysis should be improved and work on
standardisation and bio-screening carried out.
CONTACT: http://www.neemfoundation.org
PJ Margo PVT Ltd
Main supplier of the American company “Thermo Triology” with neem extracts for pesticides.
Fortune Ltd
Offers high quality neem based pesticides and “industrial neem extracts” which are also
marketed in USA, Italy and a range of other countries.
E. I. D. Parry Ltd
Is the partner of TRIOFOLIO company, Germany, and is marketing NeemAzal. Like the other
above listed companies EID PARRY is improving constantly the quality of its neem
pesticides with regard to the stability and efficacy of the neem products. EID Parry neem
products are included in an IPM programme assisted by the Indian government.
Aja Bio-Tech
are manufacturing a range of neem pesticides as well as products for veterinary and textile
purposes. Aja Bio-Tech has establish an interesting community support project which ensure
reliable supply with high quality neem seeds on one side and additional, reliable income for
the neem seed collectors on the other, avoiding any middlemen.
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
In depth investigations of integrating neem into cultivation system take place at TNAU in the
eighties. Outreach programmes and on-field research assisted by IRRI and ADB were
carried out. The research includes economical aspects of neem usage and focussed on
crops such as cotton, pulses, tumeric, rice and sugar cane. The forestry division of TNAU is
investigating the improvement of neem species and the economics of community utilisation
of neem trees.
Neem-Initiative by the "Indian Agricultural Research Institute"
Founded: 1966
Short description: The GO "Indian Agricultural Research Institute" in New Delhi, India, is
researching natural control mechanisms in agriculture. It is conducting applied research into
the use of neem as an insecticide and nematicide.
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Neem Initiative by the "Institute of Agriculture"
Short description: The GO "Institute of Agriculture, Department of Plant Protection" in
Birbhum, West Bengal, India, is working, inter alia, on the development of neem products
such as natural pesticides and pharmaceutical products and on the dissemination of the
various possible forms of usage.
Green College, Uni Oxford, UK
Started in 1999 to investigate intervention points to improve the use of the non timber
product neem fruits. In cooperation with HDRA (see Ghana) a questionnaire, e-mail and
project planning workshop has been carried out.
Literature:
S. NAIK, J. DANIEL, FJ CHILDS, JR CHAMBERLAIN, PJC HARRIS, DIFID 2000. Report on
the current and potential use of neem in India, 22 pp.
INDONESIA
Large numbers of neem trees can be found in Lombok, Bali and the neighbouring dry islands
including eastern Java. Due to the Asian crisis and the subsequent devaluation of the
Indonesian Rupee there is high potential for neem pesticides in Indonesia. In cooperation
with the NGO “Konphalindo”, Jarkarta, the Pesticide Service Project organised in 1997 an
international conference on non-synthetic pesticides with focus on neem with speakers from
India, Myanmar, Thailand, Indonesia and Germany. Proceedings are available by GTZ.
DSF, Dharma Swadaya Foundation
Founded: 1994
Short description: NGO in Mataram on the island of Lombok, Indonesia, is endeavouring to
disseminate the neem tree and propagate its potential usage as a pesticide. Today about
300 000 neem trees are thriving in Lombok.
Key objectives and activities: Translation of the GTZ brochure "Neem - A Natural Insecticide"
into Indonesian; plant neem trees; seed production for simple "home made insecticides" by
farmers; demonstrate how to use neem insecticides with the sustainable agriculture
Target group: Farmers on Lombok and the neighbouring islands.
Mimbian Api Cinta Kasih Foundation
This NGO based in Bali is working among others on eco-friendly agriculture and some of its
international members have working experience with neem collection and processing since
more than 10 years. Starting with implementation of a collection system for neem kernels for
export (mainly USA including Hawaii, Australia), now the local market is addressed. The
NGO has been assisted by GTZ’s Pesticide Service Project in processing of neem oil.
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PT. Multi Planextrac
4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
Short description: A private company that has been operating extraction plants in Pandaan,
near Surabaya, East Java, since 1995. Extraction focuses on plant raw materials such as
indigenous medicinal plants and oil seeds, especially neem seeds. There were a total of two
plants with a daily capacity of approx. 3 tonnes of neem seeds.
The prime objective is to manufacture a formulated pesticide on the basis of neem press
cakes and capsules containing neem leaves for medicinal uses. In 1998 the venture obviously
stop processing neem seeds due to disputes within the management. One of the
owner claims to continue processing in Sulawesi.
Universities of Bandung and Bogor
Comprehensive research on plant derived pesticides has been carried out at both universities
in Bandung und Bogor (see Proceedings Indonesia, 1998). The “Institute for Spices and
Medicinal Crops” Ballitro has a collection of plants with insecticidal and medicinal properties.
Literature:
GTZ (1998) National Conference on Biopesticides with Emphasis on Neem in Indonesia,
GTZ, 131 pp. GTZ Publication.
ISRAEL
There exist a close cooperation between the US neem manufacturing firms and an Israeli
firm called AGRON. Own fungicides and acaricides based on neem are however also produced
and successfully market based on raw material from USA. Target diseases are alternaria,
mildew, rusts and antrachnose.
A lot of research has been carried out with neem mainly in the intensive vegetables,
ornamentals and fruit production and to a good part in green houses.
Latest details from research and surveys are published in PHYTOPARASITICA and available
in the web:http://www.phytoparasitica.org
JEMEN
Neem trees are growing in Aden, Wahdi Lahtsch and Apean.
A GTZ “Innovation in Agricultural Sector Project”- IDAS (1993-2000) based in Aden was
promoting the use of home-made neem extracts and produced and disseminated a technical
brochures on neem in Arabic language.
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KENYA
ICIPE, International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology
Founded: 1971
Short description: International agricultural research institute in Nairobi, Kenya, which aims to
develop environmentally-compatible control measures for insect pests in the tropical regions
of Africa.
Activities with neem: plant protection in horticulture, fruits, banana, staple crops such as
corn. In addition successful trials on vector control, such as ticks and mosquitos and on
bednet impregnation has been conducted with neem products. Neem processing is
demonstrated at ICIPE’s “Techno Park” and at Mbita field station on small scale and in a “Bio
village” in Ethiopia.
In addition comprehensive research into the possible uses of neem as a natural pesticide
has been carried out on station and on field level. ICIPE is the executing agency of the GTZfinanced
measure "Using Neem Seeds in the Small-scale, Industrial Manufacturing of
Insecticides”.
CONTACT: www.icipe.org
Neem Awareness project at Mbita Field station
1994-1999, financed by FINNIDA and UNDP
The project carried out several conferences which invited international reputed researchers
on neem and invited participants from several countries in eastern Africa. Attached to the
conferences demonstration of neem processing and training courses were carried out with
the participants.
Further activities were tree planting near Lake Victoria and in other east African countries in
cooperation with schools, institutions such as ICRAF, compiling training material and a directory
of neem workers in east Africa; a bibliography of 5000 entries and a neem manual
are about to published in 2000.
Additionally some research on neem against pest in banana, corn etc was carried out and
assisted.
Literature:
SAXENA, R. (1999): Development of neem for plant protection and medicinal uses in Africa.
Proceed. of the Int. Neem Conf. in Vancouver, Canada, May 1999.
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GTZ IPM Horticulture Project
Time frame: 1993-1999
4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
Supra-regional project which intended to promote residue free high quality vegetable production
in east Africa. The project cooperated closely with GTZ’s supraregional project
"Environmentally sound Plant Protection in Vegetable and Fruit Cropping", which was
operating in several east African countries.
The project carried out fact-finding and feasibility studies on neem in Kenya and provide
technical back-stopping for the project. Since standardised neem pesticides are registered
1998 and commercially available the project worked out to integrated neem based pesticides
in IPM concepts for a range of vegetables and tested these concepts in the fields.
CONTACT: Blohr@icipe.org
GTZ Project: Using Neem Seeds in the Small-scale, Industrial Manufacture of
Insecticides
Time frame: June 1996 - May 1998
Short description of the project: GTZ-financed measure with ICIPE (International Centre for
Insect Physiology and Ecology) as project-executing agency and SAROC Ltd, a private
company, that manufactures biological, neem-based insecticides with selected small industries
and disseminates them on a national basis.
Key project activities: Organising collection and processing of seeds; disseminating knowledge
about its usage as a pesticide (also in cooperation with NGOs such as KIOF);
manufacture and marketing of simple insecticides.
Target group: Farmers, especially vegetable producers
The project was receiving technical, sector-specific support from the GTZ’s Pesticide Service
Project.
Literature:
FOERSTER, P., LEUPOLZ, W, QUENTIN, H. & S. PRANEETVATAKUL (2000): Economics
of Neem Processing by Small-scale Entrepreneurs in Thailand, Kenya and the
Dominican Republic - Results of an Evaluation of GTZ-assisted Projects. In: Kleeberg,
H. & P.W. Zebitz (eds): Practice oriented Results on Use and Production of Neem
Ingredients and Pheromones IX, Trifolio, Germany,
FOERSTER, P. (1999): Development Process of a Small-Scale Neem Processing Plant:
Experiences of a GTZ Project in Kenya. In: Stoll, G. (2000) Natural crop protection in
the Tropics – Let in Information come to Life, Verlag Markgraf, Weikersheim, 400
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4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
VARELA, A.M. & D. ROCCO (1998): Final <strong>report</strong> on the project „Development of a Small
Scale Industrialisation of Neem-based Insecticides in Kenya“ for the period July 1996-
June 1998.
CONTACT: drocco@icipe.org; or avarela@icipe.org; or pietfoerster@hotmail.com
Kenya Institute of Organic Farming (KIOF)
Founded: 1986
Short description: NGO in Nairobi, member of IFOAM, is working in the field of organic
farming where it is focusing in particular on appropriate technologies and integrated control
measures for pests.
Activities with neem: Dissemination of knowledge pertaining to neem's usage as a natural
pesticide (Cf. 4.1. Kenya).
Target group: Farmers, agricultural technicians, students
CONTACT: KIOF, PO Box 34972, Nairobi, Kenya, fax 254-2-583570, phone 583383
Kenyan Neem Foundation
Is creating awareness on neem in schools and community groups in Mombassa area such
as “neem festivals”.
Kwetu training centre
Based near Mombasa Kwetu TC is purchasing neem seeds from the neighbouring communities
and manufacturing simple neem pesticides. Kwetu provides basic training in using
neem seeds for plant protection and other purposes within their sustainable community development
activities.
CONTACT: Kwetu Training Centre for Sustainable Development, PO Box 86202,
Mombasa
Baobab Farm Ltd
A lot of practical experience on recultivation of quarries and in organic farming with neem is
available from Baobab Farm, some 10 km north of Mombasa.
Literature:
FOERSTER, P., LEUPOLZ, W, QUENTIN, H., PRANEETVATAKUL S. & A. VARELA (2000):
Neem Processing in developing country - an profitable venture? Case Studies from 4
countries: technical and economical description of GTZ assisted projects. GTZ
Publication. 120 pp.
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4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
PATNAIK, M. (1998): The neem Tree: For economic and effective pest control. “Foes of
Famine” – organic farming Magazine, Vol. 5, no 1. P 9+10.
QUENTIN, H. (1999): Economical evaluation of Small Scale Industrial Production of neembased
Pesticides in Kenya. Pp 105, Report on behalf of GTZ.
MADAGASCAR
The neem tree is abundant in numbers of approx. 1 million trees in the dry southern areas
near towns and in villages in the south but also in some areas in the western part and
northern part of the island.
Promotion de la Protection intégrée des Cultures et des denrées stockeés à
Madagascar (1993-1999)- Direction de la Protection des Végétaux/GTZ
This project was assisting investigations on the abundance, traditional use and potential use
of neem and Chinaberry Melia azedarach (as well as other home-made pesticides) as
pesticides on farmer level in co-operation with research institutions, extension services and
NGOs.
Students carried out trials and economical studies on the traditional use of neem, use of
neem extracts for plant protection purposes in various crops and against various pests. The
results were presented on a seminar in July 1998 and are supposed to be published in the
proceedings in 2000.
VOARISOA Project - GTZ, Helvetas
The VAORISOA project is a common project of Swiss and German Development Organisations
with the aim to address the problems in the field of applying and use of dangerous
substances in Madagascar.
VAORISOA in cooperation with “Silo National des Graines Forestieres” (SNGF) compiled an
“Inventaire des Pesticides Naturels d’origine végétale a Madagascar” which is listing neem
beside 450 other plants. In addition VAORISOA assisted NGOs which are promoting plantderived
pesticides.
INDOSUMA Ltd; Tuléar
Occasionally INDOSUMA is collecting and processing small quantities of neem oil which is
exported or used for trials e.g. against locusts. The oil is also used to protect cotton seeds
The neem activities are irregular and dependent on the demand for the products.
Literature:
KUKLINSKI, F. (2000) Test d'efficacité de l'huile de neem et du savon liquide contre les
déprédateurs-clef de la culture cotonnière pluviale. In: Zehrer, W. (ed.) Symposium national
sur les produits naturels utilisés en protection des végétaux à Madagascar. Antananarivo:
DPV/GTZ, pp. 243-257
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4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
VAORISOA & “Silo National des Graines Forestières” (SNGF) (1998): an “Inventaire des
Pesticides Naturels d’origine végétale a Madagascar”, 291 pp.
ZEHRER, W. (ed.) Symposium national sur les produits naturels utilisés en protection des
végétaux à Madagascar. Antananarivo: DPV/GTZ,
CONTACT: VOARISOA: Lot II H31 K, Ankadindramanmy, BP 869, Antananarivo 101,
Madagascar, phone 26120-2241228, e-mail: voarigtz@dts.mg
MALI
72
Dr. W. Zehrer: estelle@dts.mg
SNGF: Ambatobe BP 5091, Antananarivo 101, Madagascar,
phone 26120-2241230, fax 26120-22351-18, e-mail: slionagf@bow.dts.mg
Neem trees growing along the Senegal River, but neem is also widely abundant in villages
and towns. In total millions of neem trees are thriving in Mali and neem products such as
leaves and oil are traded locally to a small extent for medicinal and pest control purposes.
Primary Health Care in Mopti Region – GTZ
The Institute of tropical Medicine of Uni Tübingen, Germany, on behalf of a Primary Health
Care - GTZ project in Mopti region, carried out successful investigations in 1996 –1999 on
malaria vector control with neem. The promising results indicate that the mosquito species
Anopheles spp and to a certain extent Culex species can be controlled by applying 5 g neem
powder sqm water surface of brickpits, while Aedes species are less susceptible to neem. It
is planned to extend this approach and train responsible staff of the governmental health
service.
CONTACT: Andreas.vollmer@uni-tuebingen.de, Inst. of Hygiene, Wilhemstr. 31
72074 Tübingen, Dr. Grunewald
“Groupe de Recherche et d’Applications Techniques” (GRAT)
The NGO GRAT , BP 2502 Bamako, Mali fax 223-224341 Ordonnance N 4 41/PC.G intends
to process neem seeds into oil on a large scale.
Literature:
FOERSTER, P. (2000): Regional Outlook: Present Situation in Using Neem Trees in West
Africa and Sahel. 1-12 pp In: BRIMAH, A. K. (ed) (2000): Efficacy and Commercialization
of Neem Products in Ghana, Proceedings of an Opem Forum Organized by
Goethe Institut from 19 to 21. October, 1999. Woeli Publ. Services, 77 pp; ISBN 9964-
978-71-5s.
GRUNEWALD, J & A. VOLLMER (1996): Projet pilote de lutte contre les anophèles avec des
produits de neem, Report for GTZ 15. Pp.

MALAWI
4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
In the lower laying parts of the southern districts in Malawi neem tree were planted to wide
extent e.g. in the Lower Shire Valley but also along the southern lake shore. Neem is widely
distributed from the district Chikawawa to the border with Mozambique at Nsanje.
The Forestry Research Institute of Malawi (FRIM) at Zomba has carried out some studies
on neem to evaluate the use of the tree for agroforestry and afforestration programmes. The
Forestry Department had planted thousands of neem trees in afforestration programmes.
Today about 300 000 stems could be found in woodlots standing very close (1,5 x 2,5 m) but
also along the roads, as living fences and to some extent in village areas as shade trees.
Malawi-German Plant Protection Project (MGPPP-GTZ)
Timeframe: Started in 1987 with the biological control of cassava mealybug and larger
grainborer, second phase 1993 -1996 to implement IPM programme on vegetables and is
running currently the 3 phase which aims to upgrade knowledge and attitudes of extension
staff and the skills of the farmer. A minor component of the project is the promotion of neem.
Literature:
ZÉLÉDON, B. (1998): Potential use of Neem in Southern-Malawi, 38 pp. Report for GTZ.
MAURITANIA
Mauritania consists mainly of desert; only limited areas are suitable for vegetable production,
mainly around Nouakchott and along the Senegal River. The number of trees between
Boghe – Kaedi – Magata (approx. 220 km) is about 13000, according to GTZ counts. In
contrast to earlier estimations there aren’t more than 50 000 stems in Mauritania.
Amazingly for such a comparatively small country, Mauritania has also hosted two GTZ projects
with a major focus on neem. One is the supraregional project
"Integrated Biological Control of Locusts" which had a field station in Mauritania.
Time Frame: 1989 - 1999
Short description of the project: State-run TC research projects throughout Mauritania with a
view to identifying alternative control options for the desert locust.
Project objective: To control the desert locust of Schizocerca gregaria or Locusta migratoria.
with neem products and other non-synthetic pesticides (e.g. with Melia volkensii,
Metarhizium flavoniidae). The project merged with the multi donor FAO EMPRES programme
on locust control in Sahel and the Arabian penninsula
Key project activities: Field investigations; field ecology, behavioural studies, application of
test products and their evaluation; ecotoxicology
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4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
Support from ministries, universities, institutes and laboratories
The project investigations demonstrated that neem oil and commercial neem based products
can effectively control locust, hopper bands etc and reduced fitness, flight and migratory
activities of the pests. It was recommended to FAO Pesticide Referee Group to register
neem for locust control purposes.
However also the restrictions were indicated:
• insufficient quantities of commercial neem pesticides “on spot”, if locust gradations are
registered,
• the standardisation of the active ingredients of neem pesticides for locust control (obviously
also other ingredients than the main insecticidal ingredient Azadirachtin are responsible
for the effects on locusts)
• shelf life of neem based pesticides
• price of most commerical neem based pesticides
At least as long as the application of Metarhizium flavoniidae, a further promising alternative
control agent, requires further research neem should be used instead of synthetic pesticides
for prophylactic control measures.
CONTACT: http://www.gtz.de/locust/index.html
Projet lutte Integrée-GTZ
Short description: classical IPM project
Time frame: 1994 - 2000.
Activities on neem:
Traditionally no vegetables were grown in Mauritania until irrigation programmes were set up.
With the irrigation of land the farmers got the chance to cultivate vegetables. However, no
experience or expertise was traditionally available on how to achieve this. The situation for
the IPM project is typical for Sahelian countries: Mauritania is a resource-poor country,
although one of its few resources is the neem tree. This is why neem features as a major
component of the IPM project.
A further restriction is the limited market for agricultural inputs and availability of cash for
farmers for agricultural inputs. This means that any neem activity in Mauritania has to be
restricted to the “subsistence approach”, i.e. every farmer has to produce his own neem
pesticide.
The situation in Mauritania is relatively transparent since no vegetables are cropped traditionally.
Vegetable cropping has come up during the last years, when land has been irrigated
and is now used for this purposes: currently only a few (about 15) vegetable species are
cropped in Mauritania, and this is why the GTZ IPM project is concentrating on cabbage,
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4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
tomato, lettuce, carrots and curcubitacae, which are suitable for pest control with neem.
Training and advise is covering not only plant protection issues but also general cultivation of
vegetables.
In staple crops such as millet and sorghum, however, Sesamia sp. (stemborer) causes tremendous
problems. 1 g of neem applied as powder in the funnel of each plant reduced this
damage by 50 % in trials run by the IPM projects.
A set of info-leaflets on pests of vegetables and has been published by the project:
CONTACT: Service Amélioration des Ressources Végétales, Nouakchott, BP 180,
phone 257879 or
USAID:
Centre National de Recherche Agronomique et de Développement Agricole
(CNRADA), Kaédi, BP 22, phone 535378.
Forestry agents, UNDP and Peace Corps volunteers are promoting neem seedlings for
agroforestry on modest scale.
Neem activities were <strong>report</strong>ed by US volunteers from the School of Agricultural Training in
Kaedi, who replicated the classic trials of controlling DBM with neem kernels and leaf
extracts to control cabbage pests in 1992.
Traditionally: it is known that Mauritanian herders apply neem leaves to wounds on their
cattle, using traditional methods to treat cuts and infections of their animals rather than
synthetic pharmaceuticals. This practice has also been observed in the Fulani, and other
herders in Gambia, Senegal, Mali, Burkina Faso, Nigeria and Chad.
Literature:
FOERSTER, P. (2000): Regional Outlook: Present Situation in Using Neem Trees in West
Africa and Sahel. 1-12 pp In: BRIMAH, A. K. (ed) (2000): Efficacy and Commercialization
of Neem Products in Ghana, Proceedings of an Opem Forum Organized by
Goethe Institut from 19 to 21. October, 1999. Woeli Publ. Services, 77 pp; ISBN 9964-
978-71-5s.
MOUSSA, S & P. GRAF (1999): Essais de traitement contre la sesamie (Sesamia calamistis)
sur sorgho de décrue. Projet luttte integrée. Ministère du développement rural et de
l’environnement. 13 pp.
RADCLIFFE, E., OUEDRAOGO, G., PATTEN, S., RAGSDALE, D. & P. STRZOK (1996):
Neem in Niger: a new context for a system of indigenous knowledge, pp 34-70. In:
Warren, D.M, Slikerveer, J.L. & D. Brokensha (eds.): The Cultural Dimension of
Development, ITDG.
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4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
WILPS, H. & B. DIOP (1997): Field investigations on Schistocerca gregaria adults, hoppers
and hopper bands. 117-129. In: Krall, S. Peveling, R; D.Ba Diallo 1997: New
Strategies in Locust Control, Berlin: Birkhäuser. 522 pp.
MAURITIUS
Faculty of Agriculture
"Development of Botanical Pesticide for Control of Horticultural and Stored-product
Pests"
Time Frame: 1993 - 1997
Short description: Neem project by the University of Mauritius in Reduit which is concerned
with the manufacture and dissemination of a neem-based pesticide.
Activities with neem: Production of a simple, neem-based pesticide; field trials with the most
important agricultural pests; dissemination of knowledge pertaining to its usage as a pesticide;
integration of neem into other IPM programmes.
Target group: Farmers on Mauritius
Literature:
FAFOONEE, I. (1987): Use of neem in vegetable crop protection in Mauritius. In:
SCHMUTTERER, H. & K.R.S. ASCHER (1987): Natural pesticides from the neem tree
and other tropical plants,, Proceedings of the Third International Neem Conference,
Nairobi, Kenya, 10 - 15 July, GTZ No 206, 419-431 pp.
MEXICO
Neem has been brought in 1987 by private organic farmers to Mexico from the Philippines.
Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales - INIFAP,
Time frame: 1997-2002
Activities: INIFAP is investigating the adaptation of neem to Mexico’s growing conditions,
starting on a 3 ha plantation in Baja California. Country wide promotion and research
programme was set up with 15 demonstration plots covering many climatic zones of the
entire country.
About 120 000 trees were planted during the last 5 years alone in Sonora state/NW Mexico,
which produced fruits from July to December. Yields were currently 8-12 kg per tree.
76

Literature:
4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
HAKE, H.P. (1999): Experience and results on neem tree research in Baja California Sur,
Mexico. Neem Conference in Vancouver, Canada, 1999.
CONTACT: PO Box 14, Todos Santos Baja Califoniar Sur,
e-mail: hparra@lapaz.cromwell.com.mx
MOZAMBIQUE
Departamento de Sanidadae Vegetal – DSV & DANIDA
Time frame: 1995 - 1999
Short description: Neem promotion activities for small vegetable farmers; to plant neem trees
and prepare and apply neem water extracts for pest control
Key Activities with neem:
Testing neem in cotton, maize, cabbage against lepidopterous pests, aphid and large grain
borer for post harvest pest control. Involvement of NGO such as Visao Mundia, Clusa etc.
Traditionally neem is used for medicinal purposes.
Projecto de Algodao Biologico of Instituto Do algodao de Mocambique
Time frame: 1996-1998
key activities: organic cotton research, promotion and production; testing commercial Indian
neem products of unknown quality and “home-made” neem products on key pests
ABIODES
ABIODES is an NGO working on Organic Agriculture Biodiversity and Sustainable Development
and try to raise awareness on neem since 1995. In 1999 ABIODES implemented a pilot
project on dissemination of neem trees in four districts belonging to Maputo Province,
distributing more than 8 000 seedlings to 2 500 farmers.
The National Institute for Agricultural Research has conducted conducting a four year
field research program with neem, Seringa, bacteria and viruses which shows the high
potential of neem for pest control.
CONTACT: Norberto Mahalambe, ABIODES, iampab(a)zebra.uem.mz;
Norberto Mahalambe, Av. Agostinho Neto 466, 3º Andar Esquerdo,
Maputo - Mozambique
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4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
MYANMAR
Neem is also native to Myanmar (8, 19). And yet, in contrast to India, the tree is neither used
in so many ways nor so intensively in this country. Nevertheless, Myanmar is still exemplary
in its usage of neem due to the commissioning of a neem-extraction plant which was installed
in 1986 at the state’s initiative and a second, which was installed end of the nineties.
Neem pesticides are in great demand with the farmers, as other pesticides are hard to obtain
on the market and neem pesticides sold for the production price. A key reason for Myanmar’s
usage of neem stems from its scarcity of foreign exchange: in short, the less it has to spend
on expensive, synthetic pesticides the better.
Estimated 800 000 neem trees are growing in Myanamar, a further “Motherland” of neem.
"Plant Protection Project"
Time Frame: 1982 - 1993
Short description of the project: Plant protection project within the scope of TC with Myanmar
which installed a pilot plant for the manufacture of a simple, formulated, neem-based
insecticide and disseminated it throughout the country.
Project objective: To manufacture a formulated insecticide (Methanol extraction plant) and
introduce it to vegetable farmers.
Key project activities: Setting up, commissioning and adjustment of a neem-extraction plant
(alcoholic extraction of azadirachtin, the most important insecticidal neem component); field
trials, demonstrations and consultancy inputs; training of technical personnel. The plant is
processing annually about 500 t of neem seed and first steps are taken to extent the production.
The activities were back-stopped by Pesticide Service Project until 2000.
Target group: Farmers and the entire rural population
Political support by the Ministry of Agriculture and by regional and state governments.
Literature:
U AYE KO (1998): Production and Use of Neem Pesticide in Myanmar. In: National Conference
on Biopesticides with emphasis on Neem. GTZ publication 1998, p. 96-102.
NAMIBIA
Some hundred fruitbearing neem trees exist in Namibia, some are even producing seeds
although they are growing on 1200 m altitude.
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4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
Forest Awareness & Tree Planting Project of Teachers Resource Centre
Promotion and distribution of neem tree, awareness of the properties of neem.
Neem seems to be well accepted by small farmers who are planting neem trees near their
house.
Neem suffers in Namibia under the reputation be “invasive” since mistakenly Melia azedarach
(Chinaberry) instead of neem has been introduced by one initiative and planted in
numbers of roughly 1 million trees by an other project .
CONTACT: FATP-Project of Teachers Resource Centre, PO Box 3189, Oshakati
NICARAGUA
Today about 600 000 neem trees are growing in Nicaragua, mainly on plantations. Special
harvest technology (by pruning) has been developed since nor birds or bats are depulping
the fruit. During the time of “revolution” in the 80ies, the plantations were mainly managed by
cooperatives, today often by private landowners.
"COPINIM, Proyecto Nim"
(COPINIM, Neem Project)
Founded: 1990
Short description: COPINIM is a NGO which is working as a cooperative on the development
and dissemination of neem insecticides. It developed from a former project run by the
Ministry of Agriculture (1987-1990) that focused on the promotion of neem usage and the
dissemination of neem-related know-how.
Activities with neem: Development of simple technologies with which to manufacture neembased
pesticides (formulated neem oil, neem extracts and neem cake(); rearing of neem
trees for afforestation purposes; training in the correct harvesting and processing of neem
seeds.
Target group: Rural population
Support from Swedish and German organisations
CONTACT: COPINIM, Proyecto Nim, CIEETS, Apartado 082, Managua, Nicaragua
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4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
Investigaciones Orgánicas SA - IOSA
Time frame: Neem activities since 1999
Activities: Commercial neem investment and processing; buying neem seeds, drying and
processing; production of grinded neem seeds, crude neem oil for timber protection and post
harvest control of pest, formulated neem oil, neem cake.
Registered and available in the market are milled neem seeds, oil cake and formulated
Neem oil, while ethanolextracts of neem is about to receive registration.
CONTACT: Managua, Carr Nueva a León, km 13,5, Investigaciones Orgánicas S.A.,
Managua, Tel: 505 269 9643, Fax: 505 269 9394
Further activities on neem: Uni León is producing neem extracts on request.
A chemist, called Freddy Soza, is manufacturing and selling a non registered product called
“Organ Nim”, based on grinded neem seeds and an alcoholic extract. Other neem pesticides
are registered in Nicaragua.
Literature:
GRUBER, K. (1996): Management of Neem plantations and development of neem based
insecticides in Nicaragua, Proceed. of the Intern. Neem Conference in Brisbane,
Australia 1996;
LEUPOLZ, W. (2000): Kleinindustrielle Herstellung von Nimpflanzenschutzmitteln in der
Dom. Republik and Nicaragua. Report on behalf of GTZ, 79 pp.
MANDELLAUB, B. (1992): Introduction of Neem as a simple and efficient method of Pest-
Control for the Nicaraguan Farmers. In: Practice Oriented Results on Use and Production
of Neem Ingredients. Proceed. of the 1 st Trifolio Workshop, Germany. 53-57p
NIGER
There are today about 2.5 million neem trees in Niger, half of them in towns and villages,
with an average production of 20 kg of fruit per tree; the others are growing in plantations
often planted for timber production. As in many countries of the Sahel, neem growes as a
shade tree near housing areas, and is one of the most common trees in the southern
provinces of Niger. Grazing goats and aridness prevent the tree from self-seeding in these
regions. In and around the capital Niamey about 280 000 trees could be found; other
provinces where neem is common are Tahoua, Maradi and Zinder, 150 km north of Niamey
only single neem trees could be found.
GREEN BELT- Project/CARE
Planting of 93 000 neem trees took place in the “Green Belt” around Niamey and the Maggia
valley near Tahoua (central Niger) for erosion control, where the trees were planted 5 x 5 m
but produced very few seeds.
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AFGRO- Uni Minnesota/USAID
Time frame: 1987-1988
4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
In response to the second drought in 1983-1985, NGO “Agency to Facilitate the Growth of
Rural Organisations” – AFGRO investigated (with the assistance of University of Minnesota
and USAID) the efficacy of neem against locusts on vegetables and sorghum in the Sahelian
environment. The approach was interesting because socio-economic investigations were
accompanied by technical backstopping of students from the University of Minnesota. The
concept that “every farmer should grow and produce his own pesticide” was investigated.
Direction de Protection des Végétaux
Based on the experience of AFGRO in the 1980s, the Direction de Protection des Végétaux
implemented micro (small)-scale production of neem oil processing and neem powder production
among farmers to protect stored food (beans).
Neem (forestry) Project
Following the AFGRO study, a “Neem (forestry) project” was carried out in 1989 - 1990 assisted
by the Netherlands, with the aim of assessing the potential of different areas for neem
production and for processing neem in Niger on a large scale. The investigations included
such topics as the relationship between stem diameter and quantity of fruits produced per
tree.
Plant Protection Project GTZ
Time frame: 1988-1991
Key activities with neem: The use of neem in Niger as home-made extracts was promoted
and comprehensively investigated as part of this project with assistance of the supraregional
neem project. The pesticidal effects of neem kernel water extracts (NKWE) and
water extracts from neem leaves on the major pests of vegetables (tomato, cowpea and
amaranth) in Niger were tested in field trials. In addition a questionnaire and other
investigations into the labour required to produce the NKWE were carried out, and some of
the few economical analysis on this form of plant protection were performed by this project.
The studies clearly showed that the labour required for harvesting, collecting, preparing and
storing seeds makes up 66-87% of the costs of preparing the NKWE.
AGRHYMET/Pesticide Service Project
In 1997 the Pesticide Service Project, in co-operation with Agrhymet, held a seminar on
plants with insecticidal properties (Baumgard 1996). It covered not only neem’s potential for
plant protection, but also other promising local plants.
GTZ assisted to produce a book based on this seminar in co-operation with Agrhymet to be
published in French and distributed by CTA.
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4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
Institut nationale de Recherches Agronomiques du Niger
INRAN/ PROBIOPEC
Time frame: 1999-2001
Key activity on neem: Since some years INRAN is working on natural pesticides such as
Sesbania and neem.
INRAN had worked out the production of neem pesticides (based on neem oil, alcoholic
extracts on laboratory scale). In 1999 the PROBIOPEC project in cooperation with an NGO,
private entrepreneur and TC agencies was said to be set up with the aim to set up a
production plant which would produce and sell 500-1000 biopesticides annually for half- ¼ of
the price for comparable synthetic pesticides.
Literature:
BAUMGART, M. (1996): L’Utilisation des Plantes et Extraits de Plantes dans la Protection
des Cultures et des Recoltes, <strong>report</strong> available from GTZ, 60 pp.
FOERSTER, P. (2000): Regional Outlook: Present Situation in Using Neem Trees in West
Africa and Sahel. 1-12 pp In: BRIMAH, A. K. (ed) (2000): Efficacy and Commercialization
of Neem Products in Ghana, Proceedings of an Opem Forum Organized by
Goethe Institut from 19 to 21. October, 1999. Woeli Publ. Services, 77 pp; ISBN 9964-
978-71-5s.
OSTERMANN, H. (1992): Zur Wirkung und Anwendung einfacher Niemprodukte gegen
Schädlinge in kleinbäulerichen Tomaten-, Vignabohnen- und Amaranthkulturen im
Niger. (summary in French) 181 pp.
OSTERMANN, H. 1992: L'utilisation du Neem pour lutter contre les insectes nuisibles de
l'amaranthe; SAHEL PV-Info N o 40 ;
OSTERMANN, H. 1993: Zur Wirtschaftlichkeit der Nutzung von Niemprodukten im Gemüseanbau
Nigers, Der Tropenlandwirt 94 ;
NIGERIA
Research has been carried out at the local universities and agricultural training schools with
crude neem extracts and neem cake. Obviously the knowledge on neem as a pesticide is
also part of the curriculum for agricultural extension trainers.
Considerable amounts of dry neem seeds have been exported from Nigeria to Australia and
Europe for about 0.12 US$/kg.
Federal University of Technology – Akure
This University studies has been conducted to integrate neem into IPM concepts on cowpea.
Also Ekiti State Agriculture Development Programme is working on neem.
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PAKISTAN
4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
Millions of neem trees are growing in Pakistan and can be found nearly in every village and
town.
STEDEC – Techology Commmericalization Corporation of Pakistan Ltd.
Time frame: starting in 1995
Activities: STEDEC is a government owned consortium under Pakistan Agriculture Research
Council (PARC) which started to buy neem seeds, produce and sell neem based pesticides
of unknown quality partly mixed with other insecticides. It is however not sure if the company
continued to produce the pesticides.
CONTACT: Stedec House, Adj Aiwan –e science building, Ferozepur road, Lahore 54600,
fax 042-571 2577, e-mail: stedec@paknet1. Pct.pk
Research and Development Engineers-RADE
Time frame: started in 1996
Key activities with neem: RADE is planting neem on several hectares in plantations for commercial
purposes. In addition activities on awareness and promotion of neem for sustainable
agriculture usage mainly in fruit and vegetable production are carried out.
RADE have interesting experiences and <strong>report</strong>s that neem is better growing when interplanted
with Jaman Tree (Syzium cummini). RADE intends to process neem to commercial
neem pesticides.
CONTACT: RADE, 54-D, 9, Clifton , Karachi 75600 – fax: 009221-5830826
PANAMA
The GTZ project “Advisory on Plant Protection”
Time frame: 1991 – 1999 ,Key activities on neem: are promotion and distribution of neem
trees and assistance in research on i.e. whiteflies.
Literature
Kleemann, R (1996): Estudio de sustancias activas que trastornan el comportanmiento de la
mosca blanca Bemisia tabaci en el cultivo de tomato. Uni Weihenstephan & GTZ 43 pp
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
National Agriculture Research Stations – Depart. of Agriculture
Time frame: 1992 - 1995
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4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
Key activities on neem: The NARS in Laloki (Port Moresby), Lowland Agricultural Experimental
Station in East New Britain and Bubia (near Lae) were conducting on station and on
farm trials with neem extracts and commercial neem based pesticides mainly on vegetables
and maize. Awareness seminars took place and the application of neem were promoted
among farmers. The activities where partly assisted by GTZ and German Development
Service.
Some thousand neem trees where planted in East New Britain and single trees disseminated
to the islands such as Lihir, New Ireland and Manus. A forestry researcher, based in Bubia
NARS, investigated the use of neem for re-afforestration.
PERU
Peru: Red de Acción en Alternativas al Uso de Agroquímicos
The NGO RAAA is promoting non synthetic pesticides including the use of commercial neem
products within sustainable agriculture.
CONTACT: RAAA rapalpe@terra.com.pe, /Lima, Luis Gomero
PHILIPPINES
Philippine-German Biocontrol GTZ Project
Neem Initiative of the "Bureau of Plant Industry"
Founded: 1989- 1996 (CIM assisted until 1999)
Short description: The governmental "Bureau of Plant Industry" in the Ministry of Agriculture,
Manila, was working on the dissemination of appropriate agricultural technologies in cooperation
with the regional substations and extension services.
Activities with neem: Planting and dissemination of the neem tree for afforestation and as a
shade tree; use of seeds as biological pesticide. Some research were carried out to screen
neem extracts and neem products mainly against cabbage, tomato and maize pests. Due to
the fact that hurricanes are frequently devastating the Philippines, the islands are not
considered as suitable for extended neem promotion programmes, although the tree thrives
well under the given weather conditions e.g. in Cebu island. Several leaflets and scientific
publications were produced by the project.
Target group: Farmers, extensionists, cooperatives, NGOs
Literature:
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY: Neem Production and Potential, Flyer 12 pp.
POEHLING, A.(1992) Die Kohlmotte Plutella xylostella in Nordluzon (Philippinen) – Ansätze
zu ihrer integrierten und biologischen Bekämpfung. Thesis 156 pp, Uni Giessen.
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4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
STOLL, G. (1996): Wirksamkeit von pflanzlichen Substanzen in der intgrierten Bekämpfung
von Plutella xylostella auf den Philippinen, In: PLITS 14, 1. 188 p.
SAUDI ARABIA
A huge plantation of some million neem trees for the purpose of gaining shade has been set
up near Mecca.
In addition commercial neem products mainly imported from USA are applied to a
considerable extent on vegetables in Saudi Arabia during the last years.
SENEGAL
Approximately 6 million neem trees are growing in Senegal e.g. along the Senegal river,
Kiffa, Ayoun, Nema and Selibay. They are building the base for the quite advanced stage in
neem processing on commercial as well as on NGO level.
Forestry Department/FAO
As part of the FAO assisted Neem Forestry Network (see 4.1) one of the largest research
programme in this field beside India has been carried out in Senegal, having planted a wide
number of neem trees from different origins.
"FID, Fondation Internationale pour le Développement"
(International Development Foundation)
Founded: 1976
Short description: NGO operation in the region around Louga, its focus being on the dissemination
of integrated, biological control measures in the field of agriculture and in the
dissemination of appropriate agricultural technologies.
Activities with neem: Pressing of neem oil from neem seeds; manufacture of soaps from
neem oil; usage as a pesticide. FID has gained a lot of expertise in running 10 days or so
training courses on neem processing as a village “industry” in rural areas of Africa. The
courses include the construction of simple hand driven (neem) oil presses, soap manufacturing
and the application of neem for agricultural purposes.
Target group: Rural population and women's cooperatives involved in soap production.
Support from the micro-project fund run by GATE/ISAT, GTZ (financial and technical support).
CONTACT: BP 305 Louga, Sénégal, phone 221-671018, fax 221-672143
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4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
SENCHIM- Group des Industries Chimiques du Sénégal
SENCHIM is a commercial, large scale agriculture input supplier for west African countries.
Key activities on Neem: SENCHIM set up a neem processing plant of several hundred tons
capacity for neem seed processing and are producing and selling formulated oil, EC
formulations of alcoholic extract since 1998. Trials and demonstration fields were set up to
test and demonstrate the efficacy of the products to the farmers.
Main target crops were cotton and vegetables.
CONTACT: KM 13, Route de Rufisque, BP 21236 Dakar Ponty, fax 221- 8340390,
e-mail: senchimf2@ns.arc.sn
SRI LANKA
About 1 million neem trees, a lot of them growing “wild”, are forming the base of neem use in
Sri Lanka. Similar to India neem is traditionally used in various fields, mainly as a medicine
for human beings but als for animals, even the flowers are used for perfume. Despite the
wide abundance of the tree and the awareness for its medicinal properties its application as
a pesticide is not very common, but have received massive governmental assistance in recent
years.
Department of Agriculture- Horticultural Crop research / Develop. Institute
In depth investigations by Dr. Kudagamage including a economical evaluations of neem
water extracts for controlling pests of vegetables revealed that neem is compatible with
commercial pesticides.
The use of neem for pest control has been promoted by TV spots and via the governmental
extension services as well as on demonstration plots.
Uni Peradeniya
The Forestry Institute of the famous University of Peradeniya (near Kandy) is part of the FAO
Forestry network and is conducting research on forestry aspects of neem. Results are
published by GUNASENA & MARAMBE (1998) (see below).
Ceylon Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research – CISIR
Basic analytical research on neem extracts has been carried out at CISIR. Alcoholic neem
extracts for pest control have been also produced for a private vegetables growing and exporting
entrepreneurs on request.
AZALAN Chemical Industries
444/1 Pitakotte, Kotte
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4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
Since end of 1998 Azalan is producing neem extract powder sold in 2 g units for 80 Rps for
controlling pests of vegetables, fruits and ornamental flowers.
Tea Research Institute
Forced by the increasing awareness on pesticide residues on tea leaves the TRI is carrying
out systematic research, to what extent neem extracts or neem cake can substitute synthetic
pesticides. It is however found in Indian studies that neem pesticides frequently applied
reduce the leaf area of tea. Neem leaves applied in several kg per plant are used to control
nematodes.
"Gami Seva Sevana" - GSS
Short description: The NGO "Gami Seva Sevana", member of IFOAM, is working in the field
of organic farming and other social development measures in the region around Galaha. One
areas among others is the use of neem as a pesticide, fertiliser and for animal care but also
the use of neem for soaps, cosmetics and medicine.
The NGO has an oil press for demonstration to process neem seeds into oil. GSS trained
small farmers in how to process and apply neem as a insecticide on home made level.
GSS was assisted by the former “Neem project” and GATE project of GTZ.
CARE
As integral part of is Integrated Pest Management programme (1996 - 2000) the Sri Lancan
wing of the US based NGO Care was promoting neem water extract in vegetables.
UNIDO/GTZ
In cooperation with the Pesticide Service Project UNIDO has carried out a fact finding study
on neem in Sri Lanka in 1998. The study identified potentials and constraints to establish a
neem processing industry in Sri Lanka. The study include a two days workshop in
Peradeniya and Colombo.
Literature:
FOERSTER; P. (1998): Mission Report on a Fact-Finding Study on Neem in, 23 pp.
GANESALINGAM, V. K. (1987): Use of the neem plant in Sri Lanka at the farmer’s level, In:
Natural pesticides from the neem tree and other tropical plants, H. SCHMUTTERER
and K.R.S. ASCHER, Proceedings of the Third International Neem Conference,
Nairobi, Kenya, 10 - 15 July, published by German Agency for Technical Co-operation
(GTZ), Eschborn 1987, 703 pp, available from GTZ, p 95-103
GUNASENA, H.P. M. &. MARAMBE, B (1998: Monograph): Neem in Sri Lanka, pp. 62,
A Publication of The Uni of Peradeniya & Oxford Forestry Institute, Forestry Research
Link.
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4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
SUDAN
It is <strong>report</strong>ed that Prof. Schmutterer first noticed in 1959 the insecticidal properties of neem
during an invasion of locust in a desert of Sudan, where he consequently started his investigations.
Millions of neem trees provided a good base for this kind of work which was
later continued by Prof. Siddig and his team.
Agricultural Research Cooperation – ARC & National Centre for Research - NRC
In the late 60s the ARC started to carry out basic research with crude neem water extracts
against vegetable pests. This research formed the base for a national country wide programme
started in the late eighties and ending in 1996. Today sporadic research studies of
Universities such as the one from Khartoum, Gezira and Kudufan is carried out.
Main target pest are okra, tomato, egg plant, cucumber and potato, where neem is applied
as an integral part of the IPM concept.
ARC is currently investigating the insecticidal properties of neem leaves of different vegetative
growth stage and neem leave powder to control the parasitic weed Orobanche ramosa.
NRC and the Environmental and Natural Resources Research Institute (ENRRI) have implemented
a research programme to provide farmers with stable commercial and readily
available natural pesticides from neem which is fitting into IPM concepts. The programme
include testing of products in the field on vegetables and cotton, improving extraction procedures
with HPLC and TLC, improve formulations to stabilize and improve shelf life of the
product. In addition synergistic effects if mixed with synthetic pesticides are investigated.
Some research on the use of neem cake as fertilizer or for cattle feed complete the scenario.
Gezira University
At Gezira University silvicultural aspects of neem are investigated such as the effect of
ecological factors on the growth and development of neem and the chemically defined constituents.
Sudanese-German IPM GTZ-Project
The project activities comprised of research in the field of fruit and vegetable production,
awareness campaign and training of extensionists and small farmer in Khartoum State.
Similar were the activities of CARE international in West Sudan and FAO/ARC which include
neem water extracts in the Farmers Field School approach carried our in Khartoum
State.
The NARMAP – GTZ project promoted the planting of neem tree as a income generation
activity in its rural development programme.
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SURINAM
4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
Neem is used in Surinam for recultivation after mining on laterit soil since a few years.
Awareness on the potentials of neem are carried out by Dr. Van de Lande, working for the
local university.
CONTACT: Dr. v. d. Lande, c/o Limesgracht 95-97, Paramiribo, e-mail: hvdlande(@)sr.net
TANZANIA
"SECAP, Soil Erosion Control/Agroforestry Project“
Time Frame: 1981 - 2000
Short description of the project: Project within the scope of TC with Tanzania that is working
in the fields of erosion protection, reafforestation and fruit and vegetable cropping in the
Lushoto region.
Activities with neem: Dissemination of neem’s usage as a non-synthetic pesticide in vegetable
growing; planting of trees; demonstrations
Target group: Farmers, in particular vegetable producers
Urban Agriculture Project - GTZ
As part of general training on urban agriculture, the potential of the many neem trees growing
in towns is promoted by the UA project. This comprised training and providing of information
and technical brochures. The GTZ brochure “Neem- a natural insecticide” is translated in
Kiswhaheli and available in printed form by the UA project.
Nice Botanical Pharmacy – Association for Rural Development Promotion ARDEP
The NGO ARDEP is active in creating awareness of neem uses through seminars and mass
media. They are training young farmers, schools and the Livestock Training Institute in
Tanga. ARDEP is conducting trials to control pests and fungi on cashew, tomato, coffee and
other horticultural crops. Additionally ARDEP is trading with neem seeds and manufacturing
candles, soaps and mosquito repellent made of neem oil.
CONTACT: ARDEP, PO Box 814, Tanga,
Technotan
The NGO Technotan is promoting neem within sustainable agriculture training. Technotan is
processing neem seeds into oil and cake and conducting awareness seminars.
Research on the properties of neem derived extracts are also carried out by the University
of Dar es Salaam.
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4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
INADES Formation – Misereor
Inades carried out two work-shops on natural crop protection in 1996 and 1998 for
representatives from east African countries (Uganda, Kenya, Sambia, Tanzania) with
assistance of the German church NGO Misereor.
The participants of the workshop provided a number of recipes on (local) plants with insecticidal
properties and agreed to screen in their working area.
CONTACT: Inades Formation , PO Box 203, Dodoma, Tanzania
Further initiatives:
In Kikatitti, between Arusha and Moshi, exist a Japanese tree planting project which is
promoting the use of neem for medicinal but also for agricultural purposes.
Literature:
INADES (1996): Natural Crop Protection- Workshop Report, 43 pp
INADES (1998): Natural Crop Protection- Follow-up Workshop Report, 53 pp
THAILAND
In Thailand a native neem-tree species, the "Thai-neem" as it is known (Azadirachta siamensis),
is found in large numbers throughout the country (19). The disadvantages of this
species are the lower concentration of insecticidal agents and the fact that the pulp is very
difficult to separate from the seeds. Nevertheless, both the state and the private sector have,
over the past few years, being trying hard to disseminate its usage as a pesticide. However,
these efforts not only focus on the native "Thai-neem", but also on the Indian neem tree
Azadirachta indica" The requisite raw materials have to date been to a certain part imported
from India or Myanmar (seeds, oil, press cakes). The main reason for these initiatives is the
export of agricultural produce to Europe and the USA which are not permitted to contain any
chemical pesticide residues.
The government of Thailand via "Department of Agriculture, Division of Agricultural Toxic
Substances" in the Ministry of Agriculture in Bangkok and several Universities carried out a
number of scientific trials and socio-economic investigations among others with assistance of
American universities on the use of neem.
Neem-Initiative by the "Department of Agriculture"
Time frame: 1994-1999
Short description: Thailand via "Department of Agriculture, Division of Agricultural Toxic
Substances" in the Ministry of Agriculture in Bangkok is in the process of setting up a pilot
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4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
plant for the manufacturing and formulation of alcoholic neem extracts as a neem insecticides.
Key activities on neem: setting up a pilot neem processing plant of 10 t ready-to-use pesticide
in 1997, assistance of small scale entrepreneurs in quality control and product development,
analytical research on the active ingredients of Thai neem Azadirachta simamensis.
Trials on drying neem seeds and oil pressing (heat). Assistance by an Integrated German
Expert (CIM).
Target group: Small enterprises which install the extraction plant and which intend to produce
biological pesticides for the domestic market; farmers.
The general policy of DoA is to enhance the use of residue poor, non-synthetic pesticides
and to exploit local potential of neem and Thai neem. Agricultural extension workers are
buying neem seeds and neem raw material on one side and and are also supplying commercial
neem based products to the farmers on the other. DoA is broadcasting TV spots on
the use of neem for plant protection.
Also the Entomology Section of the DoA is conducting research with neem.
"Natural Plants"
Founded: 1990
Short description: Small-scale enterprise in Nonthaburi is currently working on the development
of alcoholic neem extracts for use as animal-care products, e.g. dog shampoos. The
pet shampoo is selling good in Bangkok of 1,60 US$ / 350 ml.
The project was receiving financial and technical support from the GTZ project "Production of
Natural Insecticides".
Afforestation Projects:
A private entrepreneur and the Forestry Department planted more than 300 000 neem trees
of A. siamensis on 250 ha in north east Thailand. A. siamensis is less suitable for plant protection
purposes than A. indica due to lower Azadirachtin A but higher chlorophyll content,
which makes it more difficult to dry the neem seeds.
Traditionally crude water extracts of the neemfruits are applied, which contain no Azadirachtin
but are still effective.
Neem Products Company Ltd
Founded: in 1994
Activities: buying, drying and processing of neem seeds to neem based pesticides such as
“Sadao 111”, an alcoholic, ready-to-use formulated extract
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4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
“Sadao 222”, a neem cake pellet, used as fertilizer and nematicide
“Neem A” ready-to-use formulated neem oil based pesticide
and others such as neem powder an cake. The plant has a capacity of 50 tons neem extract/
year and 5 tons neem oil. The quality and the Azadirachtin content of the products are
checked by by the independent DoA.
CONTACT: Thai Neem Products Co. Ltd., Kun Chatri Jampa-Ngern; 126/2 M 3
Suphanburi-Angtong Rd; T. Wangyang, A. Sriprachan; Suphanburi 72140,
Thailand;
phone: 66-35-523019, Fax 66-35-523019
Rangsit Settakit Kann Kaset Company
This company is producing the product “Avantage” claiming to have 0,1 % Azadirachtin
which however is not proved from any independent authority. An other product containing
neem but also other herbs such as lemon grass and galangalis is “NeemBond-A”. The plant
is processing 200 t neem fruit and 20 tons neem seed annually.
CONTACT: Rangsit Agri-Economic LTD., Part., Kun Anop Tansakul; 265/54 Rangsit-
Pathumthani Road; Amphur Thanyabuir, Pathumthani 12110, Thailand,
phone: 531-0549, 531-10662, Fax: 533-9166.
Suhphan Buri Province, Central Plains: Neem project
Time frame: 1987-1988, and 1994
Activities: Farmers training of preparing and applying home-made neem products, socioeconomic
analysis of the sustainability of the project six years later.
At the end of the training period 65% of the farmers had adopted the new technology, six
years later it was found that 44% of the farmers still applied the technology. The reason for
acceptance and non acceptance were analysed. One of the mayor constraints were the
accessibility to the raw material neem and the easy access to and good service for synthetic
pesticides.
Literature:
ERMEL, K., CHIRATHAMJAREE, C., SANGWANICH, A. (1997), Processing of Thai Neem
(Azadirachta siamensis Valeton) and the Quality Problem, in: RODCHAROEN, J.,
WONGSIRI, S., MULLA, M. S., (eds.), Biopesticides: Toxicity, Safety, Development
and Proper Use, Proceedings First International Symposium on Biopesticides, October
27- 31, 1996, Phitsanulok, Thailand, Chulalongkorn University Press, Bangkok,
Thailand, pp. 171-184.
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4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
LEUPOLZ, W. (1996): Sozioökonomische Einflußfaktoren bei der Einführung von biolgischbio-technischen
Pflanzenschutzverfahren in bäuerlichen Betrieben – eine international
vergleichende Untersuchung am Beispiel der Produktion, Verarbeitung und Anwendung
von Niemextrakten in Ländern der dritten Welt. Diss. Uni. Hamburg, pp 199.
PRANEETVATKUL et al. (1999): Economics of small scale Industrial Production of neembased
Pesticides in Thailand. Report on behalf of GTZ, 77 p.
SOMBATSIRI, K., ERMEL, K., SCHMUTTERER, H. (1995), The Thai neem tree Azadirachta
siamensis (Valeton), In: SCHMUTTERER, H. (ed.), The neem tree Azadirachta indica
A. Juss and Other Meliaceous Plants - Source of unique products for pest management
and other purposes -, VCH Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Weinheim, Germany,
pp. 585- 597.
SCHMUTTERER, H., ERMEL, K., (1995), The Sentang or Marrango tree: Azadirachta
excelsa (Jack); In: SCHMUTTERER, H. (ed.), The neem tree Azadirachta indica A.
Juss and Other Meliaceous Plants - Source of unique products for pest management
and other purposes -, VCH Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Weinheim, Germany, pp. 598-
604.
TOGO
GTZ – IPM Project
Time frame: 1979-1985
Key activities on neem: This project included the first in-depth investigations of crude water
extracts of neem seeds on pests of vegetables.
Trials were carried out in eggplant, gboma (Solanum aethiopicum), okra, brassicas, curcurbitacae,
cowpea and against Sesamia stemborer in maize. This trials and results have come
to be regarded as "classic". The techniques of applying neem extracts have been promoted
by the national Togolese plant protection service among small farmers; it has also produced
some leaflets on the application of neem oil for the preservation of beans, and neem extracts
on cabbage and gboma.
Although the effects of neem have been known in Togo now for nearly 20 years, there are
only a few NGOs and entrepreneurs promoting and processing neem into half-finished
products such as oil, cake and powder.
"Groupe d'Action pour la Protection de l'Environnement et des Cultures" - GAPEC
Basic simple products are offered by GAPEC in Kpalimé, founded in 1996. GAPEC is promoting
planting of neem trees and processing of neem seeds by informing farmers about the
efficacy of neem products and training them. GAPEC is producing neem powder and neem
oil on a small scale - which they sell to farmers. They process approx. 6 t neem seeds per
year. GAPEC also assists other (women’s) NGOs in establishing similar activities.
CONTACT: gapecda(a)hotmail.com
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4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
Literature:
DREYER, M. (1984):Untersuchungen zur Wirksamkeit von Wasserextrakten und anderen
Produkten aus Niemsamen gegen Schädlinge ab Gemüse- und Feldkulturen in Togo.
Thesis, University of Giessen, 138 pp.
MAERZ, U. (1989): The Economics of Neem Production and its Use in Pest Control. Wissenschaftsverlag
Vauk, Farming systems and resource economics in the tropics. Vol 5.
Pp153.
UGANDA
In contrast to the neighbouring countries neem trees are not that much abundant in Uganda
than in other east African states although a lot of awareness activities were going on during
the last years. Therefore it is not amazing that the focus lies on neem treeplanting and
awareness activities.
Neem Project by the "Department of Agriculture"
Founded: 1995
Short description: Project being operated by the GO "Department of Agriculture" in Uganda.
Its key focus is on appropriate technology in agriculture and on the dissemination of neem.
Activities with neem: Dissemination of knowledge pertaining to the planting and usage of
neem trees, stock protection, and its usage in veterinary and human medicine.
Target group: Farmers and rural population
There exist a wide scene of NGOs involved in neem promotion, one is
ACORD
Representatives of ACORD are trained by the Kenya based “Neem Awareness Project”,
ICIPE, and are mainly promoting neem planting and conducting further awareness seminars.
Tree planting is promoted and recommended by the members of the NGO network Soroti
District Association of NGO’s Network – SODANN and especially by its member SOFEMA,
working on organic farming. It is estimated that some 20 000 mature neem trees are growing
in Saroti and Katakwi Districts.
Uganda Neem Movement - UGANEEM
is promoting the neem tree and tries to attract awareness for the tree also on decision maker
level.
The Uganda Environmental Protection Forum promote neem use in newsletters and info
leaflets and carry out awareness workshops as Uganda Neem Movement – UGANEEM to.
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4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
“In Touch With Environment and Development Sustainance” - ITWEDS is a further NGO
working with neem as an integral part of integrated crop management - ICM training.
CONTACT: UGANEEM PO Box 4670, Kampala, Plot 110 Uma Show Ground Lugogo
fax 256-41-220285, phone 220568
USA
When the first neemproducts received registration in the US in 1986, it was the first time that
neem pesticides were registered in an industrialised country. Since then a range of countries
followed in their registration policies (acknowledgement of “bio-rationals” pesticides) that of
USA (e.g. Israel, many Central American countries etc) this could be regarded as the “break
through” for neem products.
In many other industrialized countries, especially in the EU and Canada, the hurdles for
registration of neem based pesticides are still very high and the investigations to provide f.
ex. the required toxicological and environmental fate data are still immense.
Since the first companies came into the market the neem manufacturing branches has been
sold several times. Today Thermo Triology Ltd owns several patents of former US neem
products (e.g. “Margosan”) and is offering packages of bio-pesticides mainly for problem
crops such as vegetables in green houses. Main areas of investigation is the improvement of
shelf-live and UV stability aiming to increase the efficacy of the products and the use of neem
as a fungicide.
The raw material is provided by the Indian joint-venture partner PJ.MARGO Ltd (see: India).
AMVAC has received registration for neem products in USA in 1999 and is offering neem
based pesticides of its partner FORTUNE BIOTECH, India.
VENEZUELA
Neem Initiative by the Cooperative "El Buchal"
Founded: 1992
Short description: The NGO "Cooperativa mixta El Buchal" is using ecologically-oriented
methods to control the ongoing erosion and desertification process in the region and is
making increasingly greater use of the neem tree and its many and varied uses for this purpose.
Activities with neem: Planting and dissemination of the neem tree with a view to recovering
eroded soils; use of the leaves and seeds as natural pesticides; shade trees and forest
cropping.
Target group: Village-level and rural population of Dabajuros and El Buchal
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4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
Financial and technical support from the German "Friedrich-Naumann Foundation" and political
support by the local government.
VIETNAM
Research and promotion of alternative pesticides received strong backing by the governmental
research and extension institutions e.g. National Institute for Plant Protection - NIPP
and the German Church based NGO “Bread for the World”. This included also the growing of
neem in Vietnam. Some attempts to grow the neem in Vietnam clearly showed that the
climatic conditions in the northern and southern part of the country are unsuitable: either too
cold as in the north or too humid as in the south. The tree can survive in the north but is not
producing fruits. Moreover the country is frequently hit by hurricanes which neem hardly can
withstand. The only suitable region would be the dry areas near Phan Nang where some
smaller plantations are said to exist already. Attempts to grow neem are made in An Giang
province of the South, in Ninh Thuan province of the Centre in Ha Tay province in the North.
In addition some research has been carried out at the University of Hanoi with commercial
neem pesticides.
The GTZ Project Promotion of Agriculture in Tam Lam is promoting the use of neem in
Vietnam.
Zambia
Some 15 000 neem trees are growing along the lakeshores and in the Zambesi Valley, either
planted as shade trees in colonial times or systematically by
Zambian –German Lake Kariba Small Scale Fisheries Development Project
Time frame: 1987-1996
Key activities on neem: implementation of neem nurseries as income generating measures,
distribution, planting of neem trees and awareness campaigns. Investigating neem for fish
preservation to offer an alternative for the (mis-)used pesticides and for charcoal production.
Is was recommended to use neem charcoal to smoke the fish and put neem leaves between
the dried fish.
The experiences of the project also concerning neem are summarised in LOSSE (see
below).
In addition the Tropical Disease Research Centre, PO Box 71769 Ndola, Zambia has carried
out some awareness work on neem.
Literature:
LOSSE, G. (1998): The Small-Scale Fishery on Lake Kariba in Zambia, GTZ publ. 265
96

4. NEEM IN DEVELOPMENT-COOPERATION PROJECTS
The following table shows data on the quality of the natural resource neem seed, indicating
the azadirachtin content as known to GTZ:
Table 4.1 Azadirachtin content of neem kernel in samples from different origins:
Country Azadirachtin (mg/g)
Gambia 2.98
Ghana 6.2-6.9
Accra 5, 34
Brong Ahafo Region 4, 19
Northern 4,87
Guinea-Bissau 2.4
Kenya 6.81-8.8
Madagascar 2.2-4.4
Mali 2.05
Mauritania 5.4
Mozambique 2.8-4.83
Niger 3.40
Senegal 3.30-9.0
Sudan 2.53
Togo 5.40
Zanzibar 4.80
St. Lucia 2,9
Thailand 5.20
India 5.14
Dom. Republic 3.43
Ecuador 3.99
97

5. PROSPECTS AND POSSIBILITIES FOR FUTURE NEEM USAGE
5. Prospects and Possibilities for Future Neem Usage
Even though it is not possible to state concretely the extent to which neem is used throughout
the world, this plant’s potential is more than evident.
Some countries are on the way to harnessing this potential for a broad section of the population,
neem’s usage as a natural pesticide is one of the key examples of this. On the other
hand it is however clear that neem is still underexploited e.g. even in India only approx. 30%
of the neem seeds are harvest.
After periods of cautious attempts at testing and integrating neem trials into projects of technical
cooperation in the 1970s and a period of comprehensive research in the 1980s, GTZ
started in the 1990s to work out practice-related concepts to exploit the potential of neem
trees in development countries.
While forestry, health, rural development and fishery sections of GTZ had different sideactivities
on neem, the section “plant protection and storage” developed concepts to make
use of neem most consistently.
In the early stages the most popular strategy was that small farmers or farmers' associations
should produce their own pesticides. Simple techniques were worked out to promote this
strategy. Evaluations such as those of MAERZ (11), LEUPOLZ (10) MOSER (1996), and
NAIK et al. (38) demonstrate the constraints on these concepts. Experience from
governmental extension services and NGOs e.g. in Sri Lanka, Chad, Thailand and elsewhere
in the tropics shows that 2-45% (35, 42) of the farmers who have access to neem and know
how to prepare and use neem extracts see neem as a viable alternative to synthetic pesticides
(14, 43, own data). This is also the case in countries with low labour costs where neem
extracts are economically more viable than synthetic pesticides, such as in Sri Lanka and
Madagascar (KUDAGAMAGE 1998, RAKOTOARIVONY 1998, both presentations on
seminars).
The majority of farmers, however, prefer ready-to-use pesticides, which should be locally
available at a reasonable price (MOSER 1996, 43).
Subsequently, in the late 1990s GTZ put emphasis on the promotion of formulated and
compatible neem-based pesticides with much greater market potential. Currently wide use of
ready-to-use neem products is limited by their often high price of the products manufactured
in industrialized countries. This is why neem pesticides are mainly used only in niche
markets such as organic farming, private gardens, and in the case of resistant pests or those
difficult to control. Neemproducts manufactured in developing countries could be much
cheaper as it can be seen from Kenya, Thailand especially if a strong competition exists such
as in India.
Neem is currently used as a supplement or alternative to other high-priced biological control
agents such as Bacillus thuringiensis products or to specialised selective synthetic pesticides.
It would be however desirable from the environmental, health and political points of
view that neem-based pesticides become a more compatible alternative even for standard
pesticides considering the costs only.
98

5. PROSPECTS AND POSSIBILITIES FOR FUTURE NEEM USAGE
Most technical problems in neem processing have been basically solved, at least where
higher technology is used. For simple and cheaper neem extracts there are still some problems
such as the shelf life of neem extracts produced from one extraction step, formulation,
rheological properties at lower temperatures etc.
What was lacking within the previous GTZ neem projects was the knowledge about economic
data on processing and the national economic level as well as marketing strategies,
and market potential. Only few studies are available, which are based on limited, weak and
now obsolete data (11, 14).
It was on this background that GTZ conducted an economical analysis of neem manufacturing
and market analysis (34 – 37, 42) which intends to answer the following key questions.
Key questions of the evaluation:
• Is neem processing profitable for small scale entrepreneurs in developing countries?
• What are the key factors which determine if neem processing is profitable?
• To what extent can synthetic pesticides be substituted by neem pesticides?
• What are the “bottlenecks” for neem products to gain a greater market share?
• Are the constraints caused by the internal factors of neem processing or by the frame
conditions?
• What factors determine the price of neem products?
• What is the potential market share for neem products?
A comparison and economic assessment of the existing neem processing ventures on small
entrepreneur and of NGOs level has been carried out end of 1999.
• The key factors for neem processing in developing countries are labour costs and skills
(quality of the products, management skills) and to a certain extent the price of the raw
material
• Based on our study in all 3 countries neem processing is a or could be a highly profitable
business
• At the present stage neem pesticides are covering a new created „niche“ market or are
competing with other high priced synthetic or non-synthetic pesticides
• At the present stage neem pesticides are market as „generic“
• The niche market is not exploited to its full extent due to weak marketing concepts
(limited investment in marketing and distribution, unfavourable frame conditions, etc)
• Considering the pricing only (not taking into consideration the avoidance of environmental
and health cost as well the chance to have a proper tool to develop a more stable
farming concept) neem pesticides have to be 25-40% cheaper than offered at the
present stage
• With better marketing on one hand and improved management and processing skills on
the other the profit margin would be considerable higher
99

5. PROSPECTS AND POSSIBILITIES FOR FUTURE NEEM USAGE
• This would theoretically enable a price reduction about 30-40%
In the past GTZ promoted the use of neem mainly in the agricultural sector, focusing on plant
protection issues. The results of the trials in health and vectorcontrol project are promising
e.g. for vector control (41), as a substitute for synthetic pyrethroids on bednet impregnation
and in health issues (skin diseases, etc). The potential of the neem tree in health projects
and medicine has not yet been exploited systematically and would also be a promising
working field for technical cooperation. First steps have been taken recently by ICIPE
(KNOLS 2000, presentation on a project planing workshop held in May, at ICIPE, Nairobi,
Kenya).
This also applies to the systematic use of neem products in the fields of livestock, veterinary
services & fisheries where indigenous knowledge is <strong>report</strong>ed, e.g. from Sri Lanka.
All the different approaches and income creating possibilities should be integrated and
considered in rural development projects
100

6. Outlook
6. OUTLOOK
In many developing countries the designated national authorities have recently taken up their
work and the legal framework for proper trading and handling of pesticides according to the
FAO ‘Code of Conduct’ and residue control laboratories have been set up. The enforced
control activities significantly increase the demand for effective, selective pesticides with low
toxicity and low persistence, such as neem-based pesticides, which are suitable for organic
farming and also for (bio-emphasised) IPM concepts. In addition industrialised countries such
as USA (“Consumer Act”) and EU (harmonisation of pesticide regulations and residue level)
have passed enforced regulations. This was required after alarming environmental damage
due to pesticides was first discovered in industrialised countries roughly 25 years ago; e.g.
contaminated soils and groundwater, residues in food and traces in breast milk. Numerous
pesticides were thus prohibited and new ones became subject to even stricter registration
criteria.
The increasing number of registered products in both, industrial and developing countries,
the rising prices for high quality neem raw material, and the large number of requests for
technical advice and assistance during the last five years clearly indicate that the properties
of neem pesticides are convincing and that neem pesticides have an (increasing) market.
Neem industries such as the ones established in Myanmar, Kenya, Thailand and the
Dominican Republic with assistance of GTZ, could also be established elsewhere (e.g. West
Africa). Moreover it would make sense to establish such plants in many countries to offer
access to low toxic alternatives to standard broad spectrum pesticides and make use of own
resources of DC. Indeed received several requests from a range of countries.
Due to a change of the policy supra-regional GTZ projects are not going to provide services
or advice in future but should focus on the development of new concepts only. Given this,
there will be a gap in future to cover the demand for advice and consultanc and to make
sustainable use of experiences gained so far. In the past the target groups were small
farmers, entrepreneurs, starting up small businesses and NGOS, who cannot afford to hire
expensive external consultancy. On the other hand, the exploitation of neem must be in the
social interest considering all the merits (see table 6.1):
Therefore such an advisory service should best be provided by UN organisations like FAO,
UNDP, UNIDO to choose a complementary and integrating approach to the existing neem
network on forestry research.
101

6. OUTLOOK
Table 6.1 Merits and benefits of neem:
Merits and benefits of neem
Environmental advantages:
Forestry
• suitable for afforestation of wasteland, soil improvement
• rapid growth even on marginal sites
• attractive tree providing welcome shade in private and public places and agriculture
• low toxicity to mammals and birds
• rapid decomposition in the environment and therefore no contamination of water, soil or
air
• pesticides largely benign to beneficial insects
• little likelihood of resistance developing
• better use of nitrogen
Advantages for the national economy:
• reduces foreign currency spending
• potentially an additional cash crop
• resulting possible sources of income also in disadvantaged (dry) rural regions
• job creation
• added value within the country
• pesticides also available on the spot in remote regions = enhanced added value in agriculture
• avoids extra costs incurred with the use of synthetic pesticides (poisoning, accidents
during transport, contamination of drinking water, etc.)
• a national insecticide - an additional export product
Acknowledgement
Our grateful thanks go to Professor Heinrich Schmutterer for his continual advice and fruitful
discussions, and to our GTZ colleagues for the ongoing dialogue and information exchange
on their neem activities.
102

Annex
ANNEX
103

ANNEX
Literature and Source Materials:
1 BAUMGART, M.: Das Niemvorkommen in der Republik Benin. Expert <strong>report</strong> for the
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH, Project: Natural
Insecticides, 1991
2 CHARI, M.S., RAMAPRASAD, G. (eds): Botanical Pesticides in Integrated Pest
Management, Proceedings of National Symposium, Rajahmundry, India, January 1990,
Indian Society of Tobacco Science, 1993
3 DREYER, M.: Precondiciones para que el agricultor pueda aceptar el Nim como
Insecticida. Memórias del 1er Congreso Latinoamericano y del Caribe sobre Nim y
otros Insecticidas Vegetales, GTZ, Sto. Domingo, Rep. Dominicana, 7-11 March 1994
4 FAO: Report of the FAO Expert Consultation on Regional Perspectives for use of
Botanical Pesticides in Asia and the Pacific. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the
United Nations, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA), Bangkok, Thailand,
24-28 October 1994
5 HELLPAP, C.: Aspectos socio-económicos del uso del Nim. Memórias del 1er
Congreso Latinoamericano y del Caribe sobre Nim y otros Insecticidas Vegetales,
GTZ, Sto. Domingo, Rep. Dominicana, 7-11 March 1994
6 HELLPAP, C. & WILPS, H.: Report on official journey to the 5th international neem
conference in Gatton, Australia, February 1996. Unpublished, German-language,
internal <strong>report</strong> by the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ)
GmbH, 1996
7 HELLPAP, C.: Niemprodukte als Alternative zu synthetischen Mitteln im
Pflanzenschutz. Unpublished, German-language, internal <strong>report</strong> by the Deutsche
Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH, 1992
8 HÖSCHLE-ZELEDÓN, I.: Experiences with the production of a standardized insecticide
based on neem in Myanmar. Unpublished internal <strong>report</strong> by the Deutsche Gesellschaft
für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH, 1993
9 ISMAN, M.B.: Botanical Insecticides. Pesticide Outlook, June 1994, pp. 26-31
10 LEUPOLZ, W.: Sozioökonomische Einflußfaktoren bei der Einführung von biologischbiotechnischen
Pflanzenschutzverfahren in bäuerlichen Betrieben. Eine international
vergleichende Untersuchung am Beispiel der Produktion, Verarbeitung und Anwendung
von Niemextrakten in Ländern der Dritten Welt. Doctoral thesis in Economics and
Social Sciences at the Hamburg University of Economics and Politics (Hochschule für
Wirtschaft und Politik Hamburg), 1995
11 MÄRZ, U.: The Economics of Neem Production and Its Use in Pest Control. Farming
Systems and Resources in the Tropics Vol. 5, Wissenschaftsverlag Vauk, Kiel, 1989
12 MÄRZ, U.: Ökonomik der Herstellung und des Einsatzes von Neemextrakten als
Pflanzenschutzmittel. Gesunde Pflanze, Volume 38, No. 8, 1986
13 NACIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL (Publisher): Neem: A Tree for Solving Global
Problems, Nacional Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1992
104

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14 OSTERMANN, H.: Zur Wirtschaftlichkeit der Nutzung von Niemprodukten im Gemüseanbau
Nigers. Der Tropenlandwirt, Volume 94, No. 4, 1993, pp. 13-20
15 RANDHAWA, N.S., PARMAR, B.S. (eds): Neem Research and Development, Society
of Pesticide Science, India, New Delhi, 1993
16 SCHMUTTERER, H., ASCHER, K.R.S., REMBOLD, H. (eds): Natural Pesticides from
the Neem Tree, Proceedings of the First International Neem Conference, Rottach-
Egern, Germany, June 1980, GTZ, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische
Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH, Eschborn, 1981
17 SCHMUTTERER, H., ASCHER, K.R.S. (eds.): Natural Pesticides from the Neem Tree
and Other Tropical Plants, Proceedings of the Second International Neem Conference,
Rauischholzhausen, Germany, May 1983, GTZ, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische
Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH, Eschborn, 1984
18 SCHMUTTERER, H., ASCHER, K.R.S. (eds.): Natural Pesticides from the Neem Tree
and Other Tropical Plants, Proceedings of the Third International Neem Conference,
Nairobi, Kenya, July 1986, GTZ, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit
(GTZ) GmbH, Eschborn 1987
19 SCHMUTTERER, H. (ed.): The Neem Tree and Other Meliaceous Plants, Source of
Unique Natural Products for Integrated Pest Management, Medicine, Industry and
Other Purposes. VCH Verlagsgesellschaft, Weinheim, 1995
20 SCHMUTTERER, H. (ed.): Insektizide aus dem Niembaum Azadirachta indica: Sanfte
Chemie für den integrierten Pflanzenschutz in Entwicklungs- und Industrieländer. Plits
1990/8, S. 57-71
21 STROZOK, P.P.: Cost/Benefit Analysis of Neem Tree Product Technologies: South
Asia, Haiti, and the Sahelian Zone, West Africa. USAID, October 1992
22 UHLIG, H.: Naßreis-Ökosysteme im monsunal-wechselfeuchten Südostasien.
Gießener Beiträge zur Entwicklungsforschung, Series I, Volume 21, Wissenschaftliches
Zentrum Tropenistitut Gießen 1994
23 UNIDO, RENPAP: Expert Group Meeting on Policy Issues in the Region for Bio and
Neem-based Pesticide Development. Country Papers for India, Indonesia, Iran,
Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan and Thailand. United Nations Industrial Development
Organisation (UNIDO) and Regional Network on Pesticides Production and Information
for Asia and the Pacific (RENPAP), Bangkok, Thailand, 1-3 September 1994
24 USAID: Neem’s Potential in Pest Management Programs. Proceedings of the USDA
Neem Workshop, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland, 16-17
April 1990
25 WENDT, U. (1991): Untersuchungen zur Anwendung einfacher Niemprodukte gegen
Schädlinge annueller Kulturpflanzen in der Küstenprovinz Manabí, Ecuador. Doctoral
thesis in Agricultural Science at Justus-Liebig University Gießen, 1991
26 FOERSTER, P. (1998 a): Mission Report on a Fact-Finding Study on Neem in, 23 pp
27 FOERSTEr, P. (1998 b): Mission Report on a Fact-Finding Study on Neem in PR
China. GTZ/UNIDO. 12 pp
105

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28 GUNASENA, H.P. M.,. MARAMBE, B; 1998: Monograph: Neem in Sri Lanka, pp. 62,
A Publication of The Uni of Peradeniya & Oxford Forestry Institute, Forestry Research
Link.
29 ZELEDÓN, B. (1998): Potential use of Neem in Southern-Malawi, 38 pp. Report for
GTZ.
30 FOERSTER, P. (1998): Activities and Experience with the Use of Neem Tree. In: The
Potentials of the Neem Tree in Ghana, Proceedings of a Seminar, Dodowa, Ghana, 75-
92.
31 FOERSTER, P. (1999): Development Process of a Small-Scale Neem Processing
Plant: Experiences of a GTZ Project in Kenya, In: Stoll, G. (1999): Natural Crop Protection
in the Tropics – Let in Information come to Life, Verlag Markgraf, Weikersheim,
400
32 FOERSTER, P. (1998):Standardisation of Analytical Methods for Neem based Products
– latest Developments. 47-54. In: Kleeberg, H. & P.W. Zebitz (eds): Practice
oriented Results on Use and Production of Neem Ingredients and Pheromones VIII,
Trifolio, Germany 152 pp.
33 FOERSTER, P. (1999):.Registration Requirements for neem based pesticides in
selected countries. In: Proceedings of International Neem Conference, Vancouver,
Canada,
34 FOERSTER, P., LEUPOLZ, W, QUENTIN, H. & S. PRANEETVATAKUL (2000):
Economics of Neem Processing by Small-scale Entrepreneurs in Thailand, Kenya and
the Dominican Republic - Results of an Evaluation of GTZ-assisted Projects. 47-54 In:
Kleeberg, H. & P.W. Zebitz (eds): Practice oriented Results on Use and Production of
Neem Ingredients and Pheromones IX, Trifolio, Germany,.152 pp.
35 LEUPOLZ, W (1999): Kleinindustrielle Herstellung von Nimpflanzenschutzmitteln in der
Dominikanischen Republik und Nicaragua, 58 pp, Study for GTZ.
36 QUENTIN, H. (1999): Kleinindustrielle Herstellung von Nimpflanzenschutzmitteln in
Kenya, 105 pp. Study for GTZ.
37 FOERSTER, P., LEUPOLZ, W, QUENTIN, H., PRANEETVATAKUL S. & A. VARELA
(2000): Neem Processing in developing country - an profitable venture? Case Studies
from 4 countries: technical and economical description of GTZ assisted projects. GTZ
Publication. 120 pp.
38 NAIK, S., DANIEL, J, CHILDS, FJ, CHAMBERLAIN, JR & PJC HARRIS (1999): Report
on the current and potential use of neem in India. DFID, FRP, HDRA Report, 22 pp.
39 ZEHRER, W (ed) (2000): Symposium national sur les produits naturels utilisés en
protection des végétaux à Madagascar. Antananarivo: DPV/GTZ, pp. 540 pp.
40 FOERSTER, P., HELLPAP, C. & WILPS, H. (1999): Activities of the Deutsche Gesellschaft
für Technische Zusammenarbeit – GTZ*2 in the field of Neem (Azadirachta
indica, Juss), In: Proceedings of the International Neem Conference, Vancouver, May
19th-21st, Canada, in press.
2 German Technical Cooperation
106

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41 GRUNEWALD, J. & A. VOLLMER (1996): Pilotversuch zur Bekämpfung von
Anopheles-Larven mit Neembaum-Produkten. Report submitted to GTZ, 15 pp.
42 PRANEETVATKUL et al. (1999): Economics of small scale Industrial Production of
neem-based Pesticides in Thailand. Report on behalf of GTZ, 77 p.
43 TRAN, V. M. (1999): Challenges to using Neem as a protectant against vegetable
Pests in Thailand. Paper submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the Uni.
Minnesota. unpubl.
44 SCHAUER M. & H. SCHMUTTERER (1981): Effects of neem kernel extract on the twospotted
spider mite, Tetranchyusurticase. In: Schmutterer H, Ascher, KRS & H.
Rembold (eds): Natural Pesticides from the Neem Tree. Proc. 1 st Int. Neem Conf., GTZ
Publ. Pp 259-266.
45 HAKE H.P. (1999): Experience and results on the neem tree (A. indica) research in
Baja California Sur, Mexico. Presentation on the International Neem Conference in
Vancouver, May, 1999
46 BERAKI, G. & P. FOERSTER (1998): Pre-Factfining study on Neem in Eritrea, Ethiopia
and Sudan.. GTZ Paper.
47 FOERSTER, P. (ed) (1998): The Potentials of the Neem Tree in Ghana, Proceedings
of a Seminar, Dodowa, Ghana, pp. 129.
48 PUSSEMIER, L. (1998): Environmental Behaviour and Aquatic Ecotoxicty of
Azadirachtin A.. Results of an Evaluation of GTZ-assisted Projects. In: Kleeberg, H. &
P.W. Zebitz (eds): Practice oriented Results on Use and Production of Neem
Ingredients and Pheromones XIII, Trifolio, Germany; p 63-68.
107

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Selected references on neem
(to get a survey on neem, according to importance):
H. SCHMUTTERER: The Neem Tree, edited by, VCH Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Weinheim,
Germany, 1995, 696 pp, ISBN 3-527-30054-6
NATIONAL ACADAMY PRESS: Neem: A Tree For Solving Global Problems, Washington,
D.C., 1992, 141pp, ISBN 0-309-04686-6
MARTIN JACOBSON & D. G. CROSBY (eds) (1971): Naturally Occurring Insecticides,
Marcel Dekker In, NY, 585 pp.
MARCEL DEKKER, INC. publishers in science and technology, New York, London, 1971,
585pp, ISBN 0-8247-1325-7
GRAINGE, M, SALEEM, A.: Handbook of Plants with Pest-Control Properties, A Wiley-
Interscience publication, New York. Chichester. Brisbane, Toronto. Singapore, 1988,
470pp, ISBN 0-471-63257-0
MÄRZ, U. (1989): The Economics of Neem Production and its Use in Pest Control, Vol. 5,
Wissenschaftsverlag Vauk Kiel KG, Germany, 153pp, ISBN 3-8175-0038-6, ISSN
0932-6154
MORGAN, E. D., BHUSHAN MANDAVA, N.: Handbook of Natural Pesticides, Vol. III, Insect
Growth Regulators Part A, , CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Florida, 1987, 198pp, ISBN
0-8493-3654-6 (v. IIIA)
SURYANARAYANA, Y.V., RAMAM, M., Bibliography on Neem in Agriculture, Indian Society
of Tobacco Science, Rajahmundry -533105, India, 1993, 64pp
JUSS, A., Conociendo "El Arbol Nim En Guatemala" Azadirachta Indica "Familia Meliaceas"
Cultivo y Aprovechamiento como Fuente De Medicina Mejoramiento Ecológico E
Insecticida Botánico, EDGAR ESCOBAR, 53pp
Neem‘s Potential in Pest Management Programs, Proc. of the USDA Neem Workshop,
Beltsville, Maryland April 16 -17, 1990, 136pp, Copies may be purchased from National
Technical Information Service, 5285, Port Royal Road, Sprinfield, VA 22161
NARVAL, SS., TAURO, P., BISLA, S.S. (1997): Neem in Sustainable Agriculture, pp 266,
ISBN 81-7233-167-3, Pub. Pawan Kumar Sci. Publ, 5-A, New Pali Rd, PO Box 91,
Jopdhpur-342-001 India
STOLL, G.: Natural Crop Protection in the tropics, AGRECOL, Margraf Publishers, Scientific
Books,Weikersheim, Germany, 1988, 188pp, ISBN 3-8236-1113-5
OLKOWSKI, W, DAAR, S & H. OLKOWSKI (1991): Commons-Sence Pest Control. Taunton
press, - A fine Gardening Book. 715 pp.
IIRR (1998): Sustainable Agriculture Extension Manual for Eastern & Southern Africa.
Nairobi, Kenya, ISBN: 0-942717-91-0 pp 241.
FUGLIE, L.J. (1998): Producing Food Without Pesticides: Local Solutions to Crop Pest
Control in West Africa: Church World Service, & CTA, 158 pp.
108

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GERRITS, R., VAN LATUM, E., (1993): Plants-Derived Pesticides in Developing Countries:
Possibilities and research needs, Foundation for Ecodevelopment, Amsterdam, The
Netherlands, (Stichting MONDIAL ALTERNATIEF), 58pp, ISBN 90-71111-66-0
GUNASENA, HPM, B. MARAMBE: Neem in Sri Lanka – A Monograph, Public. of
Peradeniya. Oxford Forestry Inst (UK), Forestry Research Link, 59 pp.
LOSSE, G. (1998), The Small-Scale Fishery on Lake Kariba in Zambia. GTZ Publ. 265, pp.
310; include chapters on neem nurseries and preservation of fish with neem.
Proceedings of International Conferences or Workshops on Neem
SINGH R.P. & R.C. SAXENA (eds) (1996): International Neem Conference in Brisbaine/
Australia: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co PVT Ltd, 66 Janpath New Delhi 110001, India
1999. 323pp.
SINGH, R.P., CHARI, M.S., RAHEJA, A.K., KRAUS, W. (1996): Neem and Environment, Vol.
1, Science Publishers, Inc., Lebanon, New Hampshire 03766 USA, 1996, 617pp, ISBN
1-886106-33-9
CHARI, M.S., RAHEJA, A.K., KRAUS, W. (1996): Neem and Environment, Vol. 2, editors
R.P Singh, Science Publishers, Inc., Lebanon, New Hampshire 03766 USA, 1225pp,
ISBN 1-886106-34-7
SCHMUTTERER, H., ASCHER, K.R.S. (1987): Natural pesticides from the neem tree and
other tropical plants, Proceedings of the Third International Neem Conference, Nairobi,
Kenya, 15 July, published by German Agency for Technical Co-operation (GTZ),
Eschborn 1987, 703pp, available from GTZ ISBN 3-88085-372-X, ISSN 0723-9637
SCHMUTTERER, H., ASCHER, K.R.S (1984): Natural pesticides from the natural tree and
other tropical plants, Proceedings of the Second International Neem Conference, Rauischholzhausen,
Federal Republic of Germany, 25 28 May 1983, published by German
Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ), 587pp, out of stock, ISBN 3-88085-156-5
SCHMUTTERER, H., ASCHER, K.R.S (1980): Natural pesticides from the neem tree
(Azadirachta indica, A. Juss), Proceedings of the First International Neem Conference,
Rottach-Egern, Federal Republic of Germany, 16 -18 June, 1980, published by
German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ), Eschborn 1982, 297pp, out of stock,
ISBN 3-88085-156-5
Proceedings of Regional and National Conferences or Workshops on Neem
BRECHELT, A. & C. HELLPAP (eds) (1994): Memorias del 1er Congreso Latinoamericano y
del Caribe sobre Nim y otros Insecticidas Vegetales. 377pp., GTZ/Loyola Centre San
Cristobal, Dom. Republic.
BRIMAH, A. K. (ed) (2000): Efficacy and Commercialization of Neem Products in Ghana,
Proceedings of an Opem Forum Organized by Goethe Institut from 19 to 21. October,
1999. Woeli Publ. Services, 77 pp; ISBN 9964-978-71-5s.
FOERSTER, P. (ed.) 1998: The Potentials of the Neem Tree in Ghana”, Proceedings of a
national Conference on Neem organised by Goethe Institute, 127 pp., GTZ Publication
109

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GTZ (1998): National Conference on Biopesticides with Emphasis on Neem” in Indonesia,
Proceedings of a national Conference on Neem with international participation of
Thailand, Myanamar, India and Germany, 132pp, 1998, GTZ Publication
BAUMGART, M. (1997): Mission d’Étude et de Formation dans le Domaine de l’Utilisation de
l’Arbre Nim (Azadirachta indica) pour le Développement agricole au Nord-Guéra/
Tschad. Report of Mission du 2 au 16 juillet 1997 for the Pesticide Service Project.
61pp.
BAUMGART, M. (1996): Etude et Information dans le domaine de l'utilisation des plantes
insecticides au Nord-Guéra /Tchad, 25 mai au 16 juin 1996, Report of Mission du 2 au
16 juillet 1996 for the Pesticide Service Project. 48pp.
BAUMGART, M. (1996): L'utilisation des plantes et extraits de plantes dans la protection des
cultures et des récoltes. Du 28 octobre au 8 novembre 1996 à Niamey/Republic du
Niger. Projet Service Produits Phytosanitaire/GTZ en coóperation avec Projet de
Formation en Protection des Végétaux (DFPV) Centre Regional AGRHYMET. 66pp.
Chamberlain, J.R., Childs, F.J., and Harris, P.J.C. (1999): Improvement of neem
(Azadirachta indica) and its potential benefits to poor farmers in developing countries.
Proceedings of Neem Electronic Workshop, 1-18 November, 1999. HDRA, Coventry,
UK, 67 pp.
Technical Leaflets:
Neem a Natural Insecticide, technical leaflet, GTZ 34, available in 25 languages;
The Preservation of Beans (Cowpeas) with Neem Oil, p 26, technical leaflet, GTZ, French &
English.
Treatment of Cabbage and Gboma against Pests with Neem Seed, technical leaflet, 26 p,
GTZ, French & English.
NEEM: Production und use, technical brochure, Philippine-German Biological Plant, Protection
Project GTZ- BPI.
110

ANNEX
List of addresses of those organisations and individuals who filled in the questionnaire on
global neem usage or who at least contacted us in this connection. Further adresses are
provided in Chapter 4 specified for each country and project.
GTZ Projects:
- PPSTN Lombok, K.D. Peters,
Jl. Pahlawang 86, Selong, Lombok Timur, Indonesia
- Integrated Pest Control in Fruit Trees, Dr. G. Maurer,
2143/1 Phaholyothin Road, Bangkhen, Bangkok, Thailand
- North Western Province Dry Zone Participatory Development Project,
Dr. A. Fleddermann, New Secretariat Building, Dambulla Road, Kurunegala, Sri Lanka
- Philippine-German Fruit Tree Project, Dr. Hans Diedrichsen, (finalised)
P.O.Box 1045, 2600 Banguio City, Philippines
- Promotion of Sustainable Plant Protection Systems, Dr. Volkmar Hasse,
P.O.Box 926238, Amman 11110, Jordan
- IDAS, Innovation Development in the Agricultural Sector, Martin Umbach,
P.O.Box 6320, Khormaksar Aden, Yemen
- Projet Contrôle Phytosanitaire,
B.P. 43 Yacoub El Mansour - 10053 Rabat, Morocco
- FID, Projet Systèmes de production intégrés pour la protection des ressources en
Moyenne, Casamance, Helmut Burgmeister, B.P. 154, Kolda, Senegal
- Projecto Luta Integrada, Jan Uwe Heckel, Sra. Maria Isabel G. de Pina,
C.P. 128, Praia, Cap Verde
- Integrated Rural Development Project (finalised), M. Mayer,
Boundiali, Ivory Coast
- SPV, Service Protection Végétaux, Dr. W. Drepper, (finalised)
B.P. 1073, Porto-Novo, Benin
- Plant Protection of Food Crops in Africa, Matthias Zweigert, (finalised)
IITA - GTZ, B.P. 08-0932, Cotonou, Benin
- IPM Horticulture Project, Dr. B. Löhr,
P.O.Box 41607, Nairobi, Kenya
- Urban Vegetable Promotion Project, Mr. Lionel-Keith Lilley, (finalised)
P.O.Box 31311, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
- TFAP North Pare Project,
P.O.Box 175, Mwanga, Tanzania
- SECAP, Soil Erosion Control/Agroforestry Project, Gabi Zink,
P.O.Box 72, Lushoto, Tanzania
- NEVEPA Project, Dr. Ingrid Lewis, B.Weiligmann, (Finalised)
P.O.Box 31311, Arusha, Tanzania
111

ANNEX
- NARMAP, Wadi Katum, North Darfur, Gerrit Brummelman, (Finalised)
c/o GTZ-PAS, P.O.Box 8192, Al-Amarat, Khartoum, Sudan
- Promotion de la Protection Intégrée des Cultures et des Denrées Stockées à Madagascar,
Dr. W. Zehrer, (finalised) Bureau GTZ, B.P. 869, Antananarivo, Madagaskar
- MG PPP, Biological Pest Control and Postharvest Protection Project,
Dr. Joost Gwinner, P.O.Box 2111, Lilongwe, Malawi
- Proyecto Protección Vegetal Integrada, (finalised),
Apt. Postal 755, San Salvador, El Salvador
- Proyecto Ampliación del Servicio de Protección Vegetal,
Dr. Heinz Gerhard Jansen, (finalised) Apartado 489, Managua, Nicaragua
- Proyecto Sanidad Vegetal, Dr. Michael Dreyer (finalised),
Apt. Postal 3739, Tegucigalpa, Honduras
- Convenio MIDA-GTZ, Dr. Gerhard Jürgens,
Apt. 3165, Panama 6 - El Dorado, Panama
Other Organisations:
- DSF, Dharma Swadaya Foundation, Nanand Hermansyah,
Jl. Merdeka X 4, Mataram 83127, Indonesia
- PAN, Pesticide Action Network,
Jl. Persada Raya 1, Jakarta 12870, Indonesia
- Friedrich Naumann Foundation, Dr. Rüdiger Vincent Graichen,
P.O.Box 4395, Jakarta 12043, Indonesia
- Neem Mission, C.M. Ketkar,
471, Shanwar Peth, Pune - 411030 M.S., India
- Onc, Oriam Natchem Limited, R.R. Naik,
Visakhapatnam 530009, Andrah Pradesh, India
- Institute of Agriculture, Dept. of Plant Protection, Dr. M.K. Dasgupta,
Spriniketan 731236, Birbhum, West Bengal, India
- Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Div. of Nematology,
Dr. D.R. Dasgupta, New Delhi 110012, India
- Tribhuarn University, Dept. of Entomology, Miss Kaminee Vardye,
91 - Sougal, Latitpur - 12, Kathmandu, Nepal
- NARC, Ecotoxicology Institute, Muhammad Haseeb,
P.O. Box 3169, Islamabad 45500, Pakistan
- Ministry of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Mr. George Karganilla,
692 San Andres St. Malate, Manila, Philippines
- FID, Fondation Internationale pour le Developpment, Fodé Diallo,
B.P. 305, Louga, Senegal
112

- Coopération de Soyo, Martin Dietz,
B.P. 43, Allada, Benin
- Plant Protection Department, Prof. Dr. Kelany,
P.O. Box 262, El-Maadi, 11728 Cairo, Egypt
- North Omo Zone Ministry of Agriculture Bureau, Assefa Tofu,
P.O. Box 9, Arbaminch, Ethiopia
- Institute of Agricultural Research, Difabachew Belay,
Nazareth Research Center, P.O.Box 436, Nazareth, Ethopia
- Kenya Institute of Organic Farming (KIOF),
P.O.Box 34972, Nairobi, Kenya
- Department of Agriculture, Neem Project,
P.O. Box 247, Iganga, Uganda
- Faculty of Agriculture, Neem Project, Mrs. S. Facknath,
University of Mauritius, Reduit, Mauritius
- SASA Experiment Station, Dr. Conlong,
Private Bag X02, Mount Edgecombe, 4300 Natal, Southafrica
- Fundación Agricultura y Medio Ambiente, Dra. Andrea Brechelt,
c/o Instituto Politécnico Loyola,
Apt. Postal 21064 Huacal, Sto. Domingo, Dominican Republic
- INIFAT,
Santiago de la Veiga, Cuba
- COPINIM, Proyecto Nim, Dra. Anne Kathrina Gruber,
CIEETS, Apt. Postal 082, Managua, Nicaragua
- RAAA, Luis Gomero Osorio,
Apt. Postal 11 - 0581, Lima, Peru
- FIDES, Fundación Integral de Desarrollo, Jackeline Sejas,
Casilla 1911, St. Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia
- EMBRAPA/CNPAF, Belmiro Pereira das Neves,
C.P. 179, 74001-970 Goiânia, Goiás, Brasil
- University of Queensland, Dept. of Plant Production, Dr. Errol Hassan,
Gatton College, Gatton 4343, Australia
- BIRC, Bio-Integral Resource Center,
P.O.Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707, USA
ANNEX
113

ANNEX
Individuals:
- India: S. Moorty: FORTUNE BIOTECH, Secunderabad
A.D. Phadke: AJAY BIO-TECH; Dr. Kettkar: NEEM MISSION, J. Daniel, BAIF Pune
R. Senrayan, S. Perumal: EID PARRY, Chennai
P. JAIPURIA, PJ MARGO, Bangalor
- Indonesia: Sugianto Hardjo,
Am Alten Klärwerk 2, 50354 Hürth, Germany
- Myanmar: Dr. Irmgard Höschle-Zélédon, GTZ, Malawi; Dr. K. Ermel, Thailand
- Thailand: Virajit Lianchamroon, Dr. K. Ermel
40/3581 Prachanivate 3, Tivanon Rd., Muang, Nonthaburi 11000, Thailand
- Eritrea: Mussie Haile, Goitom Beraki
- Mauritius: Dr. Martin Baumgart,
Burgweg 19, 53123 Bonn, Germany
- Canary Islands: Alfonso Molera Teruel,
c/o El Lomito 12, 38589 Arico Viejo, Tenerife, Spain
- Germany: Gerald Moser, August-Bebel-Str. 45, 64347 Griesheim, Germany,
phone: ++ 49-6155-2790, fax: ++ 49-6155-831957, Niem-handel@t-online.de
114

List of Publications on Neem of GTZ staff and co-operators
ANNEX
BRODESSER, J., WIELAND, T & TROSS, R. (1998): High Performance Liquid chromatographic
Method for the analysis of Azadirachtin in neem kernels, neem oil and formulated
products; pp 6 .
BRODESSER, J. (1998): Collaborative Study for the Determination of Azadirachtin A in
Neem Seed kernels, aqueous formulations and oil; pp 14.
CHIRATHAMJAREE, C., ERMEL, K. & SANGWANICH, A. (1997), Azadirachtin Content of
Neem Seed Kernels from Selected Locations in Thailand, in: RODCHAROEN, J.,
WONGSIRI, S., MULLA, M. S., (eds.), Biopesticides: Toxicity, Safety, Development
and Proper Use, Proceedings First International Symposium on Biopesticides, October
27- 31, 1996, Phitsanulok, Thailand, Chulalongkorn University Press, Bangkok,
Thailand, pp. 192-195.
DIOP, B., WILPS, H. (1997) Field trials with neem oil and Melia volkensii extracts on
Schistocerca gregaria. In: Krall, S., Peveling, R., Ba Diallo, D. (eds.) New Strategies in
Locust Control, Birkhäuser Verlag Basel, Schweiz. 201-207.
DREYER, M. & HELLPAP, C. (1991). Neem - a promising natural insecticide for small scale
vegetable production in tropical and subtropical countries. J. of Plant Dis. and Prot. 98
(4), 428-437 p.
ERMEL, K. & KLEEBERG, H., (1995), Commercial products, their standardization and
problems of quality control, in: SCHMUTTERER, H. (ed.), The neem tree Azadirachta
indica A. Juss and Other Meliaceous Plants - Source of unique products for pest
management and other purposes -, VCH Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Weinheim,
Germany, pp. 375- 384.
ERMEL, K. (1995), Azadirachtin contents of neem seed kernels from different regions of the
world, in: SCHMUTTERER, H. (ed.), The neem tree Azadirachta indica A. Juss and
Other Meliaceous Plants - Source of unique products for pest management and other
purposes -, pp. 89- 92, VCH Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Weinheim, Germany.
ERMEL, K. (1987): Über den Azadirachtingehalt von Ökotypen des Niembaumes
(Azadirachta indica A. Juss) mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Lagerbedingungen
und anderer abiotischer Faktoren auf die Extraktqualität, Diss., Justus-Liebig-
Universität, Giessen.
ERMEL, K. (1995): Commercialization of Neem: Present <strong>Status</strong> and Future Perspectives,
Proceedings of the 1 st Technical Conference of the Agricultural Toxic Substances
Division, 23. - 25. August 1995, Pattaya, Thailand, pp. 30- 37.
ERMEL, K., CHIRATHAMJAREE, C. & SANGWANICH, A. (1997: Azadirachtin content and
bioefficiency of neem products, Proceedings of the 2 nd Technical Conference of the
Agricultural Toxic Substances Division, 8- 10 July, 1997, Kanchanaburi, Thailand, pp.
101- 114.
ERMEL, K., CHIRATHAMJAREE, C. & SANGWANICH, A. (1997): Processing of Thai Neem
(Azadirachta siamensis Valeton) and the Quality Problem, In: RODCHAROEN, J.,
WONGSIRI, S. & MULLA, M. S., (eds.): Biopesticides: Toxicity, Safety, Development
115

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116
and Proper Use, Proceedings First International Symposium on Biopesticides, October
27- 31, 1996, Phitsanulok, Thailand, Chulalongkorn University Press, Bangkok,
Thailand, pp. 171-184.
ERMEL, K., KALINOWSKI, H.-O. & SCHMUTTERER, H. (1991), Isolierung und Charakterisierung
von Marrangin, einer neuen, die Insektenmetamorphose störenden Substanz
aus Samenkernen des Marrangobaumes Azadirachta excelsa (Jack), J. Appl. Ent.,
112, 512- 519 pp.
ERMEL, K., PAHLICH, E. & SCHMUTTERER, H. (1984), Comparison of the azadirachtin
content of neem seeds from ecotypes of Asian and African origin, In: SCHMUTTERER,
H., ASCHER, K.R.S. (eds.): Natural pesticides from the neem tree and other tropical
plants, Proc. 2 nd Int. Neem Conf. (Rauischholzhausen, 1983), pp 91- 94, GTZ
Eschborn, Germany.
ERMEL, K., PAHLICH, E. & SCHMUTTERER, H. (1987): Azadirachtin content of neem
kernels from different geographical locations, and its dependence on temperature,
relative humidity, and light, In: SCHMUTTERER, H., ASCHER, K.R.S. (eds.): Natural
pesticides from the neem tree and other tropical plants, Proc. 3 rd Int. Neem Conf.
(Nairobi, 1986), pp. 171- 184, GTZ Eschborn, Germany.
FOERSTER, P. (1998): Activities and Experience with the Use of Neem Tree. In: The
Potentials of the Neem Tree in Ghana, Proceedings of a Seminar, Dodowa, Ghana,
pp. 75-92.
FOERSTER, P. (1998): Standardisation of Analytical Methods for Neem based Products –
latest Developments. In: Practice oriented Results on Use and Production of Neem
Ingredients and Pheromones, Proceedings of the 8 th Workshop, 1998. Trifolio,
Germany. Pp. 47-54.
FOERSTER, P. (1999): Development Process of a Small-Scale Neem Processing Plant:
Experiences of a GTZ Project in Kenya, In: Stoll, G. (1999): Natural Crop Protection in
the Tropics – Let in Information come to Life, Verlag Markgraf, Weikersheim, 400 pp.
FOERSTER, P. (1999): Registration Requirements for neem based pesticides in selected
countries. In: Proceedings of the International Neem Conference, Vancouver, May 19 th -
21th, Canada, in press
FOERSTER, P. (2000): Regional Outlook: Present Situation in Using Neem Trees in West
Africa and Sahel. Pp. 1-12. In: BRIMAH, A. K. (ed) (2000): Efficacy and Commercialization
of Neem Products in Ghana, Proceedings of an Opem Forum Organized
by Goethe Institut from 19 to 21. October, 1999. Woeli Publ. Services, 77 pp; ISBN
9964-978-71-5s.
FOERSTER, P., HELLPAP, C. & WILPS, H. (1999): Activities of the Deutsche Gesellschaft
für technische Zusammenarbeit – GTZ* 3 in the field of Neem (Azadirachta indica,
Juss), In: Proceedings of the International Neem Conference, Vancouver, May 19 th -
21th, Canada, in press.
3 German Technical Cooperation

ANNEX
HELLPAP, C. & DREYER, M. (1995). The Smallholder’s Homemade Products. In:
H. Schmutterer (Ed.) The Neem Tree, Source of Unique Products for Integrated Pest
Management, Medicine, Industry and Other Purposes, 367-375, VCH, Weinheim
HELLPAP, C. & Leupolz, W. (1999). Influence of Socioeconomic Factos on the Use of Neem
Insecticides by Farmers, In: R.P. Singh & R.C. Saxena (Eds.) Azadirachta indica A.
Juss. 317-322, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi, Calcutta
HELLPAP, C. & MERCADO N., J.C. (1984). Control del cogollero Spodoptera frugiperda
Smith con extracto del arbol neem (Azadirachta indica Juss). XXX Reunion del Programa
Cooperativo Centroamericano para el Mejoramiento de Cultivos Alimenticios
(PCCMCA), Managua
HELLPAP, C. & MERCADO N., J.C. (1986): Effect of neem on the oviposition behaviour of
the fall armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda Smith. Z. angew. Entomol 102, 463 – 467.
HELLPAP, C. & ZEBITZ, C.P.W. (1986): Kombinierte Anwendung von Niem-Samen - Extrakt
mit Bacillus thuringiensis-Produkten bei der Bekämpfung von Spodoptera frugiperda
and Aedes togoi. Z. angew. Entomol. 101, 515 - 524
HELLPAP, C. (1984). Effects of neem kernel extract on the fall armyworm, Spodoptera
frugiperda Smith. In: Natural pesticides from the neem tree and other tropical plants.
Ed. by H. Schmutterer and K.R.S. Ascher. Schriftenreihe der GTZ No. 161. Eschborn,
353 - 363
HELLPAP, C. (1989). Insect pest control with natural substances from the neem tree,
Proceedings 7th International Conference of the International Federation of Organic
Agricultural Movements (IFOAM), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 2. - 7. Januar 1989,
control, Proceedings of the 8th International Conference of the International. Federation
of Organic Agricultural Movements (IFOAM), Budapest, Ungarn, 27. - 30. August
1990.
HELLPAP, C. (1989): Possibilities and problems of the utilization of neem products in pest
control in tropical and subtropical countries, Proceedings of the International Symposium
of the Deutschen Landwirtschafts-Gesellschaft about Integrated Pest Management
in Tropical and Subtropical Cropping Systems, Bad Dürkheim, 8. – 15. Februar
1989
HELLPAP, C. (1990): Neemprodukte als Alternative zu synthetischen Mitteln im Pflanzenschutz,
Tagung der Lehr- und Versuchsanstalt für Obst- und Weinbau über ökologischen
Obst- und Weinbau, Weinsberg, 8. - 9. November 1990
HELLPAP, C. (1990): Socio-economical aspects of the utilization of neem products in pest
HELLPAP, C. (1991). Potential of natural substances from the neem tree for pest control in
Asian countries, Proceedings of the First National Conference on Entomology, Hanoi,
Vietnam, 22. - 27. October 1991
HELLPAP, C. (1992) a) Potential and problems of natural pesticides, b) steps for developing
botanical pesticides, c) qualitiy requirements, processing of plant material, extraction
technology and formulation, d) registration and socioeconimics of botanicals, e) the
neem tree as a model of botanical insecticides, Workshop on bio/botanical pesticide
117

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118
development, United Nations Industrial Development Organization, Bangkok, Thailand
11 - 18 December 1991
HELLPAP, C. (1995): Practical Results with Neem Products Against Insect Pests, and
Probability of Development of Resistance: Corn In: H. Schmutterer (Ed.) The Neem
Tree, Source of Unique Products for Integrated Pest Management, Medicine, Industry
and Other Purposes, 385-389, VCH, Weinheim
HELLPAP, C. (1996): The Use of Neem by Farmers in the Dominican Repbulic, In:
R.P.Singh, M.S.Chari, A.K.Raheja & W.Kraus (Eds.) Neem and Environment, 39-46,
Science Publishers, Inc., Lebanon, New Hampshire
HELLPAP, C. (1999): The Use of Neem Products in organic Agriculture. In: Proceedings of
the International Neem Conference in Vancouver, Canada, May 1999. In press.
KALINOWSKI, H.-O., ERMEL, K., SCHMUTTERER, H. (1993), Strukturaufklärung eines
Azadirachtinderivates aus dem Marrangobaum Azadirachta excelsa (Jack) durch NMR-
Spektroskopie, Liebigs Ann. Chem., 1033- 1035.
KALINOWSKI, H.-O., KRACK, C., ERMEL, K. & CHIRATHAMJAREE, C. (1997): Isolation
and Characterization of 1-Tigloyl-3-acetylazadirachtol from the Seed Kernels of the
Thai Neem Tree Azadirachta siamensis Valeton, Z. Naturforsch., 52b, 1413- 1417.
KRALL, S. & NASSEH, O. (1991): The integrated biological control of locusts and grasshoppers
- a gtz research project. Biological Control of Locusts and Grasshoppers.
Proceedings of a Workshop held at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture,
Cotonou, Republic of Benin, 29 April - 1 May 1991, 45-49. GTZ.
KRALL, S. et al. (1996): New strategies in Locust control. CH-Basel: Birkhäuser Verlag,
450 pp.
KRALL, S., & WILPS, H. (1994): New Trends in Locust Control. Schriftenreihe der GTZ
Nr. 245, Roßdorf: TZ-Verlagsgesellschaft, 1-192.
KRALL, S., PEVELING, R. & BA DIALLO D. (1997): New Strategies in Locust Control,
Birkhäuser Verlag Basel, Schweiz, 522 S.
MERCADO N., J.C., CALDERON, S. & HELLPAP, C. (1984): Evaluacion comparativa de
productos y concentraciones en el control de la palomilla de la col Plutella xylostella. X,
Reunion del PCCMCA, Managua
MWANGI, R.W., KABARU, J.M. & REMBOLD, H. (1997): Potential for Melia volkensii fruit
extract in the control of locusts. In: Krall, S., Peveling, R., Ba Diallo, D. (eds.) New
Strategies in Locust Control, Birkhäuser Verlag Basel, Schweiz, 193-200.
NASSEH, O, FRERES & T. & KRALL, S. (1993): Frassabschreckender Effekt von
Azadirachta indica auf Adulte Schistocerca gragaria - Untersuchungen in der Republik
Niger. In: Mitt. dtsch. Ges. allg. angew. Ent. 8, Gießen, 835-838.
NASSEH, O, FRERES, T., WILPS, H., KIRKILIONIS, E. & KRALL, S. (1992): Field cage
trials on the effects of enriched neem oil, insect growth regulators and the pathogens
Beauveria bassiana and Nosema locustae on desert locusts in the Republic of Niger.
Biological control of locusts and grasshoppers. Proceedings of a Workshop held at the

ANNEX
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Cotonou, Republic of Benin, 29 April –
1 May 1991, 311-321.
NASSEH, O. & FRERES, T. (1990): Käfigfreilandversuche zur Bekämpfung der Larven
stadien und adulten Tieren von Schistocerca gregaria (Forskal) mit biologischen und
chemischen Präparaten in der Republik Niger (Insenkat/Tamesna). In: GTZ-Schrift:
Ergebnisse zur Bekämpfung der Wüstenheuschrecke Schistocerca gregaria in der
Republik Niger.
NASSEH, O., WILPS, H. & KRALL, S. (1992): Neem Products - Effective Biocides for
Combatting the Desert Locust Schistocerca gregaria (Forskal) -Report on investigations
carried out on field and laboratory-reared locusts under natural conditions in the
Tamesna Desert (Republic of Niger). In: Zeitschrift für Pflanzenkrankheiten und
Pflanzenschutz 100 (6), 611-621.
NASSEH, O., WILPS, H. & KRALL, S. (1993): The repellent effect of Neemoil on S. gregaria
(Forskal). Mittl. DGaaE 8, 835-838.
NASSEH, O., WILPS, H., KRALL, S. & SALISOSSOU, M.G.M. (1992): Les effectes
d'inhibiteurs de croissance et de biocides végétaux sur les larves de Schistocerca gregaria
(Forscal). SAHEL PV INFO 45, 5-19.
OSTERMANN, H. (1992): L'Huile de Nim - sa valeur pour les pays du Sahel", Séminaire
OLEASILVA, Bamako, Mali, 6. - 10.7.92 ;
OSTERMANN, H. (1991): Utilisation des insecticides naturels au Sahel - la situation actuelle,
potentialités et entraves"; atelier régional ouest-africain sur la protection naturelle des
végétaux, M`Bour, Sénégal, 26.10.1991 ;
OSTERMANN, H. (1991): Investigations on the effect of neem formulations for pest management
on food crops in Niger; ICRISAT Sahelien Center, Niamey; Mai 91 ;
OSTERMANN, H. (1992): Possibilities and constraints using neem products against tomato
pests in Niger, Second Workshop on Practice Oriented Results on Use and Production
of Neem-Ingredients and Pheromones, Wetzlar, Allemagne, 30.11. bis 2.12.92 ;
OSTERMANN, H. (1992): L'utilisation du Neem pour lutter contre les insectes nuisibles de
l'amaranthe; SAHEL PV-Info N o 40 ;
OSTERMANN, H. (1992): Zur Wirksamkeit und Anwendung einfacher Neemprodukte gegen
Schädlinge im kleinbäuerlichen Tomaten-, Amaranth- und Kundebohnenanbau im
Niger, Dissertation, Universität Gießen ;
OSTERMANN, H. (1993): Zur Wirtschaftlichkeit der Nutzung von Niemprodukten im
Gemüseanbaus Nigers, Der Tropenlandwirt 94 ;
OSTERMANN, H., DREYER, M. (1994): Neem - pest control for vegetables and grain
legumes, in: Neem - a monography, Hrsg: H. Schmutterer, Weinheim ;
PEVELING, R. & WEYRICH, J. (1991) Effects of neem oil, Beauveria bassiana and dieldrin
on non-target tenebrionid beetles in the desert zone of the Republic on Niger.
Biological Control of Locusts and Grasshoppers. Proceedings of a Workshop held at
the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Cotonou, Republic of Benin, 29 April -
1 May 1991, 321-336.
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PEVELING, R. (1999): Rôle de l'écotoxicologie en lutte antiacridienne - Généralités. In:
Scherer, R., Fong Hong, L. (eds.) Symposium sur la lutte antiacridienne a Madagascar,
261-266.
PEVELING, R., OSTERMANN, H., RAZAFINIRINA, R., TOVONKERY, R. & ZAFIMANIRY,
G. (1996): The impact of locust control agents on springtails in Madagascar. New
Studies in Ecotoxicology: Papers resulting from posters given at the Welsh Pest
Management Forum conference: Ecotoxicology, Pesticides and Beneficial Organisms,
Cardiff, UK, 14-16 Ocotober 1996, 56-59.
RANAIVO, F., WELLING, M., ZIMMERMANN, G. & SCHMUTTERER, H. (1995) Fitness
reduction of the African migratory locust, Locusta migratoria, after sublethal application
of Metarhizium flavoviride blastospores or neem oil. 5th European IOBC/WPRSlEPRS
Meeting on "Microbial Control of Pests", 27. August - 1. September, Poznan, Polen.
Abstract S. 34.
RANAIVO, F.S. (1995) Fitneßuntersuchungen an Larven der Afrikanischen Wanderheuschrecke
Locusta migratoria migratorioides R. & F. nach Behandlung mit Samenöl
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122