Migrant Smuggling in Asia - United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime

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18 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*& is lack<strong>in</strong>g for all �ve countries. Although there is a signi�cant body of research regard<strong>in</strong>g irregular migration and human tra�ck<strong>in</strong>g to �ailand, the role of migrant smuggl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> facilitat<strong>in</strong>g irregular migration and/or contribut<strong>in</strong>g to human tra�ck<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the Greater Mekong Subregion has not attracted signi�cant attention. �ere is a clear need to conduct <strong>in</strong>tegrated research on migrant smuggl<strong>in</strong>g, human traf- �ck<strong>in</strong>g and irregular migration. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the reviewed literature: �� ailand is a major country of dest<strong>in</strong>ation for irregular migrants from Cambodia, Lao PDR and, most importantly, Myanmar. Various estimates over the past decade <strong>in</strong>dicate a steady <strong>in</strong>crease of irregular migrants <strong>in</strong> �ailand. �e vast majority — more than 80 percent — of Lao migrants go to �ailand, while a small number are <strong>in</strong> Cambodia, Ch<strong>in</strong>a, Myanmar and Viet Nam. Cambodian irregular migrants where also found <strong>in</strong> the Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia and Viet Nam. �� One <strong>in</strong>dicator for the scale of irregular migration is regularization statistics. Under the �ai Government’s 2004 irregular worker registration process, 1,280,000 irregular workers registered from Cambodia, Lao PDR and Myanmar. Of them, 168,000 were from Cambodia and 181,614 from Lao PDR. �� Accord<strong>in</strong>g to more recent estimates, some 2 million irregular Myanmar migrants and around 140,000 Myanmar refugees are <strong>in</strong> �ailand. In addition to �ailand, other dest<strong>in</strong>ation countries for Myanmar irregular migrants and refugees <strong>in</strong>clude Pakistan and Malaysia. Around 100,000 irregular migrants are <strong>in</strong> Pakistan and several thousand refugees <strong>in</strong> Malaysia. Regard<strong>in</strong>g Myanmar migrants, the reviewed literature almost exclusively focuses on irregular migration �ows to �ailand and provides only sketchy <strong>in</strong>formation about transit smuggl<strong>in</strong>g through �ailand to Malaysia, which is often reached by sea. �� Most Cambodian and Lao migrants — both regular and irregular — are young, poor and low-skilled. �ey are from rural areas and have a low level of education. Typically, they range <strong>in</strong> age from 17 to 35 years. �� A variety of factors impact the decision to migrate. Poverty, the lack of ga<strong>in</strong>ful employment and the prospects of higher earn<strong>in</strong>gs to support families back home are signi�cantly motivat<strong>in</strong>g the decision to irregularly migrate. Well-established social networks that facilitate the process and stories of others’ successful migration experiences are additional factors that encourage irregular migration from Cambodia, Lao PDR and Myanmar. In Lao PDR and Myanmar, the di�culties (time and costs <strong>in</strong>volved) <strong>in</strong> obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g travel documents also contribute to the decision to irregularly migrate. �� Cambodian, Lao and Myanmar irregular migrants <strong>in</strong> �ailand are reported to work <strong>in</strong> sectors with a demand for low-skilled workers, such as �sheries, seafood process<strong>in</strong>g, manufactur<strong>in</strong>g, agriculture and domestic work. Female Lao migrants make up more than 50 per cent of the Lao irregular migrants and predom<strong>in</strong>antly work as domestic workers <strong>in</strong> �ailand. �� Myanmar migration is partially motivated by political factors and <strong>in</strong>security <strong>in</strong> addition to the dom<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g economic push-and-pull factors. Most Myanmar migrants come from rural areas. �ey <strong>in</strong>clude the ethnic groups of Arakanese, Burman, Indo-Myanmar, Kach<strong>in</strong>, Karen, Kayah, Mon, Gurkha (Nepalese), Shan and Tavoyan. Most are s<strong>in</strong>gle and aged between 12 and 55 years, with low levels of education. �� Borders <strong>in</strong> the Greater Mekong Subregion are porous and can be crossed with ease. <strong>Migrant</strong>s irregularly cross o�cial border checkpo<strong>in</strong>ts and unauthorized border cross<strong>in</strong>gs with or without assistance. Border rivers are crossed <strong>in</strong> boats. <strong>Migrant</strong>s also legally cross borders but do not meet other conditions for a regular stay <strong>in</strong> �ailand, thus becom<strong>in</strong>g irregular. <strong>Migrant</strong>s are also smuggled by sea from Myanmar to southern �ailand (Ranong Prov<strong>in</strong>ce). �e use of fraudulent documents is rare. �ere is petty corruption among law enforcement o�cials at the borders, and bribes are a�ordable. �� It is not clear to what extent irregular migration is facilitated by pro�t-seek<strong>in</strong>g smugglers due to the lack of a signi�cant research focus on migrant smuggl<strong>in</strong>g. Information on Cambodia, Lao PDR and Myanmar either directly or through <strong>in</strong>dicators po<strong>in</strong>ts out that those who facilitate the recruitment of workers, irregular movements across the border and with<strong>in</strong> �ai-
land, the illegal stay and job placements do so for material or �nancial bene�t. While further research is clearly needed, it appears that much —if not most — of the irregular migration <strong>in</strong>volves migrant smugglers. �� Irregular migrants pay fees for be<strong>in</strong>g recruited and placed <strong>in</strong>to jobs <strong>in</strong> �ailand. <strong>Migrant</strong>s pay fees up front. Alternatively, recruiters or employers <strong>in</strong> �ailand cover the cost for recruitment and transportation, which is then deducted from the migrants’ salaries. Various fees cited <strong>in</strong>clude: USD 97 for irregularly migrat<strong>in</strong>g to �ailand from Cambodia; USD30 to USD 150 paid to Cambodian recruiters; a pro�t of USD 10 to USD 15 per facilitated Cambodian-�ai border cross<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the Cambodian border town of Poipet; USD 140 to USD 186 for transport<strong>in</strong>g migrants from Lao PDR <strong>in</strong>to �ailand; USD 3 to USD 15 per person smuggled across the Lao- �ai border; USD 2.50 per irregular migrant for brib<strong>in</strong>g police o�cers at checkpo<strong>in</strong>ts along transit routes from Myanmar <strong>in</strong>to �ailand; USD 315 to USD 472 for irregular migration from Myanmar and job placement <strong>in</strong> �ailand; USD 5 to USD 12.50 paid by �ai employers per recruited migrant worker. �� Cambodians are smuggled by Cambodians, Laotians by Laotians and Myanmar migrants by Myanmar smugglers <strong>in</strong> cooperation with �ai smugglers. Usually the ma<strong>in</strong>ly mono-ethnic smuggl<strong>in</strong>g networks extend <strong>in</strong>to �ailand. �ey <strong>in</strong>volve �ai citizens who closely cooperate with �ai employers. �� Often referred to as brokers, recruiters, facilitators and <strong>in</strong>termediaries, the smugglers are likely to be known to migrants or to somebody known by the migrants. �is is well documented for agents facilitat<strong>in</strong>g irregular migration from Cambodia, Lao PDR and Myanmar to �ailand. Recruiters recruit migrants or are approached by migrants. Social networks, k<strong>in</strong>ship and friendships factor <strong>in</strong> heavily <strong>in</strong> facilitat<strong>in</strong>g contacts to irregular migration agents <strong>in</strong> the recruitment phase. �� Social networks are reliable sources of <strong>in</strong>formation and encourage trust. Trust and reputation are important factors <strong>in</strong> choos<strong>in</strong>g irregular migration agents who generate more bus<strong>in</strong>ess if !#70'4&%*8#9':*';#$
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