Migrant Smuggling in Asia - United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime

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36 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*& With respect to the <strong>in</strong>ternal organization of smugglers – both with regard to the <strong>in</strong>dividual stages as well as to a potential level above them – it became apparent, however, after two <strong>in</strong>terviews conducted with great e�ort that the knowledge of the migrants is generally very small. (Neske, 2006, p. 131) Neske further quotes Sciort<strong>in</strong>o who has observed that ask<strong>in</strong>g a “person who has been smuggled <strong>in</strong>to the country about the organization of the smuggl<strong>in</strong>g process would be like ask<strong>in</strong>g a customer <strong>in</strong> a supermarket about the organizational structure of the store” (Neske, 2006, p. 131). Research that focuses on develop<strong>in</strong>g categories and sub-categories of migrant smuggl<strong>in</strong>g has many practical applications. Firstly, it may allow policies and resources to be targeted with more precision. For example, the response required to target those who opportunistically transport a person across a border <strong>in</strong> a taxi or on a motorbike may be very di�erent to the strategies required to target those <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> provid<strong>in</strong>g large scale stage to stage smuggl<strong>in</strong>g. Secondly, the development of typologies (or sub-categories) may help to shift the debate from a po<strong>in</strong>t where ‘migrant smuggl<strong>in</strong>g’ is discussed as if all forms of migrant smuggl<strong>in</strong>g are the same, to a po<strong>in</strong>t where the di�erent sub-categories can be <strong>in</strong>dividually exam<strong>in</strong>ed and assessed. �is may even help to build consensus on issues such as the need for a greater law enforcement response to the more predatory forms of migrant smuggl<strong>in</strong>g. As Uehl<strong>in</strong>g has noted: [T]here are important dist<strong>in</strong>ctions to be drawn between the activities of <strong>in</strong>ternationally organized crim<strong>in</strong>al gangs and the scores of micro-practices that comprise human smuggl<strong>in</strong>g, that while often illegal <strong>in</strong> the formal sense, are not <strong>in</strong> fact driven by the structural logic of a uni�ed purpose. (Uehl<strong>in</strong>g, 2008, p. 855) Unfortunately, <strong>in</strong> some of the research reviewed for this study, very little or no attempt was made to di�erentiate between the multiple di�erent ‘micropractices’ that fall with<strong>in</strong> the larger categories of ‘migrant smuggl<strong>in</strong>g’ or ‘irregular migration’. As such, it was often di�cult or impossible to di�erentiate between what were <strong>in</strong> fact self-managed movements of people, and other practices that were organized by third-parties either for humanitarian reasons or pro�t. �is signi�cantly limited the capacity of the exist<strong>in</strong>g body of literature to provide relevant <strong>in</strong>formation about the <strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the operation of, and the impact of, migrant smuggl<strong>in</strong>g practices. From the literature reviewed, it is clear that geography and local context play an important role <strong>in</strong> determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g particular research methods and data sources. For example, while it might be possible to replicate the k<strong>in</strong>d of study undertaken by Neske <strong>in</strong> countries with a strong and well-organized crim<strong>in</strong>al justice system (primarily dest<strong>in</strong>ation countries), it probably would not be feasible to undertake such a study <strong>in</strong> a context that did not match these conditions (primarily source and transit countries). For example, Silvey (2007) spent time <strong>in</strong> Term<strong>in</strong>al 3 <strong>in</strong> Jakarta, Indonesia, an airport term<strong>in</strong>al that is speci�cally designed and designated for migrant workers depart<strong>in</strong>g from and return<strong>in</strong>g to Indonesia. She observed the process of return<strong>in</strong>g migrants who were be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terviewed by government o�cials about their earn<strong>in</strong>gs and their experience overseas, among other th<strong>in</strong>gs. Answers were recorded on a standardized form, which might be thought of as a potential source of key data about the migration experience. However, accord<strong>in</strong>g to Silvey, there were many irregularities <strong>in</strong> how the forms were completed. In contexts where government data hold<strong>in</strong>gs may be limited or constra<strong>in</strong>ed, researchers may need to seek data from a broader range of sources. �is is re�ected <strong>in</strong> the reviewed literature, much of which is based on data obta<strong>in</strong>ed directly from migrants and others <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the migration process, as well as o�cially-provided data. A small number of studies draw on data obta<strong>in</strong>ed from migration facilitators, recruiters, agents and ‘smugglers’ obta<strong>in</strong>ed through direct <strong>in</strong>terviews and observations (see for example, Koser, 2008; UNODC, 2011; Zhang & Ch<strong>in</strong>, 2004; Zhang et al., 2007; Zhang, 2008). It appears that researchers have had some success <strong>in</strong> obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g data from migrant smugglers themselves. For example, Koser sought to <strong>in</strong>terview migrant smugglers, <strong>in</strong> order to better understand the �nancial aspects of the trade. He notes that:
[I]t was relatively easy to identify smugglers – <strong>in</strong> some cases they advertised their services quite openly. In addition, most smugglers I approached did not seem reluctant to admit that they provided migration services. On the other hand, only �ve were will<strong>in</strong>g to provide any detailed <strong>in</strong>formation about how they operated. (Koser, 2008, p. 9) While a number were approached and refused, Koser (2008) was able to <strong>in</strong>terview �ve smugglers and �ve more agents variously <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the process, such as forgers and <strong>in</strong>termediaries. Other researchers appear to have had a high level of success not only <strong>in</strong> identify<strong>in</strong>g smugglers but <strong>in</strong> obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g detailed, lengthy <strong>in</strong>terviews with signi�cant numbers of migrant smugglers. For example, data for a study on the gendered nature of migrant smuggl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong>terviews with 129 smugglers (Zhang et al., 2007). Interviews were conducted <strong>in</strong> three primary sites: New York City, Los Angeles and Fuzhou (Ch<strong>in</strong>a). As noted <strong>in</strong> the study: Research participants were recruited through our personal contacts and those of our research assistants. (Zhang et al., p. 706) �e authors note that all <strong>in</strong>terviews were conducted <strong>in</strong> the native language of the participants, and ranged from formal <strong>in</strong>terviews to <strong>in</strong>formal <strong>in</strong>terviews over d<strong>in</strong>ner tables or other social gather<strong>in</strong>gs “where formal <strong>in</strong>quiries <strong>in</strong>to the smuggl<strong>in</strong>g bus<strong>in</strong>ess were neither feasible nor socially acceptable” (Zhang et al., 2007, p. 706). �e authors note that <strong>in</strong> all cases, the participants were <strong>in</strong>formed of the identity of the <strong>in</strong>terviewers and no deception was used. �e authors noted that: Because of the pervasive fear of detection by law enforcement agencies and suspicion of our research purposes, we encountered many di�culties <strong>in</strong> persuad<strong>in</strong>g prospective research participants to come forward. Still, we collected more �rsthand data with far greater speci�city on the organizational and operational characteristics of Ch<strong>in</strong>ese human smuggl<strong>in</strong>g that any previous researchers procured. (Zhang et al., 2007, p. 706) A number of the studies exam<strong>in</strong>ed relied on data !#70'4&%*8#9':*';#$
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