Migrant Smuggling in Asia - United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime

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22 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*& New Zealand. Central <strong>Asia</strong>n and Eastern European countries serve as transit countries to Europe. Central America, Mexico and Canada are also transit countries for smuggl<strong>in</strong>g routes <strong>in</strong>to the <strong>United</strong> States. �� ere are only a few estimates regard<strong>in</strong>g the numbers of Ch<strong>in</strong>ese irregular migrants: 250,000 irregular Ch<strong>in</strong>ese migrants <strong>in</strong> Moscow <strong>in</strong> the mid-1990s, 72,000 <strong>in</strong> the Republic of Korea <strong>in</strong> 2002; 30,000–40,000 entered the <strong>United</strong> States annually from 2000 to 2005. �� Ch<strong>in</strong>ese migrant smugglers do not engage <strong>in</strong> other crim<strong>in</strong>al activities. Even though some of the researchers acknowledged the possibility of bias through the methodology chosen, the research <strong>in</strong>dicates that <strong>in</strong> general smugglers do not engage <strong>in</strong> other crim<strong>in</strong>al activities not related to migrant smuggl<strong>in</strong>g. Research carried out <strong>in</strong> Italy, the Netherlands and <strong>United</strong> K<strong>in</strong>gdom found no evidence of Ch<strong>in</strong>ese smugglers engaged <strong>in</strong> human tra�ck<strong>in</strong>g. �� Irregular channels <strong>in</strong>crease Ch<strong>in</strong>ese migrants’ vulnerability to abuse, exploitation and human tra�ck<strong>in</strong>g. �e research stresses that factors l<strong>in</strong>ked to irregular migration (fear<strong>in</strong>g deportation, not able to report to the police when becom<strong>in</strong>g a victim of crime), debts and the excessive work<strong>in</strong>g hours (which add to the sense of isolation and re<strong>in</strong>force dependence on local Ch<strong>in</strong>ese communities) raise the vulnerability of Ch<strong>in</strong>ese migrants to abuse, harsh and precarious liv<strong>in</strong>g and work<strong>in</strong>g conditions, exploitation and human tra�ck<strong>in</strong>g. �� Ch<strong>in</strong>ese traditional organized crime syndicates appear not to be <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> migrant smuggl<strong>in</strong>g. <strong>Migrant</strong> smugglers appear devoid of previous <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>in</strong> other forms of crime. �ere is a relative absence of violence with<strong>in</strong> and between migrant smuggl<strong>in</strong>g groups. �� Smugglers are “ord<strong>in</strong>ary” citizens who often pursue other jobs <strong>in</strong> addition to migrant smuggl<strong>in</strong>g. �ey are usually male, although women are also <strong>in</strong>volved. �e most famous female migrant smuggler is J<strong>in</strong> P<strong>in</strong>g Chen, known as Sister P<strong>in</strong>g, who was estimated to have smuggled 150,000–175,000 Ch<strong>in</strong>ese migrants <strong>in</strong>to the <strong>United</strong> States before she was caught and convicted. �� Ch<strong>in</strong>ese irregular migrants pay the highest smuggl<strong>in</strong>g fees <strong>in</strong> comparison with other populations of irregular migrants. Recent �gures range from USD 18,500 to USD 31,300 for European dest<strong>in</strong>ations and from USD 60,000 to USD 70,000 for an arranged marriage <strong>in</strong>to the <strong>United</strong> States. �e less a potential migrant is personally connected to a smuggler, the higher the fee. In addition to sav<strong>in</strong>gs, the money is borrowed from friends, families or moneylenders. Research <strong>in</strong> France found that most migrants had to borrow money, and the average period to repay migration debt was two years. �� e relationship between migrants and smugglers is a bus<strong>in</strong>ess relationship that usually ends with pay<strong>in</strong>g the fee soon after arrival. �� Mutual trust is paramount. Both migrants and smugglers screen each other; smugglers want to determ<strong>in</strong>e if the possible migrants can pay, while migrants want to ensure that the smugglers will deliver the agreed service. Sophisticated payment schemes help protect migrants aga<strong>in</strong>st sham smugglers. �� Smugglers typically rely on a good reputation and thus “care” to deliver on their clients’ expectations. Guaranteed schemes, such as only pay<strong>in</strong>g for successfully completed smuggl<strong>in</strong>g operations, are ways to attract migrants and build a good reputation. Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, violence aga<strong>in</strong>st migrants appears exceptional, often only <strong>in</strong> the context of enforc<strong>in</strong>g payment. �� e smuggl<strong>in</strong>g of Ch<strong>in</strong>ese citizens is coord<strong>in</strong>ated by a cha<strong>in</strong> of Ch<strong>in</strong>ese smugglers based <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a and transit countries <strong>in</strong> which they legally reside. Ch<strong>in</strong>ese smugglers might outsource smuggl<strong>in</strong>g services to other non-Ch<strong>in</strong>ese groups <strong>in</strong> transit countries. Recruiters <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a put migrants <strong>in</strong> touch with organizers. Together, they form a small, �exible network that changes accord<strong>in</strong>g to bus<strong>in</strong>ess opportunities. Interaction between smugglers is mostly one on one. �ere is no s<strong>in</strong>gle masterm<strong>in</strong>d who fully controls the smuggl<strong>in</strong>g process. �� Recruiters either advertise their services and proactively seek new clients or they are approached by the migrants. Once agreement has been reached, prepayments secure the prospective migrants’ commitment and cover the
asic costs. S<strong>in</strong>ce the late 1990s, accord<strong>in</strong>g to the research, some smuggl<strong>in</strong>g groups have not required any prepayment but advance all the costs and are only paid once the migrants have safely reached the dest<strong>in</strong>ation. �� Ch<strong>in</strong>ese smuggl<strong>in</strong>g networks act <strong>in</strong> a highly sophisticated way, orchestrat<strong>in</strong>g complex operations and movements across various countries and cont<strong>in</strong>ents by land, sea and air. �e smuggl<strong>in</strong>g networks are quick <strong>in</strong> adapt<strong>in</strong>g to chang<strong>in</strong>g visa regimes and counter-measures. For example, <strong>in</strong> response to US law enforcement crackdowns, smugglers changed from direct maritime smuggl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to the <strong>United</strong> States to more complex routes, transit<strong>in</strong>g through either Lat<strong>in</strong> America or Canada. �� When necessary and possible, migrant smugglers use fraudulent documents and bribe of- �cials. One research publication concludes that the <strong>in</strong>creased costs for brib<strong>in</strong>g Ch<strong>in</strong>ese o�cials are an <strong>in</strong>dicator of the success of Ch<strong>in</strong>ese counter-measures. !#70'4&%*8#9':*';#$
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