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culture to make changes and under what circumstances those changes may occur
and/or be accepted (Toury, 1995; 63-64).
Norms are not able to be observed directly, only the by-product of the norms.
Even when studying translation directly can only a product be studied. The two
major sources for studying translational norms are textual and extra-textual.
1. textual: the translated texts
2. extra-textual: “theories” of translation, critical formulations, statements
made by the translators, editors, publishers, etc.
Texts are primary products and are studied as an immediate representation of
norms whereas extra-textual material is simply a by-product of the activity of norms.
The extra-textual material is often partial, biased and likely to lean toward
propaganda and persuasion, so it should therefore be treated with circumspection.
Despite this, however, extra-textual material is very useful in the study of norms in
that it can provide a key into the analysis of the actual behavior (text).
It should be understood that a translator’s behavior is never fully consistent.
Her/his decision-making may change with different problem areas or even within one
problem area in the same assignment. Consistency in translation lies somewhere in
the middle between total randomness and absolute regularity and can only be
determined at the conclusion of studying the piece and not at the onset (Toury, 1995;
65-66). Considering the norms summarized so far, it can be said that norms are
effective factors while determining both the translation process and the translation
itself. So, Toury’s norms are used to describe, explain and predict, analyze and
criticize the translation phenomena.
D. Norms in Polysystem
Itamar Even-Zohar is the first name that comes to mind when polysystem
theory is mentioned. Influenced by the Russian structuralists, he first put forward his
approach in the 70's when he initially attempted to do something else. The term
'polysystem' is not a randomly selected concept, but implies the intent to make
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