WP 5 Analysis of present IWRM practices - Brahmatwinn

Project no: GOCE -036952
Project acronym: BRAHMATWINN
Project title:
Twinning European and South Asian River Basins to enhance
capacity and implement adaptive management approaches
Instrument: Specific Targeted Research Project
Thematic Priority: Global Change and Ecosystems
DL_5 Analysis of present IWRM strategies
Due date of deliverable: December 2008
Actual submission date: December 2008
Start date of project: 01.06.2006 Duration: 43 Month
Organisation name of lead contractor for this deliverable FSU
Project co-funded by the European Commission within the Sixth Framework Programme (2002-2006)
Dissemination Level
PU Public PU
PP Restricted to other programme participants (including the Commission Services)
RE Restricted to a group specified by the consortium (including the Commission Services)
CO Confidential, only for members of the consortium (including the Commission Services)

Content
Deliverable 5.1: Urban and industrial water demands and water quality issues
Deliverable 5.2: Flow depending water allocation
Deliverable 5.3: Water consumers and polluters
Deliverable 5.4: Irrigation agriculture, fertilization, and crop pattern
Deliverable 5.5: Groundwater recharge pattern, quality and exploitation
Deliverable 5.6: Enhancement of HRU into WRRU
2

Summary
The twinning Upper Danube River basin in Europe and the Upper Brahmaputra River Basin in South-
Asia are representative in a global perspective for trans-boundary basins having alpine mountain
headwaters and supplying their forelands with water resources to sustain food production, the socioeconomic
development and the environment. Millions of people in both basins depend on fresh
water of high quality and sufficient quantity. In comparison both rivers can cause hazards and
endanger human life, houses and infrastructure due to floods and droughts. Investigations on climate
change indicate that the risk of incidence of natural hazards will increase in the future, so adaptive
water management activities are required. One objective of the BRAHMATWINN project is the
transfer of professional Integrated Water Resources Management expertise, approaches and tools
based on case studies carried out in the European and Asian river basins. Therefore a comprehensive
analysis of the present situation in respect to water resources management was essential. The Global
Water Partnership (GWP) defines IWRM as “a process which promotes the co-ordinated
development and management of water, land and related resources in order to maximize the
resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the
sustainability of vital ecosystems” (GWP 2008).
Related to the glacier retreat and their alpine conditions the twinning basins have numerous
consequent issues in common:
• Runoff regimes range from glacial-nival to pluvial with snow and glacier melt driving flood
hydrographs during spring till early summer and establishing base flow during summer.
• Glacier lake outburst floods (GLOFs) and floods from storm rainfall as well as summer
droughts, are typical hydrological threats to the livelihoods of people.
• The role of ground ice (i.e. ice-rich permafrost) in the hydrological cycle is largely unknown.
Permafrost melt could for a limited time release additional water resources (similar to
retreating glaciers). On the long-term, however, potentially adverse effects from permafrost
thaw such as slope instability processes and changes in the sediment balance will certainly
predominate.
• Retreating glaciers and permafrost are exposing uncovered land to erosion and reduce slope
stabilities in favor of landslides and mud flows.
• Water quality is deteriorated by urban and industrial point sources as well as by non-point
seepage from agriculture.
• Hydropower potential is high and competes with demands from other water users and the
environment.
• The alpine mountain environment of both basins is unique and needs water for protection
and preservation.
• Present climate change impacts are likely to exaggerate during the forthcoming years
complemented by consequent others processes not evident at present.
• IWRM related trans-boundary conflicts and water related disputes are existing and are in
part linked to national water management and water export law and policies.
Besides those common topics both basins also differ in other issues requiring the adaptation of the
IWRM tools for the IWRMS provided by the partners:
• Present climate is of an oceanic temperate type in the UDRB and monsoonal with
complement pre-monsoon storm rainfall in the UBRB.
• The monitoring network is dense in the UDRB, while UBRB has less dense network, in UBRB
the information will be complemented from remote sensing data;
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• A complex, and sometimes conflicting, legal framework exists within the UDRB at the
regional level (EU and UN ECE), at the basin level (1994 Danube Convention), and at the
national level (national water legislation); whereas in the UBRB regional, basin and national
frameworks remain weak.
• Moreover, the implementation of the WFD has resulted in the formulization of IWRM
practices at the UDRB scale, while a similar legislation does not exist in the UBRB.
• Trans-boundary conflicts in the UDRB are on the whole resolved through the regional and
basin-wide legal framework, but in the geo-political sensitive UBRB there is still a long way to
go before a similar situation can be recognized.
• Socio-economic development is based on agriculture, industry, forestry, hydropower
generation and tourism in the UDRB and mainly on agriculture, forestry, hydropower
generation, and mining in the UBRB, and in the latter per capita income is very low if
compared to the UDRB.
• In relation to IWRM gender issues are of no importance in the UDRB but have to be
considered in different degree in the UBRB.
• Impacts of climate change to the natural environment common for both basins are likely to
differ regarding the human dimension and socio-economic environment in the UDRB and
UBRB.
Water availability is influenced by natural and human influences. A summary of water related issues,
e.g. water availability, water demand, climate conditions, population and land use in both basins and
test sites is presented in the following chapters. Additionally water management and administration
is described, which includes an illustration of responsible institutions and organizations as well as
strategies and plans in respect to water resources management.
The Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) is an international accepted approach. IWRM
is a balancing multi-sectoral process to make decisions for water resources management and related
issues. IWRM is a flexible tool to manage the water resources sustainable to ensure water availability
and to shelter the ecological function of water bodies. The main topic of IWRM is to manage the
water resources in a way first to secure water availability in sufficient quantity and quality for the
population and secondly to avoid hazards like floods and droughts. IWRM is characterized by a
sustainable management of the resource water and has to consider all three pillars of a sustainable
development which are the natural and the social environment as well as the economic dimension.
The river basins are dominated by both human impacts and mountain related processes. The main
threats are posed by unsustainable agricultural practices (strong imports of cattle feed and use of
pesticide, overgrazing, erosion) and growth of settlements, that cause significant degradation of
natural resources (groundwater, plants, soils).
Climate change is expected to destabilize and alter the biological system mainly within the mountain
regions. Tourism as one drive towards sustainable land use will be strongly and negatively affected.
In fact, the fourth assessment report by the IPCC does support this claim, Climate change is also
expected to have large impacts on catchment hydrology. Additionally the loss of glaciated areas is
threatening both ecosystems and human activities. Climate change is also causing degradation of
mountain forests and increasing avalanche danger.
At the policy level, both river basins are trans-boundary basins. They require a management
approach under involvement of all riparian states. The Upper Danube delivers a large portion
4

(approx. 55%) of the usable water resources of the downstream countries, namely Austria, Hungary,
former Yugoslav countries, Romania, Bulgaria. Water use of downstream countries will change
dynamically in the foreseeable future because of economic development through expected EU
membership. Intensified collaboration and political and economic coordination with downstream
countries (Austria, Hungary, Serbia, Romania, and Bulgaria) in the cause of the extension of the EU
will therefore be needed. The upstream states in the Brahmaputra basin, namely China, Nepal and
Bhutan have to threat the water in a way that downstream countries India and Bangladesh can meet
there water needs.
In regard to the above mentioned aspects it is obviously that the water resources were limited in
quantity and quality due to environmental hazards, climate change and human activities. The first
priority for water consumption is the satisfaction of basic human needs. An Integrated Water
Resources Management (IWRM) is necessary for gratifying all human and ecological needs of water
on the best way as possible.
The UDRB is strongly influenced by human activities. Formerly it was characterized by extensive
floodplains with side arms and backwaters, which were now altered into canalized and straightened
waterways. On the Inn, for example, less than 20 % can still be classified as free-flowing which means
not impounded or not strongly regulated. The Upper Danube is interrupted every 16 km on average
by a dam or impoundment. Very few stretches can still be characterized as free-flowing. The human
influence on river systems will become more obviously in the description of the test sites in the next
chapters.
The UBRB is not strongly regulated; there exist a few river embankments as protections for erosion
and some hydropower facilities. But the river stream is not modified. Especially in the lower part in
Assam the river is characterized by wide spread channels which are continuously changing their flows
because of erosion and sedimentation. But this issue poses great danger for the human dimension.
IWRM in the European River basins is based on the implementation of the EU water framework
directive adopted in 2000. The Commission had already been considering the need for a more global
approach to water policy, because the situation in the water sector was fragmented. The need for a
single piece of framework legislation to resolve this problem was necessary. Following most
important issues of this WFD were mentioned. The river basin was declared as the management unit.
For each river basin a "river basin management plan" is needed to be established and updated every
six years. In this plan objectives were set for the river basin, which have to be reached within a given
timeframe. The plan has further to include reasons for not achieving objectives where relevant; and
the program of actions required to meet the objectives. The directive commits EU member states to
achieve good status of all water bodies in respect to quantity and quality issues by 2015 (EC 2009).
In the Danube basin clear programs exists based on the WFD. The ICPDR does much effort to
implement the WFD in the Danube basin. In the Brahmaputra River basin is no similarly organization.
Regulations and laws account only on national level and there are only some bilateral agreements.
A superior authority like the ICPDR would lead to an improvement of water management. But
because of political conflicts between states in South-Asia, e.g. between Tibet and India it will be
difficult to build up such an organization.
5

This is the major reason why a trans-boundary water management does not exist in the Brahmaputra
river basin.
Comparison of selected macro-scale river basins Danube and Brahmaputra
Issue Danube Brahmaputra
Population Approx. 14 mio. Approx. 100 mio.
Basin area 77.000 km 2 >500.000 km 2
River structure Strongly human modified Natural river course
floods Due to snow melt and precipitation Due to snow melt, precipitation and
GLOFs
droughts - In non-monsoon period
Water quality Drinking water is strictly controlled Pollution problems, particularly in
India (e.g. Arsen)
Transboundary
water
management
ICPDR as superior authority Only bilateral agreements
Communication Good, in ICPDR representatives of all
riparian states close cooperating
IWRM In progress (in form of
implementation of EU WFD)
Coverage climate/
discharge stations
Good density for monitoring and
projection, long time series since
1900
6
Worst, high conflict potential between
up- and downstream countries
Has not yet started
Poor coverage, especially in Tibet,
limited data access (classified)
Sanitary services Good coverage Poor coverage, particularly in rural
areas and in respect to canalization
and treatment, drinking water supply
good in Bhutan, very poor in India
Mayor water users 1. Public water supply
2. Industrial water use
3. Hydropower
River linking
projects
Main- Danube channel to avoid
water scarcity in northern Bavaria,
well organized
1. Agricultural water use
2. Hydropower
3. Public water supply
Different water diversion plans within
the countries (e.g. India and Tibet)
without considering doubts and
worries by neighbor states
In brief overview both basins have a history in trans-boundary issues and disputes, but IWRM in the
past has developed differently:

• In the UDRB substantial progress has been achieved through the implementation of the 1994
Convention on Cooperation for the Protection and Sustainable Use of the River Danube,
which among others established the International Commission for the Protection of the
Danube River (ICPDR). The ICPDR has recently secured agreement from all Danube States to
act as the competent authority for transposing the 2000 European Water Framework
Directive (WFD) at the basin level. The GLOWA-Danube project for the UDRB was initiated in
2000 and has produced the DANUBIA hydrological model to be applied at the UBRB.
• In the UBRB negotiations have not yet reached the stage of a basin oriented and consistent
IWRM related cooperation (MAKKONEN, 2003). Bilateral cooperation however is ongoing, i.e.
between India and Bhutan, and there is hope that this situation will improve towards
enhanced co-operation in the future (GWP, 2004). A superior organization responsible for
water resources management in the entire basin like the ICPDR in Europe is still missing and
has to be implemented. In the basin not yet the entire population has access to drinking
water in sufficient quantity and quality. There exist still problems in respect to fresh water
supply and the management of hazards like floods and droughts and environmental
problems.
But in the last years, awareness for the problematic situation has raised. In the presented countries
the institutional framework was adapted and has established first requirements for an IWRM
approach.
The Deliverables carried out in the work package 5 of the BRAHMATWINN project show how IWRM is
implemented in the twinning European and South Asian River Basins.
Deliverable 5.1 has its focus on urban and industrial water demands and water quality issues. Major
water users in the basin were identified and an overview of management activities in these sectors is
given.
Deliverable 5.2 displays flow depending water allocation practices and has its focus on flood
management.
Deliverable 5.3 indentifies major water consumers and polluters. Water pollution problems and
impacts on natural environment and human dimension were described briefly.
Deliverable 5.4 focuses on agricultural water management, especially on irrigation agriculture.
Irrigation agriculture plays a major role in the Brahmaputra basin and is not significant in the Upper
Danube River basin.
Deliverable 5.5 gives an overview to the groundwater resources in the twinning basins, how they
were used and how it is endangered due to pollution and over exploitation.
Deliverable 5.6 shows the delineation of the WRRUs, which are homogeneous entities based on
runoff information and land use.
7

References
EUROPEAN COMMISSION (2009): Water Framework Directive.
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-framework/info/intro_en.htm,
access 03/02/09.
GWP-TEC, GLOBAL WATER PARTNERSHIP - TECHNICAL COMMITTEE (2004): "...Integrated Water
Resources Management (IWRM) and Water Efficiency Plans by 2005" Why, What and How?. - TEC
Background Paper, No. 10, 45 p.
GLOBAL WATER PARTNERSHIP (GWP) (2008): Integrated Water Resources Management.
http://www.gwptoolbox.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=8&Itemid=3,
access 12/03/09.
MAKKONEN, K. (2003): China’s role in Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in South
and Southeast Asia. - Master's thesis, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Helsinki
University of Technology, 119 p.
8

Project no: GOCE -036952
Project acronym: BRAHMATWINN
Project title:
Twinning European and South Asian River Basins to enhance
capacity and implement adaptive management approaches
Instrument: Specific Targeted Research Project
Thematic Priority: Global Change and Ecosystems
DL_5.1 Urban and industrial water demands and water quality issues
Due date of deliverable: September 2008
Actual submission date: September 2008
Start date of project: 01.06.2006 Duration: 43 Month
Organisation name of lead contractor for this deliverable FSU
Project co-funded by the European Commission within the Sixth Framework Programme (2002-2006)
Dissemination Level
PU Public PU
PP Restricted to other programme participants (including the Commission Services)
RE Restricted to a group specified by the consortium (including the Commission Services)
CO Confidential, only for members of the consortium (including the Commission Services)

List of contributors
Partner 1 FSU
Partner 2 LMU
Partner 5 UniVie
Partner 6 GeoDa
Partner 9 FEEM
Partner 12 ICIMOD
Partner 13 UniBu
Partner 14 ITP
Partner 15 CARR
Partner 20 IITR
Content
1 Introduction.................................................................................................................... 4
2 Major water user demands in the UDRB .......................................................................... 4
2.1 Public water supply ............................................................................................................. 7
2.2 Industrial water use............................................................................................................. 9
2.3 Related issues in the Salzach ................................................................................................ 9
2.4 Related issues in the Lech basin ......................................................................................... 10
2.5 Challenges for IWRM ......................................................................................................... 10
3 Major water users in the UBRB ..................................................................................... 12
3.1 General situation in the UBRB ............................................................................................ 12
3.2 Water users in the Lhasa River catchment and in the TAR in general ................................... 14
3.3 Water demand and quality issues in the Wang Chu ............................................................ 21
3.4 Water demand and quality issues in the Brahmaputra valley in Assam ............................... 29
4 Comparative analyses ................................................................................................... 31
References ...................................................................................................................... 32
2

Directory of figures
Fig. 1: Water withdrawals in the German Danube River Basin ............................................................................... 6
Fig. 2: Location of ChemDelta Bavaria .................................................................................................................... 9
Fig. 3: Population density in the Brahmaputra river basin .................................................................................... 12
Directory of tables
Tab. 1: Population in the German Danube River Basin ............................................................................................ 4
Tab. 2: Water extraction in the German DRB .......................................................................................................... 7
Tab. 4: Population in TAR (100000 persons) .......................................................................................................... 14
Tab. 5: Water resources and utilization in three water systems in TAR (1998-2005) ........................................... 15
Tab. 6: Gross domestic product in TAR from 1993 to 2006 (100 million Yuan) ..................................................... 17
Tab. 7: Output of main industry products in TAR .................................................................................................. 17
Tab. 8: River water quality and waste water discharge monitoring in TAR from 2000 to 2007............................ 19
Tab. 9: Total gross and net water demands by 2050 in Assam ............................................................................. 30
Explanations and Abbreviations
MoH: Ministry of Health
Mu: is a Chinese Unit for area. One mu is equal to (660m 2 ) or 666.6667 m 2 and
0.0006666667 km 2 , 1ha = 15mu = 10000 m 2
PHED :
Public Health Engineering Department
TAR: Tibetan Autonomous Region
TCC: Thimphu City Corporation
Yuan (CNY): Chinese currency, 1 Chinese yuan = 0.102934683 Euros
3

1 Introduction
Urban and industrial water users belong to the major water users in the basins. This report gives an
overview about water users and quality in the river basins of the Upper Danube and Upper
Brahmaputra. This deliverable was created in the frame of the EU project BRAHMATWINN – twinning
European and South Asian River Basins to enhance capacity and implement adaptive management
approaches. In a comparative analysis significant differences between both river basins were
elaborated. A comprehensive assessment of major water users and quality requirements is a basic
element for the development and implementation of IWRM strategies and plans.
2 Major water user demands in the UDRB
The Danube River basin (A = 801.463 km², Q = 6.460 m3/s) shared by 18 countries is the second
largest river basin in Europe. The Upper Danube River Basin (UDRB), is defined as the drainage area
upstream of the river gauge “Achleiten”, located just downstream of the mouth of the Inn River into
the Danube near Passau. The German percentage of the Danube River basin amounts approximately
73%, Austria 24% and the remaining 3% belong to Switzerland, Italy and the Czech Republic, see Fig.
1. In Germany the Danube River crosses with a length of 584 km the territories of the federal states
Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg. The German Danube basin reaches in the territory of the two
federal states Baden-Württemberg and Bavaria. In Baden-Württemberg is with 19% only less surface
water in use. To 59% the water is direct extracted from groundwater resources, to 22% it is extracted
from natural wells. The total withdrawal from the UDRB in Baden-Württemberg amounts 172
Mio.m 3 . In the Danube River in Austria and Switzerland is nearly no surface water extracted. This is a
result of good hydro-geological circumstances.
In the catchment area exist various cities which serve as important economic centers and they are
characterized by a high population size and density. Additionally the alpine region is a major tourism
centre in Europe in winter time as well as in summer. Extensive tourism in the alpine area has to be
considered as well.
As can be seen in the table, the total population in the German Danube River Basin amounts more
than 9 million in an area of 56.295 km 2 . This corresponds to a population density of 160 habitants/
km 2 . Of the 9.2 million inhabitants living in the German Danube Basin, 41 % live in urban areas with
more than 100,000 inhabitants (ICPDR 2007). Nearly one third of the population lives in the
catchment area of the Isar River. The river passes the Bavarian capital Munich, which is one of the
most density populated regions in the basin. In the German UDRB lives more than 10% of the
population of the entire Danube River basin.
Tab. 1: Population in the German Danube River Basin
(BAYERISCHES LANDESAMT FÜR WASSERWIRTSCHAFT 2005).
Region Area (km 2 ) 1.000 inhabitants Part of population
(yr2000)
/ river basin
Supreme Upper Danube 8.069 1.235 14
Iller-Lech 10.102 1.730 19
Isar 10.030 2.600 28
Inn 11.969 1.600 17
Altmühl/ Paar 6.702 1.280 14
Naab/ Regen 9..423 760 8
German Danube basin 56.295 9.205 100
4

In the Austrian part live aproximately 5,46 million people (north of the Alps, discharges to the
Danube, including Inn, Salzach and Enns basins) (BUNDESMINISTERIUM FÜR LAND- UND FORSTWIRTSCHAFT,
UMWELT UND WASSERWIRTSCHAFT 2005).
In the Danube river valley are rich ground water basins, which are used for the public water supply.
In the area of the “Ostalb” 1.5 to 2.0 m³/s groundwater as well as spring water are mined and used in
the Basin of the Neckar.
Withdrawal of water in the Upper Danube river basin is made for irrigation, for cooling systems and
for hydropower applications. 28 withdrawals are located in the German parts of the UDRB and can
be seen in the figure below. About five percent of the water exchange is taken from groundwater
near-surface except the water of the Ostalb, where 25% is withdrawn (BAYERISCHES LANDESAMT FÜR
WASSERWIRTSCHAFT 2005).
One characteristic of the river is the Danube sinking in its upper stream, which occurs in consequence
of the karst. Downstream the gauge Kirchen-Hausen 6 m 3 /s on average seeps away at 130 days a
year. This water outcrops again at the Aach spring in the Rhine river basin (UMWELTMINISTERIUM
BADEN-WÜRTTEMBERG 2008).
Upper Danube River Basin (A = 76 653 km2)
Germany Austria Switzerland, Italy and the Czech Republic
24%
3%
Fig. 1: Percentages of countries within the UDRB
5
73%

6
Fig. 2: Water
withdrawals in
the German
Danube River
Basin
(Source: LMU)

2.1 Public water supply
The public water supply comprises domestic use and small trade in addition to public institutions.
In the Bavarian Danube Basin exists three major water supply groups:
• “Wasserversorgung Bayrische Riesgruppe”,
• “Wasserversorgung Bayrischer Wald“ (groundwater of Isar mouth) and
• “Wasserversorgung Fränkischer Wirtschaftsraum“ (mouth of Lech).
The largest groundwater resources can be found in the Danube valley (BAYERISCHES STAATSMINISTERIUM
FÜR UMWELT, GESUNDHEIT UND VERBRAUCHERSCHUTZ 2005).
In the year 2001 about 3.77 billion m³ out of 51 billion m³ of water were extracted, 74.3 percent out
of surface waters. The table below gives a more detailed overview about the water needs in the
German UDRB.
In Baden-Württemberg on average about 5% of available fresh water resources were extracted. In
2002 that means an extraction of 20 mm from runoff of 350mm. The percentage varies in the area
between 5 and 10 %. Perceptions are the water resources in the Ostalb, which suffer from intensive
water use (25 %, 85 mm).
In respect to the ratio of groundwater recharge and groundwater extraction it is also in general
below 10%, except the Ostalb with extraction rates till 15% or 25%. The can be explained by the use
of a spring by the Landeswasserversorgung (UMWELTMINISTERIUM BADEN-WÜRTTEMBERG 2008).
Tab. 2: Water extraction in the German DRB
(BAYERISCHES STAATSMINISTERIUM FÜR UMWELT, GESUNDHEIT UND VERBRAUCHERSCHUTZ 2005).
Extraction for: Water extraction in Mio.m 3 /a (2001)
German UDRB Bavaria Baden-
Württemberg
Public water supply 791,4 624 167,4
Groundwater 578,8 479,3 99,5
Spring water 166,8 131,1 35,7
Surface water 45,8 13,6 32,2
Public heat power plants 2.229,3 2.226 3,3
Industry 747,3 711,2 36,1
Agriculture 1,76 1,63 0,13
Sum of consumed-water 1.540,46
Thermal power plants extracted about 2.2 billions m³ water for cooling systems, 87.8 percent is of
the Isar catchment and taken from surface water. The manufacturing industry extracted 750 Mio. m³
predominantly from surface water, whereas 85 percent of the water for agriculture was taken from
groundwater sources, mostly used for irrigation. This is equivalent to a volume of 390m³ irrigation
water per ha. The public water extraction was about 790 Mio. m³, 94 percent of it from ground or
spring water (BAYERISCHES LANDESAMT FÜR WASSERWIRTSCHAFT 2005).
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The table and the chart below show that the major part of consumptive water in southern Germany
is used for public water supply, but the water demand of the industrial sector is high as well. The
sector agriculture has comparatively just a small water demand. In the twinning Asian basin the
situation is different to this. For hydropower there is a large amount of water necessary. But this
water is added to the stream system again. Consequently the losses are not significant.
Water extraction for water using sectors in mio.m3
Agriculture;
1,76
Industry; 747,3
Public water
supply; 791,4
Public heat
power plants;
2229,3
Fig. 3: Water extraction in the German DRB in 2001
The largest percentage of water extraction lies in the federal state Bavaria, because the Danube River
basin reaches here into a large part and 65% of the Bavarian population is living in the Danube River
basin, including the population of the agglomeration Munich and a few other large cities.
The per capita water consumption in the German Danube basin was fallen during the last decades.
Major reason is the rising water price, but also more efficient technologies and in industry multiuses
by water cycles. Today 136 l per person and day were consumed. The public water supply comprises
domestic use and small trade in addition to public institutions. Issues of interest are in this context a
changing population number and the development of the person oriented water demand. These two
aspects have a significant influence to the prospective water demand of the end user.
The water for drinking water supply is to 95% extracted from ground- and spring water (see table).
98% of the population has access to the public water supply, 93% are connected with the sewage
water system.
Waste water discharges back through municipal waste water treatment plants as well as through
direct sewage disposal of manufacturing industry and public thermal power plants. In 2001 about 4
billion m 3 waste water discharged back.
In total the water use in this sector was about 790 Mio m 3 in 2001. Following the sector public water
supply can be described as one of the major water users.
In Austria about 40% of extracted fresh water is used for public water supply. The water is extracted
to similar parts of ground and spring water sources. The total water use in the Salzburger Land
8

amounts 90 Mio.m 3 (BUNDESMINISTERIUM FÜR LAND- UND FORSTWIRTSCHAFT, UMWELT UND
WASSERWIRTSCHAFT 2001).
The water use in Austria is 1 300 Mio.m 3 by industry, 100 Mio.m 3 by agriculture and 750 Mio m 3 by
public water supply. Only 1 % is extracted out of surface water bodies, the rest is coming from
ground- and spring water.
2.2 Industrial water use
In the last years the water demand of the industrial sector has declined continuously.
Conventional and high-tech industry branches have generally a high water demand. Some examples
are the semiconductor industry, aerospace industry, chemical, weapons and the automobile
industry. These water intensive branches have settled down in the Danube River basin and due to in
the region emerged highly industrialized centers like the cities Augsburg, Ingolstadt, Regensburg and
Munich. The water in the industrial sector is mainly used as cooling water and for energy generation.
In the year 2001 the extracted water for industry accords 750 Mio.m 3 . Two third of the used water
emanates from surface water. An efficient water use is given due to multiple-shift and circuit usage.
In Austria the major water user is the industrial sector which uses 56% of fresh water, 39% is used by
public water supply sector and 5% for agricultural uses (BUNDESMINISTERIUM FÜR LAND- UND
FORSTWIRTSCHAFT, UMWELT UND WASSERWIRTSCHAFT 2008).
2.3 Related issues in the Salzach
The chosen case study Salzach River basin is characterized through the central area of the City of
Salzburg. The urban agglomeration of the city with a population of 150 000 dominates the northern
part, whereas additional rural and alpine areas (located in the central-eastern part and to the South)
characterize the chosen study area. The area is highly dynamic by its economic development.
In Salzburg the per capita water consumption is about 120 l. In total 12 Mio.m 3 are needed in 2008
(SALZBURG AG 2009).
Fig. 4: Location of ChemDelta Bavaria
(CHEMDELTA BAVARIA 2009).
9

Industrial centers are mostly located close to rivers due to their high water demand. These industrial
areas then establish an own water cycle: water is extracted, used, treated and discharged back into
the river. Industry in the area of the Salzach is mainly chemical industry which is concentrated in the
“Chemie-Dreieck”. The triangle consist of seven economic centers and altogether 25 enterprises with
25 000 employees. Alone at the station Burghausen in the Salzach basin work about 4000 employees
in 5 enterprises, 7 Mio.m 3 of water were extracted per year, and major part is coming from the Alz
River. Most water is used for cooling purposes. The energy demand is enormous in the region.
In the past the water quality was significant affected by the cellulose fabric in Hallein, but since 1999
a good water quality could be secured (Water quality class 2 – low pollution level following EU water
framework directive). (LAND SALZBURG 2009). A grave pollution has been observed in 1977 because of
the Cellulose fabric. Organizations like Greenpeace give high attention to water treatment in the
chemical industry area.
Today water uses are strictly monitored to avoid that they constitute a risk for environment or
human health. Nevertheless groundwater in Salzburg is endangered due to fertilizers and pesticides.
2.4 Related issues in the Lech basin
Largest city in the basin is Augsburg with more than 260 000 inhabitants. The entire agglomeration
Augsburg with a population of 500 000 is one of the most important economic centers in Bavaria. It is
very important for environmental technologies, as well as for information- and communication
technologies. About 20 Mio.m 3 water are needed in 2007 in Augsburg (STADTWERKE AUGSBURG 2007).
2.5 Challenges for IWRM
In the Danube river basin actually there are no problems in respect to water quantity and water
supply. With the instruction of the Main-Danube channel water is transferred to another river basin
to increase water availability there. But the Upper Danube is a glacier fed catchment and as a likely
climate change impact great glaciers will disappear in the next centuries and this will have an impact
on the runoff regime of the river. This may affect water users in the river basin.
Also water quality is basically in good condition. Waste water treatment is strictly regularized and
controlled in the countries of the Upper Danube river basin. Nevertheless risks are caused by diffuse
pollution sources coming from the agricultural sector in form of fertilizers and pesticides.
The International Commission of the Danube River Protection is a superior authority which considers
trans-boundary issues in the Danube and its riparian states.
Following issues summarize future challenges for the implementation of an IWRM:
• During the last 30 years decreasing water tables are observed (causes unknown).
• Decreasing water quality particularly due to agriculture and industry.
• Uncoordinated and heterogeneous local and international water laws and policies.
• Expected large landuse changes and increasing tourism expecting an “undisturbed” landscape.
• Increasing conflicts between different water users, particularly tourism-agriculture water suppliers.
10

• Transboundary conflicts and treaties, water export across catchment boundaries (nationally and
internationally).
• Radical change in the water market expected through reduction from presently approx. 2200 to
approx. 5 water supply companies in the watershed, conflict between centralized and decentralized
water supply.
• Impact of climate variability on water resources expected
• Large sensitivity to global climate change expected, with increase of frequency of extreme events
(floods and droughts).
• Large changes in land use expected.
• Forests declining through fertilization and management
Most of the conflict potential and likely problems rise in consequence of changing climate conditions
and the connected increasing uncertainty. Therefore mitigation and adaption strategies are
important. Communication between riparian states in a trans-boundary basin and a broad data basis
is a fundament for successful IWRM.
11

3 Major water users in the UBRB
In this chapter the water supply situation for the sectors public water supply and industrial water
uses in the different states along the Brahmaputra River will be presented. It becomes clear that
water consumption of the industrial sector is comparatively low in Tibet and Bhutan. Most of the
available fresh water is used by the agricultural sector.
3.1 General situation in the UBRB
The water consumption situation is totally different in the riparian states of the Brahmaputra. While
Tibet is characterized by a sparse population and respectively low water demands, Bhutan shows
high potential of hydropower production and high potential of irrigation. Assam has the largest
population and highest population density. Water demand is high for public water supply and
irrigation water.
The Brahmaputra River flows through some of the most densely populated areas in the world. The
countries downstream of the Brahmaputra, India and Bangladesh depend mostly on the water of the
Brahmaputra River. Because of large population, water demand is high and population increases
continuously. These countries depend on the water resources in adequate quantity and quality
coming from upstream countries Tibet and Bhutan. Due to this situation conflicts in respective to
competitive water demands between countries arise.
Fig. 5: Population density in the Brahmaputra river basin
(ICIMOD 2005).
The average population density in the basin is estimated to be 182 persons/ km 2 (IUCN, IWMI,
RAMSAR CONVENTION BUREAU 2002) which results in a total population of 118 Million people for the
entire basin (ICIMOD 2005). However, the population density varies widely between the sparsely
12

populated uplands and the densely populated middle mountains and river plains. The highest density
of 828 persons/ km 2 is recorded in the Bangladesh portion, followed by India (143 persons/ km 2 ),
Bhutan (26 persons/ km 2 ) and Tibet (6 persons/ km 2 ) (GOSWAMI 1985). Other institutions even
estimate a population density of less than 2 persons/ km 2 for the Tibetan Plateau. The total
population in Tibet Autonomous Region TAR is numbered at 6.16 million.
Growth rates also vary largely in different parts of the basin. Bhutan’s population is estimated to be
0.65 million in the year 2005 with a growth rate of 1.3 % (ROYAL GOVERNMENT OF BHUTAN 2006 2 ). In the
Indian territory of the Brahmaputra live approximately 33.2 Mio. inhabitants, 86% of the population
lives in rural areas (IWMI 2005).
Large parts of the basin are marked due to a little developed socio-economy. In Bhutan poverty is an
important issue. The Poverty Analysis Report (2004) identified 31.7% of the population living below
the lower poverty line, established at Nu. 740.36 per month (around US $20). This study also
concluded that poverty in Bhutan was largely a rural phenomenon. However, Bhutan has made
major strides in the past 45 years, according to the Human Development Index (HDI). In the global
HDI of 2006, Bhutan is ranked 135 out of 177 countries, and is now listed under “medium human
development” (ICIMOD 2008).
Special groups on the basis of their environment are the char dwellers in India and Bangladesh
(SARKER ET AL. 2003). In braided rivers such as the Brahmaputra river, islands emerge and disappear
with erosion and accretion processes. In Bangladesh these lands are generally known as ‘chars’ and
provide opportunities for establishing human settlements and agricultural activities. SARKER ET AL.
2003 name the people living in this environment as char dwellers.
No superior authority responsible for water management on Brahmaputra River basin scale exists.
Only national authorities and institutions, as well as national laws exist. Water management and
organization of water supply is regulated on national level, but not at trans-boundary level. There
exist only some bilateral agreements for example between India and Bhutan concerning hydropower
production. China and India have different river linking plans to divert water from the Brahmaputra
for mitigating water problems in other parts of the country. China wants to divert water from the
Brahmaputra to the North and India wants to divert water from the river to solve water supply
problems in the Ganga basin in low flow times. Both plans are not feasible; because they would have
grave impacts on the other states. This delivers a high conflict potential, no solution with advantages
for all riparian states was found so far. A superior authority would help to solve these conflicts by
supporting the communication between states.
13

3.2 Water users in the Lhasa River catchment and in the TAR in general
In respect to the climate conditions the rivers in Tibet were particularly fed by the snow melt in
summer month, because precipitation is very low and precipitation is moreover concentrated in the
summer month during monsoon season.
TAR has with 37.5% lowest proportion of urban population among regions in China, while it arrived
44.94% in whole country in 2006. Anyhow, TAR has speeded up its urban planning and construction
in recent decade. Official Statistics show that TAR currently has two cities at the prefecture level, 71
county seats and 112 towns, with a total urban population of 420,000 and the proportion of urban
population rose to 30% first time in 2000 (see Table). Using estimation method suggested by TAR
Hydrology Bureau, the average per capita water demand in urban is 73 m 3 yearly and the total
amount was about 73.6 million m 3 in TAR in 2006.
Tab. 3: Population in TAR (100,000 persons)
Year Total Urban Rural
Population Population Proportion Population Proportion
(%)
(%)
1990 218.05 35.68 16.4 187.37 83.6
1991 221.79 36.26 16.4 185.53 83.7
1992 225.27 37.01 16.4 188.26 83.6
1993 228.88 37.84 16.5 191.04 83.5
1994 231.98 38.48 16.6 193.50 83.4
1995 235.55 39.83 16.7 196.17 83.3
1996 239.3 40.40 16.9 198.90 83.1
1997 242.74 41.72 17.2 201.02 82.8
1998 245.39 43.86 17.9 201.53 82.1
1999 247.72 66.87 27.0 180.85 73.0
2000 251.23 79.51 31.6 171.72 68.4
2001 253.7 81.30 32.0 172.40 68.0
2002 255.44 83.67 32.8 171.77 67.3
2003 259.21 98.43 38.0 160.78 62.0
2004 263.44 100.04 38.0 163.42 62.0
2005 267.55 100.78 38.0 166.77 62.0
2006 268.58 100.82 37.5 167.76 62.5
14
The table shows that the
population in Tibet
increases continuously. The
proportion of urban and
rural population is stable
since 2003. According to the
trends becoming obviously
in the table actually a
changing of the proportion
of the total population
living in urban and rural
areas is not expected to
change significantly in the
future.

Tab. 4: Water resources and utilization in three water systems in TAR (1998-2005)
Year Area
(km 2 )
Brahmaputra
Water resource (100 million m 3 ) Water Supply (100 million m 3 ) Water demand (100 million m 3 ) Water
consump
tion
Precip. Surface
water
resources
Ground
water
resources
Total water
resources
Surface
water
Ground
water
15
Total Agriculture Industry Domestic
water
1998 240480 2575 1934 485 1934 10.52 0.66 11.18 9.98 0.49 0.7 11.18
Water
consump
tion
Total 10 8 m 3 Rate in %
1999 2138 1693 479 1693 15.02 15.02 12.26 81.6
2000 2289 1741 442 1741 15.44 15.44 12.58 81.5
2001 2160 1564 437 1564 15.31 15.31 12.43 81.2
2003 2402 1376 388 13.87 1.09 14.96 14.4 0.25 0.31 14.96
2004 2416 1766 362 1766
2005 2329 1698 346 1698 15.11 1.58 16.69 15.73 0.39 0.57 16.69
Southern Tibet Rivers
1998 155778 2990 1882 439 1882 2.78 0.02 2.8 2.63 0.01 0.15 2.8
1999 5000 1800 1800 2.91 2.91 2.45 84.2
2000 4699 1811 1811 3.25 3.25 2.75 84.7
2001 4531 1581 1581 3.84 3.84 3.21 83.7
2003 13752 1873 313 1873 6.79 0.1 6.89 6.77 0.03 0.09 6.89
2004 2438 1895 386 1895
2005 2334 1797 293 1797 7.59 0.1 7.69 7.57 0.01 0.11 7.69

Western Tibet Rivers
1998 57340 47 23 13 23 0.13 0.01 0.14 0.1 0 0.03 0.14
1999 1474 434 18
2000 1672 1070 20
2001 83 32 17 32 0.15 0.03 0.18 0.11 0.02 0.05 0.18
2003 1278 30 14 14 0.17 0.02 0.19 0.16 0.01 0.02 0.19
2004 86 24 11 24
2005 96 24 11 24 0.11 0.02 0.13 0.1 0.01 0.02 0.13
16

TAR has the lowest per capita industrial output value among provinces and regions in China with
1456 Yuan, while it arrived 30,665 Yuan in whole country in 2006.
Tab. 5: Gross domestic product in TAR from 1993 to 2006 (100 million Yuan)
Gross Per Capita
Year Domestic Primary Secondary Tertiary Industry
Product Industry Industry Industry Construction Industry (Yuan)
1993 37.42 18.30 5.49 2.70 2.79 13.63 117
1994 45.99 21.14 7.88 3.43 4.44 16.97 146
1995 56.11 23.48 13.24 4.10 9.13 19.39 172
1996 64.98 27.20 11.32 4.40 6.93 26.46 182
1997 77.24 29.23 16.88 8.16 8.72 31.13 332
1998 91.5 31.37 20.14 9.05 11.09 39.99 363
1999 105.98 34.25 23.86 9.50 14.36 47.86 375
2000 117.8 36.39 27.05 10.17 16.88 54.37 395
2001 139.16 37.54 31.97 10.88 21.09 69.65 416
2002 162.04 39.75 32.72 11.65 21.07 89.56 440
2003 185.09 40.70 47.64 13.82 33.82 96.76 515
2004 220.34 44.30 52.74 16.10 36.64 123.30 592
2005 251.21 48.04 63.52 17.48 46.04 139.65 634
2006 291.01 50.90 80.10 21.71 58.39 160.01 778
Note: The indices in this table are calculated at current prices.
Tab. 6: Output of main industry products in TAR
Chromium Ore Borax Ore Cement Beer Electricity
Year (10 3 ton) (10 3 ton) (10 3 ton) (10 3 ton) (10 7 kwh) Hydropower
1993 71.28 12.69 130.89 1.86 39.29 96.7%
1994 74.00 16.35 150.19 2.03 44.58 63.4%
1995 109.88 48.27 219.95 1.21 48.34 62.8%
1996 111.98 3.71 231.10 4.53 51.51 74.0%
1997 122.14 2.96 322.30 16.57 57.77 78.1%
1998 213.72 17.60 370.00 13.44 62.16 79.9%
1999 183.66 25.81 390.38 24.08 63.32 82.4%
2000 196.63 493.20 25.02 66.08 83.8%
2001 159.45 495.90 27.53 69.69 84.6%
2002 124.22 590.80 29.11 79.65 86.4%
2003 155.80 889.10 32.94 101.60 90.6%
2004 142.25 959.80 38.86 116.47 89.8%
2005 116.68 1372.80 48.92 133.39 90.7%
2006 121.76 1666.66 63.28 151.51 91.0%
There are now 10-odd industrial sectors in TAR, including electric power, mining, wool spinning,
forestry, food processing, printing, building materials and machining and there were 451 industrial
enterprises in 2006. The ratio of output value of heavy industry to light industry is about 1.5 in
recently years. The region has established its own brand including mineral water, Lhasa Beers,
Chinese and Tibetan medicinal herbs, carpet, etc. Table 6 and 7 show the gross domestic product and
17

the output of the main industry branches. Using estimation method suggested by TAR Hydrology
Bureau, the average water consumption of water per 10,000 Yuan industrial output is at the level of
400 m 3 yearly and the total amount consumption was about 86.84 million m 3 in TAR in 2006.
There are four types of enterprises that consume a great lot of water and produce a lot of waste
water. They are power plant, mining and dressing plants, cement plants and Beer Company:
• Power Plant
There were 107 enterprises of production and supply of electricity and thermal power in 2006. It is
the largest industry sector in TAR. These enterprises generated 1515. 1 million Kwh of electricity and
91 percent of electricity was generated by hydropower and about 5 percent (70 million Kwh) was
generated by thermal power plant in 2006. The amount of water consumption by thermal power
plant estimated (water consumption amount of per kwh = 3.36 kg) was 0.2352 million m 3.
• Mining and Dressing Plant
There were 71 unit enterprises of mining and dressing in 2006 and main mining production are
chromium ore and borax ore but the output of borax has decreased significantly since 2000 for borax
plants in China demanded little TAR natural borax. The output of chromium was 0.1217 million ton.
The amount of water consumption estimated (water consumption amount of per ton of output of
chromium ore = 6 ton) was 0.7306 million m 3 .
• Cement Plant
The output of cement reached 1.666 million tons in TAR in 2006, and the most of the cement
products in TAR is produced by local plants. The amount of water consumption estimated (water
consumption amount of per ton of output of cement = 0.2 ton) was 0.332 million m 3 .
• Beer Plant
The output of beer was 63,280 tons in 2006 and reached 83,500 tons in 2007, a rise of 31.9 percent.
The amount of water consumption estimated (water consumption amount of per ton of output of
beer = 10 ton) was 0.835 million m 3 .
Water quality in Brahmaputra river basin in TAR
The evaluation of the Brahmaputra river basin water quality in Tibet is generally good, man-made
pollution is not prominent. Water quality in Brahmaputra River Basin depends on the geographical
location (upper, middle or lower reaches in Tibet), location of land mines, and landforms. Water
quality in dry season is better than that in rain season for sediment carried an amount of lead and
cadmium in rain season. However, in the sites where water was polluted by thermal power plant
sewage, like Yangbajing section of Doilung Qu River, water quality in rain season was better than that
in dry season. For example, in 2000 and 2001, water quality in a length of 2883 km of river in
Brahmaputra, including the main stream of the Brahmaputra and three first- level tributary, Nianchu
River, the Lhasa River, and Niyang and two second-level tributary, Doilung Qu and Pasang Qu river
were evaluated. In dry season, water quality in more than 97.4 percent of monitored river was better
than level Ⅲ (slightly polluted), 0.1 percent at level Ⅲ and 2.5 percent lower than level Ⅲ. In rain
season, water quality in more than 76.8 percent of monitored river was better than level Ⅲ (slightly
polluted) and 23.2 percent lower than level Ⅲ.
A more detailed overview is given in the Tab. 7: River water quality and waste water discharge
monitoring in TAR from 2000 to 2007.
18

Tab. 7: River water quality and waste water discharge monitoring in TAR from 2000 to 2007
Year 2000 2001 2004 2005 2006 2007
Monitored River Brahmaputra Brahmaputra
Lantsang
Brahmaputra, Lantsang and Southern Tibet Rivers
Monitored River
Length (km)
2883 2883 +1048 6784
Monitored river section
Numbers
23 42
Level Ⅱ (fairly
good)
Level Ⅲ
(slightly
polluted)
Level Ⅳ
(poor)
Level Ⅴ**
(hazardous)
76.8% (rain
season)
97.4% (dry
season)
2.5% (dry
season)
23.2% (rain
season)
0.1% (dry
season)
98.12% (rain
season)
98.09% (dry
season)
0.08% (dry
season)
1.88% (rain
season)
1.83% (dry
season)
25.1%
72.1%
1.72%
Industrial waste
discharged (10,000
ton)
1006.08 1062.8 992.8 1008.54 790.45 869.77
COD in industrial waste
(ton)
2719 1166.3 1071.57 948.34 917.82
Sulfate in industrial
waste (ton)
88.16
Domestic sewage
(10,000 ton)
4197.47 3265 3508.4 3563.60 2462.44 2479.08
Proportions of river in different
levels of water quality
Example Lhasa
The city is the political, economic and cultural center. Lhasa River is a major water source of Lhasa
City. The inter-annual average river runoff in Lhasa City is 10.2 billion cubic meters, and the interannual
underground water resources is 254 million cubic meters (customer-water are not including
in both of them). The total capacity of the 15 existing reservoirs is 26.17 million cubic meters and the
irrigation area is about 47,000 mu, mainly distributed in the Lhasa River tributary Pengboqu and
other small tributaries. Groundwater is exploided in Pengboqu Basin in a small-scale for the farmland
irrigation as well as for living and industrial water of the organs, armies and enterprises in urban
Lhasa.
Irrigation in Lhasa is an important issue, because more than 90 % of extracted fresh water is used for
irrigation. In general reservoirs store water for irrigation. But because of lack of coordination and
reservoir leakage, and other factors, some of the reservoirs could not store water anymore and some
of them had a decreasing efficiency of irrigation because of siltation. Gravity Irrigation are mainly
distributed in the the two sides of mainstream of Lhasa River valley and the tributaries Mozhumaqu,
Pengbo and Duilongqu. There are 39 main channels with a controlled area of 321,000 mu, irrigating
277,300 mu of farmland and 20,000 mu of forest and pasture. There are six power irrigation stations
in Qushui County, irrigating 3,000 mu of farmland. Because the power cannot be guaranteed and
water seepage of channels is serious, the irrigation efficiency is poor. Irrigation channels have a total
19

length of 372,4 km. Water conservancy facilities in Lhasa area have difficulties to guarantee the
agricultural irrigation water.
Institutional framework in China and the Tibetan Autonomous Region
There are four water related laws in China.
Water Law of the People's Republic of China
Flood Control Law of The People's Republic of China
Law of the People's Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution
Law of People Republic of China on Water and Resources Management
The major provisions of the water law in relation IWRM are as follows:
• The law highlights that the states encourages strict economy on the use of water, greatly promotes
water conserving measures and builds a water conserving community among other things.
• For the purpose of protecting water resources, the state adopts effective measures such as
protection of vegetation, planting of trees and grass, conservation of water resources, prevention
and control of soil erosion and water body pollution, and improvement of ecological environment.
• The State has applied the system under which management of river basins is combined with
management of administrative regions.
• The institutions for river basin management are set up by the administrative departments for key
water resources under the State Council for the key rivers and lakes defined by the State.
• There are seven river basin commissions in China, but no one for the Yarlung Tsangpo. The
administrative department for water resources under local people's government is responsible for
unified management of and supervision over the water resources.
• The state formulates strategies plans for water resources across the land. The plans are divided into
river basin plans and regional plans. While developing and utilizing water resources, the principles of
combining promotion of beneficial uses and eliminating harmful impacts should be taken into
account of upper and lower reaches and on both the right and left banks of a river.
• The development and utilization of water resources shall first satisfy the need of the urban and rural
inhabitants in their domestic use of water and give overall consideration to the agricultural and
industrial need for water as well as to the need of navigation. In areas where the water sources are
insufficient, the scale of the urban area and the development of industrial and agricultural
undertakings which use a large amount of water shall be restricted.
The revised Water law issued in 2002 clearly provides adoption of a system of water administration
based on combined river basin administration and administrative division; and provides the system
of water resources planning, river flow allocation, water function zoning and management of total
pollutant discharge, water abstraction permitting, paid use of water resources, water saving,
progressive pricing for above norm uses, and supervision and monitoring of law enforcement etc.
Following river commissions exists in China:
• Yangtze River Water Resources Commission
• Yellow River Water Resources Commission
• Huaihe River Water Resources Commission
20

• Haihe River Water Resources Commission
• The Pearl River Water Resources Commission
• Songliao River Water Resources Commission
• Taihu Basin Authority
The Lhasa test catchment and Yarlung Tsangpo river basin does not fall in any of the mentioned river
commission. The river water resources commissions are working under Ministry of Water Resource,
P. R. China. In general China tries to implement a better dealing with water resources on basin level,
but in respect to the Yarlung Tsangpo/ Brahmaputra so far there is no management of the river
system implemented.
3.3 Water demand and quality issues in the Wang Chu
The Wang Chu, known as the Raidak in India, has three arms which flow through the valleys of
Thimphu, Paro and Haa in western Bhutan. The river confluences with the Sankosh River and joins
the Brahmaputra upstream of Dhubri near the Indo-Bangladesh border.
Several significant factors govern water use in Bhutan:
• the population is only 670,000, with a current estimated growth rate of 1.3%;
• about 90 % of the water is used by the agriculture sector;
• the industrial sector in Bhutan is very small and, bar the hydropower sector, only a few are
intensive water users;
• the general perception in Bhutan is that neither water quality nor quantity is a concern.
Water users in Bhutan draw water from three distinctly different source groups: namely, the main
stem rivers; tributary streams and rivers; and sub-surface water. At the present, the demand of
water is for hydropower generation, municipal use, rural domestic use, irrigation, industrial use, and
livestock rearing and production. The average water flow draining the country is estimated at 73,000
million m 3 per annum and the per capita water availability is estimated at 100,000 m 3 which is one of
the highest in the world. A detailed water demand forecast exercise carried out by the Department
of Energy with expertise from Norconsult for the preparation of Bhutan’s Water Resources
Management Plan had estimated 422 million m 3 of gross consumptive demand in 2002 and
forecasted this demand to grow to 516 million m 3 by 2012 and to 541 million m 3 by 2022. Based on
2002 estimates, per capita consumptive water demand works out to about 665 m 3 per year. In terms
of consumptive demand, irrigation demand alone makes up for about 93 % of the total demand.
However, irrigation demand is expected to slow down and stagnate after 2012. On the other hand,
municipal demand, which is 2.3 % of the total demand as per 2002 estimate, is expected to grow to
about 3.7 % of the total by 2012 and nearly 7 % by 2022.
Non-consumptive water demand exists in the form of hydropower demand. The hydropower
demand has been estimated at 6,700 million m 3 for 2002, and is forecasted to grow exponentially to
26,900 million m 3 by 2022, keeping in view the upcoming and potential hydropower projects in the
future. Water demand for other sectoral uses are also bound to increase due to the rapid pace of
development and the changing lifestyles (ROYAL GOVERNMENT OF BHUTAN 2008).
21

Public water supply
High priority has been given to access to safe drinking water and sanitation in the past two decades,
and the nation has made substantial and impressive progress in providing these services to both rural
and urban households. Urban and rural water supply systems are developed and managed by
different institutions. The PHED in the MoH, and the DUDES of the MoWHS are responsible for
planning and implementation of all water and sanitation activities in the country.
In the largest towns (eg. Thimphu and Phuentsholing), the City Corporations manage the water
supply systems and its maintenance. In 1990, it is estimated that 40% of the population in both urban
and rural areas had access to clean drinking water. In 2005, this had risen to 84% of the rural
population and 98% in the urban areas. However, it is still considered that some 20% of the rural
population, and 1.5% of urban people, depend on unsanitary sources (eg. unprotected spring
sources, rivers and ponds).
Data collected between March and May 2007 records that 99.5% of the urban population, and 88%
of the rural population, now have access to water from an improved source (ROYAL GOVERNMENT OF
BHUTAN 2007). In terms of sanitation, 86% in rural areas and 96% in urban areas had access to basic
facilities. The main available facilities were pit latrines in rural areas (64.2%), and flush toilets in
urban areas (45.5%). In terms of water supply and sanitation, the current issues and challenges are as
follows:
a) shortage of skilled manpower in both urban and rural areas, and lack of training opportunities,
b) lack of accurate and adequate data on urban population for long term planning and projections,
c) poor coordination between stakeholders and actors,
d) uncontrolled growth of satellite towns which puts a strain on existing infrastructure,
e) difficultly in meeting the operation and maintenance costs due to a highly subsidized services,
f) in rural areas, there have been difficulties monitoring the quality of the water provided and its
safety for consumption.
For an improvement of the situation the Bhutan Millennium Development Goals – Needs Assessment
and Costing Report (2006- 2015) was set up in 2007. The MDG report also states that 100% of the
rural population will be provided with safe drinking water by 2013 through new schemes and
upgrading older or malfunctioning systems.
Urban Supply
In Thimphu, the average water consumption is 135 litres/household. This is the Thimphu City
Corporation (TCC) standard, calculated on the average consumption since 1996 when metering of
household water use was introduced. There are currently over 3,000 meter connections in Thimphu.
In Thimphu town, there is no major industry and domestic use is by far the largest consumer. In
Phuentsholing, the weather is significantly hotter, and average domestic water consumption is
estimated at 150 litres/household. In addition, there are more industries which are major consumers
of water.
In all urban areas of Bhutan, wastage is a serious problem. In Thimphu in 2002, 4.7 million liters per
day were considered to be wasted. The TCC currently have no means of measuring the inflow to the
town's water supply, but demand is going up due to increased population, and expansion of the town
22

area. The vibrant construction industry is observed to be using increased amounts of water, and in
some cases, on the larger developments, a temporary connection is provided and metered.
The two treatment plants at Motithang and Jungshina both have a capacity of 6,500 m 3 /day, and
there are 15 “clear water reservoirs”, with a total capacity of 4,260 m3.
It is estimated that the increase in population of Thimphu is between 7 and 10% annually (ROYAL
GOVERNMENT OF BHUTAN 2006), and it is estimated that water demand is currently increasing by 10%
annually, meaning consumption would double in less than 10 years. TCC senior staff considers that
the water resources are available but that they would struggle with the infrastructure,
establishment, maintenance and replacement. Campaigns have been run in the past to prevent
wastage, which is considered to be high at the consumer end.
However, the quantity at the sources of water for Thimphu remains the same, and currently no 24
hour supply is provided to any part of town. Shortages in the future might be expected, although
improved storage of the four current sources will alleviate the risk. Three streams in the sloping
suburb of Mothitang, and one stream upstream of Thimphu at Jungshina currently supply all the
water for Thimphu. Using the main river, the Thim Chhu, which runs through Thimphu would require
a treatment plant upstream of the town.
TCC has established an Environment Division to manage solid waste and control pollution, and
environmental inspectors were being hired in 2008. The sewage treatment plant for Thimphu,
completed in the mid-1990s, is downstream of the town at Barbesa.
The other large town in Bhutan which has a Municipal Corporation is Phuentsholing, on the border
with India, which in the 1950s was a small hamlet of scattered huts. In 1971, its population had
grown to 7000, by 1980 12,000, and in 2005 22,500. The PCC was established in 1983, and piped
water is now supplied to all parts of town, the average daily demand recorded at approximately 7000
m 3 in 2006. The sources of water for the PCC are 8 deep bore wells, and 5 raw water streams, and
there are three treatment plants, known as north, south and a smaller one at Karbandi. The N and S
plants can each handle 2,000 m 3 per day. There are 12 km of raw water supply line, and 27 km of
distribution line. A total storage capacity of 3,315 m 3 exists in 10 different locations, and there are
313 recorded water connections in Phuentsholing. Extraction of groundwater in Bhutan is rare, and
these boreholes of Phuentsholing are somewhat unique. The number of boreholes was expanded to
eight after severe damage to the infrastructure and existing supply lines occurred due to the July
2000 flash floods.
Rural Supply
The Public Health Engineering Department (PHED) in the MoH is the unit responsible for extending
the rural water supply, through the Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Program. In 1999, a total of
1800 rural water supply schemes had been constructed, covering almost 60% of all villages in
Bhutan. By 2007, nearly 90% of rural households are covered, and receive piped, untreated water
from a spring or stream. A spring is preferred as they are more easily protected and the water quality
less questionable. The entire rural water supply in Bhutan is provided through gravity schemes, some
70% from springs, and 30% from streams. Each scheme provides water supply to communities with a
mean size of 18 HHs, and an average of 2 HHs sharing a tap-stand. In rural areas, it is estimated that
the average consumption rate is 45 litres/day/person. A national population growth rate of 2.5% is
taken to project the water requirement over the next 20 years. (This is twice the population growth
23

ate estimated from the 2005 national census, and thus will either provide large scope for growth, or
be reduced in the future). Rural water usage per HH is to be considered to be much less than urban
usage due to the lack of flush toilets, baths, washing machines etc. in rural areas. The figure of 45
l/day/person allows for water being used for other purposes such as watering of kitchen gardens.
In respect of rural water, the goal of the 9 th 5 Year Plan was to achieve 100% coverage. This has not
been achieved but probably will be reached in the coming 5 years of the 10 th 5YP. Until 2005, the
rural water program was supported by DANIDA, but is now government sponsored, although DANIDA
and WHO continue to support capacity building at all levels. Regional operations and maintenance
work is undertaken by a trained "water caretaker", appointed and paid for by the community, who
also pay for any spare parts and maintenance materials required.
There are some reports of springs drying up and increased shortages from streams in the dry season.
In certain localities, the reason for this has been identified as road construction, logging and
deforestation, or other disturbances such as landslides. Depending on the effects of climate change,
landslides may increase in the future, thus further damage to rural water supplies might be expected.
Water harvesting and other alternative technologies are now being considered in more remote
areas, for example at monasteries at high altitude (eg. in Lhuentse and Pemagatshel). In two geogs of
Mongar, an eastern dzongkhag, due to lack of an alternative source, water is collected from roof-tops
(via CGI sheets, gutters and downpipes), and stored in 2000 to 5000 liter plastic storage tanks at the
household. This system is employed by over 100 households in each of the geogs, but shortages are
still experienced in dry winters. The occurrence of such alternatives as described above is likely to
increase as the remaining 10% of rural communities currently without water are largely in remote
areas.
Despite the high percentage of households receiving piped water, MoH officials state that illness
from water-borne diseases remains high, due to poor hygiene and the sorry state of latrines and
associated facilities. Pit latrines are relatively common, but conditions are poor and usage is low. A
scoping study undertaken by SNV in 2007 concluded that the sanitation situation in community
schools and religious institutions was poor. Knowledge of sanitation and spread of disease in rural
communities would appear to be generally good, the problem is changing behavior. A new strategy
called community led total sanitation (CLTS), in which the lead role is taken by the community in
planning, problem identification and solving, is now being promoted by the Ministry to improve the
situation. A key element of this strategy is education and harnessing traditional collective community
action.
In terms of water resource and supply, there is little contact between the different institutions and
Ministries involved. Here, the NEC and Bhutan Water Partnership have clear roles to play, and the
need for IWRM is also apparent. Conflicts over water use in rural areas are fairly common, and
conflict studies, undertaken in early March 2002 by PHED, highlighted this. In the study, which
covered 36 communities where conflicts existed, the problems could be grouped under several
headings:
a) Source sharing: too little water for too much demand - eg. the source of a rural supply scheme is
used for both domestic water supply and irrigation, more than one community claim the source,
or resistance to sharing a source with another community;
24

) new settlements: where a rural water supply system exists in an established community, and new
house owners refuse to pay a share of the original construction costs;
c) land ownership: sacrifice of land for the construction of a storage tank, or refusal of a land owner
to allow pipe trenches to cross his field;
d) water use: illegal private connections, overuse of water, or using water for mills or watering
kitchen gardens;
e) disposal of waste water: damage caused by waste water from leaking tap-stands;
f) Old disagreements: can re-arise or be exacerbated by a new water scheme.
These conflicts have a number of impacts including: delay in construction of a scheme, or even
cancellation, part of a community being left out of a scheme, vandalism, general disharmony, and
inefficient use of water. Most conflicts are caused by the existence of well-defined traditional rights
in regard to use of water or land prior to the construction of a rural water supply scheme, the
traditional rules for the use of a particular source being in conflict with equity or not in accordance
with modern practice; bad neighborliness, ignorance, and historical conflicts are also causes. If a
supply scheme is well maintained and managed, the likelihood of conflicts occurring is reduced. The
water scheme committee and the caretaker have a crucial role in this aspect - in a well managed
scheme, water will not be wasted. Current conflicts are normally solved by the local administrator,
the Dasho Dzongda or Gup, before they reach the district law courts - but of the 36 communities
investigated by the PHED in 2002, eight of the cases ended in court.
In the Lingmuteychu catchment in Wangdi, studies on water distribution for both household and
irrigation use, were undertaken in 2000. All schemes in the catchment share the same source, the
Limti Chhu. Water distribution between different schemes and villages is based on two broad rules,
theoretically accepted by all users:
a) Water rights are based on a "first-come-first serve" basis. This means that existing schemes have
an established right to the water and can prevent newcomers from using the water if that would
be to the disadvantage of the existing users;
b) Each scheme can divert the full flow of the stream into a canal, regardless of the needs of
schemes, farmers and communities downstream. The result of this is that those living further up
the valley and nearer the source have very dominant rights to the available water.
Despite this clear indication of inequity, these rules are generally accepted. If conflicts occur and the
dispute ends in court action, the court usually confirms the established rights; it can, however, make
new rules on occasion.
Legal rights related specifically to drinking and household water do not exist in Bhutan, and the
sections in the Land Act which concern the use of water, are almost entirely directed to irrigation.
The Water Act, expected to be passed into law in 2009 is expected to cover all aspects of water
consumption.
Use of water for hydropower generation
Electricity was first introduced in Bhutan in 1966 with the installation of a 256 kW diesel generator in
Phuentsholing. Bhutan’s first hydropower plant was commissioned in 1967 in Thimphu with an
installed capacity of 360 kW. Consequently in 1968, Samtse, Sibsoo and Phuentsholing were provided
with electricity imported from the West Bengal State Electricity Board of India. Samdrup Jongkhar,
25

Sarpang and Gelephu were later electrified in the years 1969 to 1973 with electricity imported from
the Assam State Electricity Board of India.
Between 1972 to 1976, several mini hydroelectric plants were constructed through grant assistance
from the Government of India at Trashigang, Wangduephodrang, Gidakom and Mongar. The
construction of the Chukha Hydroelectric plant started in 1978, which was built with assistance from
the Government of India. In 1988, it was fully commissioned generating 336 MW. This was a major
milestone in the sustainable development of the hydroelectric sector for economic development.
This led to an increase in the availability of power in the western regions of Bhutan as well as
increased the government’s gross revenue from the sale of surplus power to India.
During the period between 1986 to 1987, ten micro hydroelectric plants, ranging in size from 20 kW
to 70 kW, were commissioned with Japanese assistance. During 1987 to 1988, two mini hydroelectric
plants at Khaling (0.4 MW) and Chumey (1 MW) were commissioned with assistance from the
Government of India. During 1991 to 1993, three micro hydroelectric plants of 200 kW each were
commissioned in Tsirang, Dagana and Zhemgang with Japanese grant assistance. As per Power
System Master Plan study that was updated in 2002, the country’s total hydropower potential has
been stated as 30,000 MW, of which about 23,760 MW from 76 sites (which are above 10 MW
capacity) has been identified as techno-economically feasible for development. However, the total
hydropower developed as of April 2006 is only 468.698 MW which is mere 1.56 % of the total
potential. Even with the full commissioning of 1020 MW Tala hydroelectric project, the total
hydropower that would have been developed would remain about 1488.698 MW, about 4.96 % of
the total potential. Therefore, there is lot to be still done to accelerate the development of
hydropower potentials of the kingdom. The peak power demand and energy requirement of Bhutan
during the year 2004-05 was recorded at 120 MW and 753 Million Units (MU) respectively. In 2007,
the Druk Green Power Corporation was formed as an over-riding authority for the hydropower sector
in Bhutan. To date, three of the four major power generation plants fall under this umbrella
Corporation. The Tala Hydro-Power Authority is expected to join the Corporation in the near future.
GCC adaption strategies in Bhutan
There is no perceived pollution in Paro and the general perception is that there is sufficient water.
However, work undertaken by school children as part of the WWMP-RSPN environmental education
program identified E.Coli as a serious problem in a number of streams close by to schools, all of these
related to either open defecation or pit latrines being placed too close to the stream.
In terms of water supply, a number of springs have dried up in recent years in the Paro valley, and
some view this as a result of the general lowering of the water table due to increased extraction for
building purposes and a growing population with increased aspirations. Certainly, many new
buildings, for offices and hotels as well as private residences, have been constructed in the last
decade. Another factor that may be having an impact on water use for construction and individual
consumption is the increased number of hotels and tourists especially in Paro and Thimphu valleys.
The daily consumption of water by a western visitor is estimated to be at least 4 times that of a
national resident, through the need/desire for showers, baths, and laundry services.
There are no current estimates of groundwater resources or its quality, which are assumed to be in a
sound and stable condition. Only in Phuentsholing are significant amounts of ground water extracted
to provide water to the urban area, and no reports exist as to these sources being stressed.
26

Urbanization is also affecting the supply of water - new roads and housing developments commonly
break channels, and much land has been lost in peri-urban areas due to the expansion of towns and
the growth in municipal facilities. Near Thimphu, some farmers feel that is no longer possible to grow
winter wheat because of lack of irrigation water, which has resulted in locally higher wheat prices.
Except for localized water shortages in the dry winter period, the general belief in Bhutan is that
there is ample water for all purposes, although there are fears amongst some individuals and at the
relevant central government level that water consumption is increasing fast, especially in urban
areas, and that there will be urban and agricultural shortages in future. As a result of this, it is
realized in the concerned areas of the GoB that some form of IWRM and a system of PES must be
introduced to guard against complacency, to ensure that future generations enjoy the same ample
resources, and to make sure that the hydropower sector continues to be the engine of growth.
Mitigation and adaptation strategies have not as yet been well attended to at national level. A
Disaster Management Division has been established in 2006 and is directly responsible to the
Secretary of the Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs.
At village and community level, awareness of the risks of climate change and the affect it may have
on water resources is low. However, season to season water shortages are experienced, as described
above, and some of the farmers believe that the weather pattern is changing. Like farmers all over
the world, however, they can adapt, within limits, to changes, and Bhutan is in a good position to
ensure adequate supplies into the future through enhanced water storage at both national and
household level, and improved management of irrigation schemes and both urban and rural supplies.
If it is assumed that the glaciers in the high mountains of Bhutan melt, and major changes in climate
occur such as reduced winter snowfall and rains, and monsoon failure, then severe water shortages
will occur. However, this doomsday scenario is unlikely and best current estimates are that rainfall
events will be more erratic – thus planning for water storage at household, farm and national level
must be considered as an important strategy in the coming years.
Expected changes in water demand
The following changes can be expected with respect to water demand in the coming decade:
a) Urban water demand to increase by 5-10%, due to rural-urban drift, higher urban populations, a
vibrant construction industry, expansion of urban areas, a continued increase in the number of
tourists, and higher aspirations and standards of living, which may also include greater water
demand for recreational and environmental use, such as swimming pools and parks;
b) Rural water demand will also increase as the coverage expands to 100% by the end of the 10th 5YP,
and aspirations and standards of living rise;
c) Industrial use of water will slowly rise, but no dramatic increase is foreseen.
In the priority ranking for the use of water resources in Bhutan, water for drinking water supply has
main priority. On the second place is water for irrigation, because agriculture is a very important
issue for population in Bhutan. 3rd rank has water demand for hydropower and then industry
follows, which is recognized as important, but proper disposal of waste and waste water shall be
mandatory.
27

Another very important point is that the Policy recognizes the importance of addressing water
management in a more holistic and integrated manner, and with the involvement of all stakeholders
at all levels.
Besides the widely accepted lack of human resources at dzongkhag and geog level, another problem
is the shortage of water storage facilities. Campaigns and low level interest loans need to be
undertaken to increase storage at household, community and urban level to ensure that sufficient
water is available in future water short periods. Conflicts over water have been quite common in the
past, and have occasionally been taken to court. In addition, especially in rural areas, the traditional
systems of sharing water have often been inequitable, basing the sharing of water on such principles
as “first there, first served” and “first in the queue is nearer the source”. In a rapidly developing
nation with an increasingly mobile population, this issue needs to be addressed. The risk of conflict
has been reduced by a clear presentation of priorities in the national water policy, and it is important
that this is reiterated further in the final Water Act.
Future problems which can be foreseen
• Urban areas will continue to expand for the foreseeable future, and the demand for water will
simultaneously increase.
• In rural areas, and the smaller towns, aspirations are also increasing and this will also increase
demand for water.
• The number of tourists to Bhutan is likely to increase and this will add further strain to water
supply systems, especially in the dry late winter and pre-monsoon season, when demand is high
from farmers and the hydropower sector. This may also result in the drying up of springs during
this period.
• There is thus a clear need for a concerted campaign to encourage water conservation and storage
at all levels in both urban and rural situations.
In all the above aspects, knowledge and preparation is the key, and great efforts are needed in
provision of public awareness campaigns, training and education at all levels, including schools,
community groups, and government staff. National Environment Commission and Department of
Management Development will bear much of the burden for this, though assistance from all
concerned Ministries and departments is vital. Behind the campaigns will be the basic premise that a
proper value must be placed on the supply of water, and that, unlike in the past, it may not always be
free and plentiful. In addition, proper charges for water must deter waste, and ensure a sustainable
future supply, and a system of PES established so that, for example, individuals, schools, adult
literacy groups and communities, undertaking good works which will conserve water and the
environment, are compensated for their efforts and encouraged to undertake further such tasks.
Need for IWRM
Recognizing that water is a finite resource, that competition for water is increasing in Bhutan, and
that climate change may have adverse effects on future water availability, some form of IWRM
system can help the nation in managing its water resources to the benefit of all, in the following
ways:
a) to dissolve the fragmented management of water resources in Bhutan, and build links and
bridges between all the sectors using water and currently responsible for its distribution,
28

) to enhance the reasonable sharing of water between different users and needs and to decrease
the impact of water use by one on the water need of another,
c) to mitigate against any water shortages and the risks associated with extreme weather or
stream-flow effects,
d) to share and improve data on the water resources and use, currently in many different dusty
files and in many different offices,
e) to improve the sharing of responsibilities and costs by inclusion of all users, from major
industries, women and men, urban dwellers, through those in rural communities to the farmers,
f) to encourage the decentralization of water management to community and individual level, and
improve decision making and management of local water resources;
g) to enhance social equity by involving all users in decision making,
h) to use the available water with the maximum possible economic efficiency,
i) to enhance the all-inclusive, participatory integrated planning and implementation of
development activities on a watershed basis;
j) to improve cross-the-board understanding of the importance of the environment in water
resource conservation,
k) to enhance the understanding of all that water is finite and a key resource for life, livelihood and
economic development,
l) to improve the balance between water use (for livelihood) and water availability (the resource).
3.4 Water demand and quality issues in the Brahmaputra valley in Assam
The water resources of Assam are being utilized to a limited extent. In spite of having huge potential
for the utilization of water resources, Assam could utilize only a limited portion. Some of the major
water use purposes in Assam are Drinking, Irrigation, Hydro-electric Power Generation, and
Development of Waterways.
Ever since the beginning of planning period in independent India during fifties of last century, the
major thrust for water uses has been directed towards development of irrigated agriculture. With
the passage of different five year plans in Assam, there have been some limited developments in the
sphere of urban water supply, irrigation and hydropower. The urban water supply schemes have
been developed for major cities and towns such as Guwahati, Jorhat, Dibrugarh, Tezpur, Dhubri,
Nagaon, Silchar, Sibsagar etc., but their plant capacities are becoming inadequate to sustain the
rapidly rising demand due to high population growth and migration as well as immigration from the
neighboring areas. Furthermore, the urban water supply infrastructure is affected by sedimentation
and drifting of stream channel courses of the Brahmaputra and its tributaries which provide the
water intake points. The most of the rural water supply sources of Assam are located practically in
the stream channel networks of the Brahmaputra, numerous ponds, tube wells and open wells.
Drinking water is a sensitive issue as it directly affects the entire population. In Assam, the Public
Health and Engineering Department, The Municipality Cooperation and the Urban Water Supply and
Sewers Board dealt with the supply of drinking water for households, officials and for other
purposes. However, quantification of the amount of water use is a big problem; in fact nobody has
kept such type of information. Out of 49, 35, 358 households that were recorded in the Census of
2001 in Assam, only 37.88 percent (18, 69,870 households) had drinking water sources available
within the premises. This means that the rest of the households in Assam draw their drinking water
from unsafe open sources. Of these remaining households that do not have safe drinking water
29

source within their premises in Assam, as many as 3,44,992 households draw water from tanks,
ponds and lakes; 2,56,813 households from rivers and streams; 67,154 from springs and 49,631
households from ‘any other’ sources (RGVN 2008). Millions of people in the country suffer from
water-borne diseases on account of lack of access to safe drinking water. It is the poor who suffer
most because in most cases, water-borne diseases originate in and enter the human body through
unsafe water. Besides, in most of the State the groundwater has high iron content and high fluoride
content. In recent decades the problem of arsenic in groundwater has affected many areas of the
region. As groundwater constitutes a major part of the drinking water supply, this problem requires
urgent attention from the concerned authorities. The issue of water quality has gained nation-wide
importance during the last decade and a national authority, the Water Quality Assessment Authority,
has been constituted by the Government of India, chaired by the Secretary, Ministry of Environment
and Forests. The Water Quality Assessment Authority has constituted state-level water quality
review committees chaired by the secretaries or commissioners of the concerned state departments.
Tab. 8: Total gross and net water demands by 2050 in Assam
Sector Gross demand
(bcm) a
Consumption Net demand
(%)
(bcm) a
Domestic water supply
Rural, domestic 2.920 - -
Rural. Livestock 0.694 - -
Total rural 3.614 50 1.807
Urban 1.533 30 0.459
Subtotal domestic(1) 5.147 - 2.266
Industrial(2) 5.147 20 1.060
Agricultural water supply - - -
Surface water 35.200 44 15.500
Irrigation - - -
Groundwater 16.900 50 8.500
Subtotal agriculture(3) 52.100 - 24.300
Total (1+2+3) 62.394 27.630
bcm = billion cubic meters
(MOHILE 2001).
A gross demand of 62.4 billion cubic meters and a net demand of 27.6 billion cubic meters have been
projected by 2050 for meeting domestic, industrial, livestock, and agricultural requirements in north
east India (table). The dependable flow of the Brahmaputra and Barak in the lean flow period is
estimated to be in the order of 3,000 cubic meters per second and 45 cubic meters per second
respectively at their exit points. The total groundwater potential of the two sub basins, at about 31
billion cubic meters per year, can support, for 240 days per year, a draft of about 1,500 cubic meters
per second. From a simple hydrological point of view, the groundwater draft may in the long run lead
to more reduction in surface flows. But together, from both sources, about 3,000 cubic meters per
second of water is available (MOHILE 2001). The net withdrawal from the 11 system, including
groundwater, would be in the order of 239 cubic meters per second in February, which is lower than
30

the lean flow of 304 cubic meters per second. It is suggested therefore that the low lean flow may be
sufficient to meet demand, subject to satisfying any environmental flow requirement.
4 Comparative analyses
As studies have shown the implementation of an Integrated Water Resources Management is in
good progress in the states of the Upper Danube River Basin. Each nationality follows plans and
strategies which are aimed to follow the EU water framework directive. Additionally is a superior
authority established, the ICPDR, which has monitoring tasks and facilitates communication between
riparian states and gives recommendations for successful water management. The Danube water is
managed in a way that downstream countries have access to fresh water in sufficient quantity and
quality and that they have not to fear water scarcity.
Following likely climate change trends water availability will decrease in both alpine mountain
systems, in the Alps and in the Himalayan region. For the Alps this means to continue with water
management and estimate future water availability and to work on risk assessment and risk
management.
In the Himalayan region water management activities are planned and implemented only at national
level. A superior authority like a river basin organization is missing in the area. Also the
communication between riparian states is not best possible. There is high conflict potential between
states and each country has own water management or water resources development plans whereby
riparian states were not included. In some cases these plans will have grave impacts on water
availability in flanking countries and are following not practicable.
The climate in the Himalayan region is highly variable. Most of the annual rainfall occurs in the 3
months between July and September when Monsoon conditions dominate. These climate conditions
lead to floods in summer months and to droughts in winter. Major water user in the area is the
irrigation sector which uses 80 % of the available fresh water. Nevertheless irrigation systems are
mostly inefficiently and most of the water gets lost due to evaporation and infiltration processes.
Strategies should first concentrate on an improvement of irrigation measures and management.
Industrial and domestic water uses reach only each 10 % of water used. In this respect we can
mention that the water supply situation is not well developed as it is the case in the Upper Danube
River basin. Many people are not connected to a public water supply or canalization system. They
have to bring water along large distances and people are busy with bringing canisters full of water for
their families over hours. Water which is easy accessible for them is in most cases contaminated. Lots
of people in the Indian state Assam die each year as a consequence of contaminated drinking water.
In the German Danube River basin most water for industrial water use and public water supply is
extracted by groundwater bodies and to a small part of spring water, only 5 % are extracted from
surface water.
In Austria there is an extraction of fresh water to similar parts from spring- and ground water
resources, while only 1 % is extracted from surface water bodies.
31

Tibet is characterized by a continuously population growth. According to the population dynamics
water demands for industrial water uses and public water supply will increase. Industrial water use
was in 2006 about 86 mio.m 3 , whereby the public sector was at 73,6 mio.m 3 .
The government of Bhutan has just started working on IWRM issues. In the frame of implementing
Millennium Development Goals it is planned to achieve improvement especially in public water
supply and sanitation services coverage in rural areas. Industrial water use does not play a big role,
but therefore hydropower is an important product of Bhutan.
Assam has a lot of problems, especially with access to drinking water of sufficient quantity and
quality. In rural areas, only 50% of the population is covered by safe drinking water. A water
management is tried to be implemented in different 5 year plans, which focus on public water
supply, flood management and water supply for irrigation purposes.
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RGVN (2008): Basic Needs for Human Existence. Guwahati.
http://www.rgvnindia.org/microcredit.htm.
ROYAL GOVERNMENT OF BHUTAN (2006): Annual Information Bulletin.
http://www.mowhs.gov.bt/AnnualBulletinBoard/Annual%20Bulletin%202006.pdf.
ROYAL GOVERNMENT OF BHUTAN (2006 2 ): Results of Population & Housing Census of Bhutan 2005.
Thimphu.
ROYAL GOVERNMENT OF BHUTAN (2007): Bhutan Living Standard 2007 Report.
http://www.undp.org.bt/resources/BLSS%202007%20REPORT.pdf
ROYAL GOVERNMENT OF BHUTAN (2008): Bhutan Environment Outlook 2008. Thimphu.
http://www.nec.gov.bt/publications/Bhutan%20Environment%20Outlook%202008.pdf.
SALZBURG AG (2009): Salzburger Trinkwasserversorgung. http://www.salzburgag.at/Infothek.593.0.html,
Access 11/2008.
SARKER, M.H.; HUQUE, I.; ALAM, M. (2003) Rivers, chars and char dwellers of Bangladesh. In Intl. J. River
Basin Management Vol. 1, No. 1: pp. 61–80.
STADTWERKE AUGSBURG (2008): Zahlen, Daten, Fakten 2007.
http://www.stawa.de/downloads/Zahlenspiegel_2007_Internet.pdf, Access 12/2008.
UMWELTMINISTERIUM BADEN-WÜRTTEMBERG (2008): Wasser. http://www.um.baden-wuerttemberg.de,
access 07/05/08.
33

Project no: GOCE -036952
Project acronym: BRAHMATWINN
Project title:
Twinning European and South Asian River Basins to enhance
capacity and implement adaptive management approaches
Instrument: Specific Targeted Research Project
Thematic Priority: Global Change and Ecosystems
DL_5.2 Flow depending water allocation
Due date of deliverable: September 2008
Actual submission date: September 2008
Start date of project: 01.06.2006 Duration: 43 Month
Organisation name of lead contractor for this deliverable FSU
Project co-funded by the European Commission within the Sixth Framework Program (2002-2006)
Dissemination Level
PU Public PU
PP Restricted to other program participants (including the Commission Services)
RE Restricted to a group specified by the consortium (including the Commission Services)
CO Confidential, only for members of the consortium (including the Commission Services)

List of contributors
Partner 1 FSU
Partner 2 LMU
Partner 6 GeoDa
Partner 7 UniDun
Partner 9 FEEM
Partner 12 ICIMOD
Partner 13 UniBu
Partner 14 ITP
Partner 15 CARR
Partner 20 IITR
Content
1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 4
2 Water distribution strategies and policies in the UDRB ................................................... 4
2.1 Policies and measures to cope with hazards ......................................................................... 5
2.1.1 River linking for improving water availability ........................................................................................ 5
2.1.2 Strategies to cope with floods ............................................................................................................... 6
2.1.3 Risk of droughts ..................................................................................................................................... 9
2.1.4 Management in the Salzach basin ....................................................................................................... 10
2.1.5 Strategies in the Lech basin ................................................................................................................. 12
2.2 Strategies to cope with trans-boundary issues ................................................................... 14
3 Water distribution strategies and policies in the UBRB ................................................. 16
3.1 The role of snow and glacier melt in the basin ................................................................... 17
3.2 IWRM mitigation strategies in respect to natural hazards in Tibet ...................................... 20
3.2 Flood and risk management in Bhutan ............................................................................... 23
3.2 Management of floods and droughts in Assam................................................................... 26
3.3 Trans-boundary issues ....................................................................................................... 29
4 Comparative analyses .................................................................................................. 31
References ...................................................................................................................... 33
2

Directory of figures
Fig. 1: Hydrograph of Danube River at gauge Achleiten ......................................................................... 5
Fig. 2: Main-Danube Channel .................................................................................................................. 6
Fig. 3: Flood protection structures in Salzburg........................................................................................ 7
Fig. 4: Flood protection structures in the Salzach basin (red triangles) .................................................. 8
Fig. 5: Effect of the Sylvenstein dam since 1959 ..................................................................................... 9
Fig. 6: Hydrograph of Salzach River ....................................................................................................... 11
Fig. 7: River renaturation along the Salzach close to Laufen ................................................................ 11
Fig. 8: Flood events in Salzburg ............................................................................................................. 11
Fig. 9: Salzach former (above) and nowadays strictly human regulated (below) ................................. 12
Fig. 10: Hydrograph of the Lech River ................................................................................................... 13
Fig. 11: Forrgen Lake ............................................................................................................................. 13
Fig. 12: Organization structure under the Danube River Protection Convention (ICPDR) .................... 15
Fig. 13: Hydrograph of the Brahmaputra in Nuxia, Tibet ...................................................................... 17
Fig. 14: Snowline variations in the Yarlung Tsangpo basin ................................................................... 18
Fig. 15: Hydrograph of Lhasa River ........................................................................................................ 20
Fig. 16: Typical lake feature to calculate dam factor ............................................................................ 21
Fig. 17: Hydrograph Wang Chu .............................................................................................................. 25
Fig. 18: Flood protection measures in Assam ....................................................................................... 28
Fig. 19: Water management plans ........................................................................................................ 30
Fig. 20: Hydrographs of European and Asian Rivers ............................................................................. 32
Directory of tables
Tab. 1: Runoff values of the Danube River and tributaries ..................................................................... 4
Tab. 2: Runoff at selected gauges along the Lech in m 3 /s ..................................................................... 14
Tab. 3: Annual runoff of the Brahmaputra at selected stations in Tibet and India .............................. 16
Tab. 4: List of glaciers in the Yarlung Tsangpo River basin .................................................................... 17
Tab. 5: Brahmaputra countries and population .................................................................................... 29
3

1 Introduction
IWRM in a trans-boundary river system has to consider different aspects, for example measures and
policies to cope with natural hazards like floods, droughts, GLOFs or extreme snow melt events, but
also the issue that fresh water in sufficient quantity and quality should be made available to meet the
water needs of downstream countries. The twinning river basins of the Upper Danube in Europe and
the Upper Brahmaputra in South Asia are characterized by changing water variability during the
seasons.
In low flow times it is often difficult to meet the water demands in sector view (public water supply,
industry, environmental flow) and spatial view (up- and downstream demands). In high flow times,
flood and erosion often cause serious problems and constitute a risk for nature and humans.
An overview to these issues in the two river basins is given in the following chapters.
2 Water distribution strategies and policies in the UDRB
The runoff of the Danube and its tributaries depends mainly on precipitation in form of rain and
snow and melting water from snow-covered and glaciated areas.
The most important tributaries of the Danube on the south flank are next to the rivers Iller and Lech,
the Isar and the Inn. On the north flank these are Altmühl, Naab and Regen. They are coming from
the Varistic Mountains Black Forest and Bavarian Forest. The rivers with the highest runoffs are
coming from the south flank from the Alps, because the catchment area of these rivers is with 40.000
km 2 much bigger than the total basin area of the northern tributaries with 12.000 km 2 . The runoff
values from the northern tributaries are comparatively low, see table 1 (BAYERISCHES LANDESAMT FÜR
WASSERWIRTSCHAFT 2005). The Inn contributes about 50% to the average runoff of the Danube at the
gauge Achleiten (1 440 m 3 /s).
The table below shows some average runoff values from long time series, thus it appears that the
three tributaries of the southern flank Lech, Isar and Naab bring much more water than the
confluences of the north.
Tab. 1: Runoff values of the Danube River and tributaries
(BAYERISCHES LANDESAMT FÜR WASSERWIRTSCHAFT 2005).
River Gauge Time Series Avg. of lowest
discharge m 3 /s
4
Avg. discharge
m 3 /s
Avg. of highest
discharge m 3 /s
Danube Achleiten 1954-2003 645 1.438 4.317
Iller Wiblingen 1971-2003 7,7 56 428
Lech Power Plant Rain 1982-2001 47,8 116 485
Isar Plattling 1954-2003 95,3 176 562
Naab Heitzenhofen 1954-2003 18,5 50,2 298
Regen Regenstauf 1954-2003 13,1 37,9 297
Altmühl Beilngries 1985-2002 6,56 17,2 91
Inn Passau 1954-2003 296 747 3.058

Discharge in m3/s
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Danube, Achleiten, 1900-2004
Fig. 1: Hydrograph of Danube River at gauge Achleiten
The figure shows the hydrograph of the Danube River at gauge Achleiten. Average discharge in this
long time period is about 1400 m 3 /s. In comparison to the hydrographs of the rivers Salzach and Lech
it can be seen that the runoff variability is not so high. Major runoff occurs in the summer month,
when precipitation is highest.
2.1 Policies and measures to cope with hazards
The Danube region has to cope with floods as a major problem. These floods occur mostly in summer
time when snow- and glacier melt coincides with extreme precipitation events. In other areas, e.g. in
the north of Bavaria exist times with too less water availability. Strategies how these problems were
managed in an institutional and structural way, were presented below.
2.1.1 River linking for improving water availability
One important measure to avoid floods and droughts and to establish a good water balance is the
Main-Danube-Channel in the upper course of the Danube. The Danube River is linked with the Rhine
River Basin by way of a channel, which was completed in the year 1992. With the water transfer from
the Danube to the Main the following principal objectives are achieved:
• Improvement in the quality of the water at times of low discharge,
• Compensation for evaporation losses caused by the operation of the thermal power stations,
• Reduction in the number of floods in the valley of the middle Altmühl in summer
(BAYERISCHES STAATSMINISTERIUM FÜR UMWELT, GESUNDHEIT UND VERBRAUCHERSCHUTZ 2005).
Some water of the Danube River is diverted to the Main River, because of the low water level of the
Main and the advancement of the flood control in the Altmühl valley downstream of Gunzenhausen.
It shall be reached an improvement of the low water availability in northern Bavaria in the Main
basin. In Bavaria, the water resources are subject to highly varied conditions. Whereas Southern
Bavaria is rich in water due to its high precipitation, water is short in supply in large parts of Northern
Bavaria. At times of low discharge, there is three times more water available per inhabitant in the
5

Danube region in comparison to the Main (part of river Rhine) region. Therefore in Kehlheim
depending on the needs and the discharge of the Danube up to 125 Mio.m 3 water will be separated
and run through the Main-Danube channel into the Main River in Bamberg. The channel is 55m wide
and 4m deep and the transferred water amounts 20 m 3 /s.
Fig. 2: Main-Danube Channel
(http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Main-Donau-Kanal-Karte.jpg)
The total annual water transfer amounts 150 Mio.m 3 , the major part is diverted by the channel and
the remaining 25 Mio.m 3 are transferred on a second route via the lakes around the Brombach area.
Water from the Altmühl is collected in the Lake Altmühlsee and then transferred to Lake Brombach
and used in times of water shortage (BAYERISCHES LANDESAMT FÜR WASSERWIRTSCHAFT 2005,
INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION FOR THE PROTECTION OF THE DANUBE RIVER (ICPCR) 2004).
The altitude difference between the top of the canal in the franconian Jurassic and the Main is
approximately 175 m. The altitude difference between the top of the canal and the Danube is about
68 m. To overcome this altitude difference, 16 sluices are necessary.
2.1.2 Strategies to cope with floods
Floods are a probable risk in the UDRB. They occur each year in the alpine area. Strong floods are
mostly due to snowmelt, or precipitation occurrences with high intensity or duration caused by moist
air masses with subtropical origin, circumventing the alpine barrier in the east and forced to rise at
6

northern alpine slope, like happened in summer 2002 as much as $ 20 billion of damage were
caused, and more than 100 people were killed in Germany, Austria, Hungary, the Czech Republic and
Russia. Especially in early summer the south flank tributaries from the Alps bring large amounts of
water due to the snowmelt into the Danube River Basin.
For example the city Salzburg in Austria is affected by floods many times. While walking through the
cities houses are characterized by historical flood marks. To mitigate the hazard of flooding and
destruction, the HQ 100 is calculated and respective river embankments and protection structures
were established for the case of a new event achieving the scale of a HQ100 and a 50 cm buffer.
Fig. 3: Flood protection structures in Salzburg
(WIESENEGGER, 2008).
A monitoring and early warning system for floods is leaded by the hydrological service in Austria.
The twenty large reservoirs with a total volume of more than 1 billion m 3 are next to energy
production, sediment control and for the securing of drinking water supply also needed for flood
protection.
Increasing impermeability through industry, housing and infrastructure in the basin is also likely to
increase the risks of flash floods.
To limit damage, impending floods are identified and announced by the Bavarian and the Baden-
Wuerttemberg Environment Agencies. Risk management, protection forecasting systems and public
information were driven e.g. by the Bavarian “Hochwassernachrichtendienst” or the Austrian
“Hydrographischer Dienst” (BAYERISCHES LANDESAMT FÜR WASSERWIRTSCHAFT 2004, ICPDR 2004). Flood
forecasts are constantly improved thanks to state-of-the-art technology and support from the
7

German Meteorological Service. The Danube water level can be predicted for a period of twelve
hours to within 20 centimeters.
Fig. 4: Flood protection structures in the Salzach basin (red triangles)
The Danube river characteristics have changed in the last years. Nowadays the river is marked by
anthropogenic modifications in regard to flood protection and to secure land for urban development.
The former extensive floodplains with side arms and backwaters were altered into canalized and
straightened waterways with distinct river bank reinforcement. On average, on the Upper Danube
the river is interrupted by a dam and accompanying impoundment every 16 km. Results are
environmental effects like the lost of natural wetlands due to drainage and dams like the Sylvenstein
dam which provides flood protection since 1959 for Munich and Bad Tölz,.
In the UDRB river regulation work for flood defense often go hand in hand with alterations due to
impoundments. The effects of these alterations on the river overlap with one another, e.g. the rivers
Inn, Lech and Salzach chains of hydropower plants were built and almost the entire river stretches
8

are strongly regulated. On the Inn, for example, less than 20 % can still be classified as free-flowing
which means not impounded or not strongly regulated (ICPCR 2004).
Flood protection is based on three scopes: natural retention, structural flood protection and flood
prevention. To realize this, in Bavaria a so called action plan 2020 for the Danube River Basin is made
including 2.3 billion Euros. This action plan includes the restoring of floodplains as well as the
reduction of sealing.
Fig. 5: Effect of the Sylvenstein dam since 1959
(BAYERISCHES LANDESAMT FÜR WASSERWIRTSCHAFT 2004, modified).
The technical flood protection also includes local embankments along the rivers. For sustainable
flood protection more activities are required: the enlargement of the river bed, artificial flood plains
or the use of mobile protection elements. Furthermore future building and construction projects
should not be made within flood areas.
2.1.3 Risk of droughts
According to the Joint Research Center of the European Commission there is no consistent European
information on drought situations and their consequences, and no European coordination of alerts or
mitigation activities. The reason for this is seen in the fact that droughts are developing very slowly
('creeping') and their beginning and end is difficult to define (EU JOINT RESEARCH CENTER 2007).
Therefore the Joint Research Center (being actively involved in the work of the ICPDR) is developing a
set of droughts indicators, incorporating the impact of water stress on the natural vegetation and on
agriculture. The production of a soil moisture and plant water stress map (using the so called
LISFLOOD model) is also included. The LISFLOOD model has been specifically developed to simulate
floods in large European drainage basins taking into account the influences of land use, spatial
variations of soil properties and spatial precipitation differences. The objective is to carry out a
feasibility study on drought modeling for Europe, using a test region within the Danube catchment
area as an example and draw recommendations for the future development of a European Drought
Alert System.
9

2.1.4 Management in the Salzach basin
Running through the densely populated, intensively used narrow valley in the middle course, the
Salzach represents a common and permanent terrain of conflict between nature protection at the
one side and agriculture, energy production and recreational activities on the other side. The river is
prone to floods of various intensity (e.g. HQ-100 flooding in 2002) and therefore serves as an
appropriate site to investigate vulnerability within a spatial context.
The river discharges large parts of the Eastern Alps and 75% of the area of the federal state Salzburg.
Along a distance of 60 km the Salzach presents in the north of Salzburg the border between Austria
and Germany. The river passes along a gradient of 1 956 m. The average runoff, measured at the
gauge close where the river finally joins the Inn River (344 m NN) amounts 250 m 3 /s. The runoff is
significantly influenced by human changes.
The river causes a likely flood risk as a result of high precipitation rates or melting water between
May and August. This leads to catastrophes, because the natural flood plains are reorganized in
regard to human needs, covered with buildings or touristic infrastructure. The latest diagnosed
floods were seen in the years 2002 and 2005. During the century flood in August 2002 the runoff
reaches 2 300 m 3 /s. This value was caused due to high precipitation and a high snowfall boarder over
3 000 m because of high summer temperature. An important measure for flood protection is given
through a large number of established dams, regulating the discharge. Furthermore a special flood
plain management is necessary, for example should the land use in possible flood plains be changed.
In most cases it is reasonable to avoid intensive land use close to likely flood areas than building
capital-intensive protection structures. Whereby at the gauging station in Salzburg the average ratio
between mean water levels (period 1951-1994) and high waters (in 1959) is 1:12, the comparison
between the lowest and the highest level in the same period clocks at 1:168. The wetland area of the
Salzach subcatchment is 0.02% - the lowest of all subcatchments in the BRAHMATWINN project. 30%
of that area is classified as lakes, 33% as alluvials and 22% as swamps (UNIVERSITY OF VIENNA 2008). In
the area of south-east Bavaria the Salzach is marked by ongoing sole erosion because of the
disturbance of bed load movement, which require countermeasures.
Projects for the protection of the river, its environment and to avoid catastrophes are ongoing, e.g.
river renaturation measures in Laufen. The Salzach River ecosystem is of European interest, as it was
highlighted as part of the Natura 2000 network of nature protection areas in the European Union.
The watercourse of the Salzach River is to a high degree straightened. First regulations were done
already in the 19 th century.
10

Discharge in m3/s
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Fig. 6: Hydrograph of Salzach River
Salzach, Burghausen, 1900-2004
As the hydrograph shows the risk of floods occurs particularly in summer month when precipitation
is high and discharge increases to its annual maximum.
Fig. 7: River renaturation along the Salzach close to Laufen Fig. 8: Flood events in Salzburg
Currently large projects are drafted with the aim to widen the river in the lower course. The idea to
partly reinstate the original character of the Salzach is already debated since years, among
authorities and local stakeholders of the river as well as between government institutions in Austria
and Germany. The recent formation of a common platform for regional planning, the transboundary
EuRegio Salzburger Land – Berchtesgaden –Traunstein, offers a mechanism for the joint
implementation of such a project which requires huge funds and will strongly impact on landscape,
local land use practises and economy. Without the participation of all stakeholders involved, the
project will most certainly fail or not happen at all.
11

Fig. 9: Salzach former (above) and nowadays strictly human regulated (below)
(CIPRA 2008).
With the measures for the rehabilitation of the lower course of the Salzach River a new equilibrium
of the riverbed is aimed to be reached. Thereby a further degradation of the river bed can be
stopped. The design of the entire system as wells as the single measures are orientated on a
ecological overall concept. Based on scientific investigation in the last couple of years for fishes
passable ramps can be designed, the bank revetments can be removed without a new safety line
situated in the foreshore. Thus the longitudinal connectivity will be preserved, the new structures at
the river bed and the banks will lead to more dynamic processes. The reconnection of former
tributaries will lead to a lateral connection of the Salzach River with its floodplains.
2.1.5 Strategies in the Lech basin
The second test area is the 4 126 km 2 large catchment area of the Lech River in the Northern
Limestone Alps, defined as the area between Iller River in the west, Inn River in the south and Isar
River in the east. The river is chosen, because it is strongly human influenced, it has many structural
measures in form of dams and spur dikes and is therefore well appropriate for analyzing the role of
human influence on alpine river systems.
The rivers discharge is characterized due to the snow melt, which overlaps with the precipitation
maximum in summer. The snow melt starts comparable late, because of long enduring low
temperatures. Because of the limestone underground, great parts of water are running subsurface.
The runoff occurs in a range between 49 m 3 /s and 2 300 m 3 /s during floods. The average value
amounts 116 m 3 /s. After PARDÉ the runoff regime can be described as nivo-pluvial.
The hydrograph shows that the runoff has its maximum in the summer month which is a
consequence of intensive convective precipitation events. Furthermore a second small maximum can
be observed in winter month, this peak is caused by winter precipitation events. The runoff regimes
of the southern Danube tributaries can be described following Pardé as pluvio-nival. The discharge is
influenced by precipitation and snow melt. This runoff regime is typical for the southern tributaries
of the Danube, see the hydrograph of the Salzach.
12

Discharge in m3/s
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Fig. 10: Hydrograph of the Lech River
The runoff of the Lech River is mainly influenced by the Forrgen Lake in the stream way of the Lech. It
is drained in winter ready for the next snow melt and is located near Füssen in Bavaria and has a
capacity of 166 Mio.m 3 . With an area of 15.2 km 2 it is the fifth largest lake in Bavaria. The lake was
primary developed as a product of the last ice age. In consequence of frequent floods in the past the
lake was used as a flood control basin. Today a hydropower plant is established.
Fig. 11: Forrgen Lake
Lech, Augsburg, 1959-2004
Furthermore the lake secures a special water level to guarantee the hydropower generation at the
stations downstream. In total on the Lech’s course are build 30 power plants and 24 reservoirs and
impoundments. On the other side it serves for flood protection in spring and summer when melting
water causes a likely flood risk. In winter the lake lies in large parts dry, only an area of 3,2 km 2 is
flooded.
The river is marked due to high bed load transportation, which is minimized by barricade structures.
Structural measures in the form of dams and spur dikes were constructed to tame the flow of water
and keep the river in a smaller river channel to gain ground and to establish good conditions for
hydropower use. So the river shows a significant human impact. However, the smaller river channel
increased the damage during floods and these constructions increased the velocity resulting in
13

iverbed sinking. The sinking of the riverbed has led to further negative impacts on the fluvial system,
such as the separation of the Lech River from its side waters, a drop in groundwater levels, and dryrunning
of floodplain areas.
Tab. 2: Runoff at selected gauges along the Lech in m 3 /s
(BAYRERISCHES LANDESAMT FÜR WASSERWIRTSCHAFT 2004; BUNDESMINISTERIUM FÜR LAND- UND FORSTWIRTSCHAFT, UMWELT
UND WASSERWIRTSCHAFT 2006).
Gauge Time Period NQ- low water MQ- media water HQ- high water
Landsberg 1954/2000 14.3 81.5, 71.7 1170, 971, 855
Lechbruck 1954/2000 4.58 44.6
Lechaschau 1971/2003 1.96
Steeg 1951/2003 0.54 12.8 199
The table shows average discharge values of different gauges along the Lech River. With a ratio from
1:70 from low flow to high flow discharge the river is characterized by high water variability.
2.2 Strategies to cope with trans-boundary issues
At the policy level, the Upper Danube delivers a large portion (approx. 55%) of the usable water
resources of the downstream countries, namely Austria, Hungary, former Yugoslav countries,
Romania, Bulgaria. Water use of downstream countries will change dynamically in the foreseeable
future because of economic development through expected EU membership. Intensified
collaboration and political and economic coordination with downstream countries (Austria, Hungary,
Serbia, Romania, and Bulgaria) in the cause of the extension of the EU will therefore be needed.
• Water use of downstream countries will change dynamically in the foreseeable future because of
economic development through expected EU membership.
• Intensified Collaboration and political and economic coordination with downstream countries
(Austria, Hungary, Serbia, Romania, and Bulgaria) in the cause of the extension of the EU.
• Possible trans-boundary import/export of water to East Germany and the Czech Republic to
mediate water shortage in the Elbe catchment is evaluated. Conflict with downstream countries is
unavoidable. Coordinated river protection action within the International Commission for the
Protection of the Danube River (ICPDR).
For the implementation of the WRRL on a multilateral and Danube-wide level the “River Basin
Management Expert Group“(RBM/EG) was introduced. Because of specialized work tasks two sub
groups were established, the „Geographic Information System Expert Sub Group“(GIS/ESG) in 2001
and the temporally „Economic Expert Sub Group“(ECON/ESG) in 2002 (BUNDESMINISTERIUM FÜR LAND-
UND FORSTWIRTSCHAFT, UMWELT UND WASSERWIRTSCHAFT 2005).
To achieve good water status in the water bodies of the Danube region by 2015 and to ensure a
sufficient supply of clean water for future generations, the Contracting Parties to the Danube River
Protection Convention (DRPC) nominated by the International Commission for the Protection of the
Danube River (ICPDR) as the co-ordination body for the development of a comprehensive
management plan for the entire Danube river basin using the principles of the EU Water Framework
Directive in the year 2000. 13 countries with territories greater than 2.000 km² within the Danube
14

River Basin are joined in the framework of the ICPDR decided to make all efforts to implement the EU
Water Framework Directive throughout the basin.
The ICPDR has attempted to establish appropriate bilateral coordination for states with territories of
less than 2.000 km² in the Danube River Basin (DRB). In the UDRB bilateral agreements are made
between Austria and Germany, Germany and Czech Republic, Austria and Czech Republic, Austria
and Italy and an informal one between Austria and Switzerland. So all states, whose territories are
covered partly by the UDRB have bilateral cooperation (ICPDR 2004). The process involves experts
from industry and agriculture, and representatives from environmental and consumer organizations
as well as the local and national authorities. The Danube river management plan is to be updated
every six years according to EU legislation. The management plan aims to create a program of
measures to ensure that environmental objectives are met on time. The plan includes:
• a general description of the characteristics of the Danube river basin
• a summary of significant pressures and impacts of human activities on the status of surface
water and groundwater
• a map of monitoring networks
• a list of environmental objectives
• a summary of the economic analysis of water use
• a summary of the program of measures
• a summary of the public information and consultation measures taken in the river basin
Fig. 12: Organization structure under the Danube River Protection Convention (ICPDR)
(ICPCR 2004, p.29, modified).
The figure displays how the ICPDR is organized and structured. In total there exist six domains which
focus on a special issue, like River Basin Management, Ecology and Flood Protection.
15

3 Water distribution strategies and policies in the UBRB
The hydrological regime of the rivers responds to the seasonal rhythm of the monsoon and freezethaw
cycle of the Himalayan snow.
The Brahmaputra crosses different topographic units, which are the Tibetan Plateau, the middle
mountains and the plains in the south. The Yangcun station, located south of Lhasa close to Gonggar
airport on the main stream of the Brahmaputra River in Tibet, represents the conditions of the
Tibetan plateau. The discharge values are comparable low in the upper stream, how it can be seen in
the table below.
Tab. 3: Annual runoff of the Brahmaputra at selected stations in Tibet and India
(ICIMOD 2005).
Parameter Yangcun
Pandu
(China)
(India)
Basin area [ km 2 ] 153,191 405,000
24% of the total area at 64% of the total area at
Bahadurabad
Bahadurabad
Period 1956-1982 1956-1979
Annual average daily discharge [m 3 s -1 ] 916 18,100
Annual maximum daily discharge [m 3 s -1 ] 6,426 56,500
Annual minimum daily discharge [m 3 s -1 ] 201 1,033
Annual runoff [mm] 189 1,409
18% of the total runoff at 134% of the total runoff at
Bahadurabad
Bahadurabad
Pandu, close to Guwahati, in Assam, state of India, represents the mid part of the river with main
influence from the middle mountain region. The contribution from the Tibetan Plateau on the other
hand is below its contribution in terms of area. This can be explained with the very low rainfall on the
plateau. The region in the south east of the Himalaya is characterized by heavy rainfall. Accordingly
higher discharges were achieved. Here water rich tributaries contribute to the Brahmaputra.
According to ICIMOD (2006) the maximum recorded discharge at Pandu was in August 1962, while
the lowest was in February 1968. This shows again the strong influence of the monsoon in the
summer month and the high variability of the runoff. At its mouth the river has an average annual
discharge of 19 830 m 3 /s.
There is a strong seasonal pattern of runoff with snow melt water and the monsoonal rainfall
accounting for about 80% of the annual total. The maximum monthly runoff in August constitutes
about 24.0-30.0% of the annual total while the annual minimum in February makes up < 2%. The
river experiences winter recession, recharged only by groundwater which is greatly affected by the
freezing and thawing of seasonally frozen ground and of the active layer over permafrost (ITP 2007).
16

Discharge in m3/s
5000
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Fig. 13: Hydrograph of the Brahmaputra in Nuxia, Tibet
3.1 The role of snow and glacier melt in the basin
Glaciers in the Upper Brahmaputra River Basin are extremely sensitive to temperature change. Under
the background of global warming, glacier variation significantly affects the water availability and
hydro energy in the downstream of the river.
Particularly in the basin of the Yarlung Tsangpo in Tibet glaciers play an important role because of the
high contribution of melting water to the rivers.
Tab. 4: List of glaciers in the Yarlung Tsangpo River basin
(ITP 2007).
River Glacier
No.
Brahmaputra, Nuxia, 2002- 2006
Glacier area
(km 2 )
Ice volume (km 3 ) Mean area ( km 2 ) Snowline
(m a.s.l)
Kangbu Maqu 25 47.30 4.00 Jan 89 5330~5630
Luozha Xiongqu 853 1083.26 84.55 Jan 27 4850~6323
Xiba Xiaqu 649 768.70 57.69 Jan 18 5040~5950
Yanglang Zangbo 418 531.23 45.03 Jan 27 3390~5610
Yumzhog Yumco 144 229.85 26. Feb Jan 60 5480~6300
Nianchu River 932 1155.08 97.58 Jan 24 5170~6460
Duoxiong Zangbo 1615 788.84 35.08 0.49 5510~6070
Lhasa river 2173 1876.37 123.85 0.86 4420~6040
Yigong Tsangpo 3102 6613.43 712.40 Feb 13 3370~5980
Zayu River 905 1399.25 106.85 Jan 55 3800~5480
Total 10,816 14,493.31 1,293.07 Jan 34 3370~6460
17

The drainage area of the Yarlung Tsangpo reaches until the Chinese-Indian border. In the Yarlung
Tsangpo River basin exist in total 10 816 glaciers; covering in total an area of 14 493.31 km 2 and store
up to 1 293.07 km 3 of ice. Among those glaciers, four cover an area more than 100 km 2 . The Qiaqing
Glacier, in particular, is the largest glacier locating in such a drainage scale, running 35.3 km in length
and covering 206.7 km 2 in area. Its glacial tongue reaches as low as 2 900 m a.s.l. (ITP 2007). The
Brahmaputra basin is to about 0.4% glacier covered (SUBBA 2001). Snowfall is experienced in areas
with elevations of 1 500 m and above. Hanging glaciers and cirque-hanging glaciers predominate in
the YT River Basin in terms of glacial shape, accounting for 56.5% of glacier total in the river basin. Of
all the glaciers, 30% are cirque glaciers, 11.7% are cirque-valley glaciers, and 5.9% valley glaciers,
leaving merely four flat ice caps. 76% of the glaciers are smaller than 1 km 2 in area, whilst 219
glaciers are larger than 10 km 2 . In respect to the direction of glacial distribution, 6 053 glaciers or
55.96% of total glaciers in the YT River Basin are North-, Northeast- and Northwest-facing, covering
595.9 km 2 in area. 2 872 glaciers, or 26.55% of the glacier totals, are South-, Southeast- and
Southwest-facing, covering 499.43 km 2 in area. In terms of glacial mean area, Northeast-facing
glaciers reach as large as 2.45 km 2 , whilst West-facing glaciers only measures 0.96 km 2 (ITP 2007).
The test site Lhasa River basin presents one of the most glaciated areas in the Tibetan Brahmaputra
basin.
Fig. 14: Snowline variations in the Yarlung Tsangpo basin
(ITP 2007).
Snowline analysis show that the elevation of snowline varies from 3 370 m to 6 460 m a.s.l, with the
lowest occurring to Glacier in Parlung, and the highest is to Glacier in the Nianchu River. Statistics
show that snowline of glaciers in the Yarlung decrease from west to east (Fehler! Verweisquelle
konnte nicht gefunden werden.), yielding the mean elevation as 5 344 m a.s.l. Study of snowline
features of various directions demonstrates that the mean elevation of the Northeast- and
Northwest-directing glacial snowlines is higher than that of the mean snowline, whilst others are
generally lower. It is noteworthy, however, that mean snowline elevation of east- and southdirection
are over 100 m lower than the regional mean. Precipitation occurs more on the south slope
than on the North Slope, the south-facing glaciers are thus featured by lower-elevated snowline than
18

the regional mean, whilst the north-facing glaciers are characterized by higher-elevated snowline.
Such a distribution feature is rather contrary to most north hemispheric valley glaciers, which have
higher-elevated snowlines on the south slope than on the North Slope (ITP 2007).
But not only the Tibetan Plateau is glaciated; the most glaciated Indian tributaries in the basin are the
Teesta and Subansiri rivers, which have about 725 and 495 km 2 glaciers, respectively, accounting for
4.0% of their total area. Bhutan has a very detailed glacier inventory. According to this inventory the
country is covered by total of 677 glaciers with a total area of 1 317 km 2 (about 3% of the country
area).
Since 1850 the glaciers in the Himalayas however have been shrinking. The shrinking of glaciers
observed over the last century is then also a major concern for water availability in the future. On the
basis of model results the catastrophic water shortages are however unlikely to happen. For the
Brahmaputra basin there is a general decrease in decadal mean flows for all calculated scenarios with
maximum decreases of about 40 to 50% calculated for the headwaters of the Brahmaputra basin on
the Tibetan plateau. The results from the lower stretches of the river show decreases of maximum
20%. The tributaries from Bhutan, the Wang Chu and the Trongsa Chu did not show any decrease and
in the latter even present increasing mean flows over the coming 100 years.
The snowline is at about 3 000 m a.s.l in the Eastern Himalayas, while it is coming down to about 1
500 m a.s.l in the Western Himalaya. The minimum snow cover is observed in the month of August
and peaks in February with about 40 times the snow cover of August (ICIMOD 2005).
The monsoonal temperate glaciers in China are located in the region of the south-eastern Plateau of
Tibet. The most pronounced characteristic of monsoonal temperate glaciers is that they are very
sensitive to climate; they are a direct, clear indicator of climate change. Most monsoonal temperate
glaciers have been retreating continuously throughout the twentieth century, and the retreat rate
increased after the 1980s in response to the rapid global warming, It is clear that both temperature
and precipitation affect the glaciers, however, it is difficult to confirm which one is the major factor
dominating the current glacier change.
Glacier retreat has implications for downstream river flows. For rivers fed by glaciers, summer flows
are supported by glacier melt. The glacial retreat in the High Asia in China has an important impact
on the water resource of the arid regions in Northwest China, and the glacial retreat in the 1990s has
caused an increase of 5.5% in river runoff in North-western China and also a lake level rising in the
Tibetan Plateau (ICIMOD 2005).
The areas of permafrost are much larger than those covered by glaciers or perennial snow, especially
in the UBRB the permafrost covers about of 40 % the drainage area (NI 2000).
During winter (mid-October to mid-April) soil freezing and thawing occur periodically for about 170
days at lower elevations and for up to 210 days in the high mountains.
The Yarlung Tsangpo River basin in Tibet is located in the discontinuous and ‘island’ permafrost zones
in the south and in the continuous permafrost zone in the north. The active-layer thickness varies
with soil moisture, snowpack depth, canopy cover and terrain. The mean thickness in those parts of
19

the basin underlain by permafrost ranges between 2.5-3.0 m; frost penetration ranges between 0.6-
1.9 m in the area of seasonally frozen ground (ITP 2007).
3.2 IWRM mitigation strategies in respect to natural hazards in Tibet
The Tibetan area is a mountainous region, occupied mostly by mountains and hills. The discharge of
the Brahmaputra River and its tributaries in Tibet is dominated by snow melt dynamics. The basin is
in consequence of low precipitation significant influenced by the melting of snow fields and glaciers.
These conditions can lead to hazards in the Tibetan area. Risks are for example floods, droughts and
GLOFs.
Discharge in m3/s
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Fig. 15: Hydrograph of Lhasa River
Lhasa River, Tangga, 1991-2000
The hydrograph shows the long-time annual discharge of the Lhasa River. The influence of the
Monsoon in the summer months May until October is significant. The river is marked by high water
variability. While the average discharge during Monsoon season achieves more than 600 m 3 /s, it is
only about 50 m 3 /s in non-Monsoon season. This wide range between low flow and high flow
conditions leads to several problems in Tibet like floods and droughts.
In 2002, the Government of India had entered into an MOU with China for sharing of hydrological
information on Brahmaputra River in flood season by China to India. In accordance with the
provisions contained in the MOU, the Chinese side is providing hydrological information (Water level,
discharge and rainfall) in respect of three stations, namely Nugesha, Yangcun and Nuxia located on
river Brahmaputra from 1st June to 15th, October every year. The requisite data up to the year
2004 was received and the same was utilized in formulation of flood forecasts by Central Water
Commission.
Floods always occur in the valleys of the mountainous region in Tibet. Based on its source, floods can
be divided into three types: plateau-rainstorm mountain flood, melted-snow mountain flood, and
melted-glacier mountain flood. The glaciers consist of huge amounts of perpetual snow and ice and
create many glacial lakes in the region. They are formed by the accumulation of vast amounts of
water from the melting of snow and ice cover and by blockage of end moraines. The sudden break of
20

a moraine may generate the discharge of large volumes of water and debris causing floods (ICIMOD
2005). Recent retreating of glaciers due to changing climate conditions favors the development of
such lakes. Climate change is found to increase the risk of glacier lake outburst floods. The bordering
moraines are unstable and cannot cope with higher pressure due to increasing melt water. Satellite
images can show glaciers and identify possible risk lakes. It was observed that the number of glacier
lakes in Tibet increases from 782 in 1990 to 824 in 2005.
Awareness concerning the risk of GLOFs has raised and actually it is planned to establish an early
warning mechanism to monitor GLOF hazards using remote sensing and GIS. Basic materials required
for this research are satellite images, large-scale topographic maps and the inventory of glacier and
glacial lakes. In a study to the risk of GLOFs in Tibet altogether 77 potentially danger lakes were
identified.
Fig. 16: Typical lake feature to calculate dam factor
The figure above shows how the peak discharge from breached moraine-dammed lakes can be
estimated.
Example: Tanbulang debris low of 1964
The 15 km long Tangbulang Gully is an eastern tributary of the Niyang River. In total there exist eight
cirque glaciers and cirque-hanging glaciers at the headwaters of the valley. Below the glaciers exists
more than ten small moraine- dammed lakes. The largest of these is named Damenhaico. During the
debris flow in 1964 the water level of this lake increases over ten meters and the burst discharge
reached 2000 m 3 /s. A highway is located at the outlet of the valley. The highway traffic has to be
closed for one week and the flood damaged villages and caused a blockage of the Niyang River for 16
hours (ICIMOD et al. 2005).
There exist some possibilities to mitigate the impact of GLOFs. Most important is to reduce the
volume of water in the lake in order to reduce the peak surge discharge. Downstream measures
should be taken to protect infrastructure against the destructive forces of the GLOF surge. Before
starting mitigation measures a comprehensive analysis to glaciers and the risk lake, as well as
damming materials is required. For reducing the water volume following opportunities exist:
• Controlled breaching
• Construction of an outlet control structure
• Pumping out the water
• Making a tunnel through the moraine barrier or under an ice dam
21

Other strategies: remove masses of loose rocks to avoid rock avalanches in the lake
The above mentioned plans and strategies for China are equally applicable in the context of Yarlung
Tsangpo river basin. No specific law related to IWRM was found in the Yarlung Tsangpo Basin.
There exists only the Flood Control Law of the People's Republic of China from 1997. The main
purpose of this law is of controlling floods, guarding against and mitigating damage done by floods
and water logging, preserving the safety of people's lives and property, and ensuring the socialist
modernization drive. The major provisions of the law in relation IWRM are as follows:
• It states that the flood control shall be carried out in the light of river basins or administrative
areas and according to a system by which unified planning shall be implemented at different
levels. Similarly, consideration shall be given to the administration of river basins as well as
the administration given to administrative areas.
• The flood control planning should be subject to the comprehensive planning of a certain river
basin or region. Urban flood control planning shall be formulated in accordance with the
river basin flood control planning. Industrial or mining facilities related to flood control may
be constructed within the planned reserves zones.
• Construction of flood control works or other hydraulic works and hydropower stations in
rivers and lakes should conform to the requirements of flood control planning.
• Reservoirs should keep adequate storage capacity for flood control according to the
requirements of flood control planning. For the prevention and control of flood in rivers,
measures should be taken to protect and expand the coverage of forest, grass and other
vegetation in river basins, conserve water resources and intensify the comprehensive control
of water and soil conservation in river basins.
• This law also emphasizes that while realigning of river courses and building up construction
projects for leading the river direction or protecting embankments, full consideration should
be given to the relations between the lower and upper reaches and between both sides of a
river.
• Dumping garbage and waste residue or other activities affecting the stability of river flows,
harming the safety of banks and embankments or other activities impeding flood discharge
in river course are declared as an illegal act.
Although water shortage is currently not a problem in the Yarlung Tsangpo catchment, the increase
in irrigation will have an impact on the available water resources. This, coupled with the decrease in
precipitation, will have a considerable impact on agriculture in the area.
The existing facilities for the flood control projects in Tibet are constructed mainly in towns and
cities, farmland and other water-logging areas. There are 17 regional dikes, with a total length of 246
km. The major city flood control project in Lhasa is the flood control embankment, constructed in the
right bank of Lhasa River with a length of 18.3 km (CARR 2008).
Flood insurance in Tibet was initiated and encouraged by the Tibetan government, and several pilot
projects were implemented. However these were not very successful, mainly due to the fact that the
poor rural people in flood areas were reluctant to pay the insurance premium since they traditionally
rely on relief from the government after flood disasters.
22

However, the field experiences from Tibet and the discussion related to licensing and pollution
control, as well as water conservancy and flood and drought control provides proof that IWRM
within the Tibetan Plateau does not exist. Usually, most of the water related problems are solved
through engineering solutions, without due consideration for the sustainability of the measures.
3.2 Flood and risk management in Bhutan
The flow regime is relatively stable in Bhutan, and most of the major rivers run through narrow
incised valleys which reduces the risk of major flooding events. In addition, the population is small
and few people have traditionally lived along the river banks. However, the population is growing,
and far more people and industries are now located near flashy streams and rivers. Recent problems
associated with the water resources of Bhutan are now generally associated with too much water
rather than too little.
Two types of flood occur in Bhutan – flash floods during the monsoon, and glacial lake outburst
floods (GLOFs). Flash floods, carrying substantial loads of sediment and large boulders, occur every
year in localized areas in the southern flatter areas during the monsoon, and less commonly at higher
altitudes, occasionally causing considerable damage to infrastructure and property, and loss of life.
Some examples of flash floods are listed below:
• in August 1998, a huge flash flood from a small tributary of the Klolong Chu washed away several
houses north of Tashi Yangtse: a number of people were killed, and the gauging station was
damaged by debris load;
• in June 1999, heavy rains resulted in flooding of a number of houses in Thimphu;
• in October 1999, after 3 days of continuous rain, 3 people died in Paro district, when a fast flash
flood swamped a bridge in Bondey;
• on 3 August 2000, after 3 days of unusually heavy rains starting on 31 July 2000, which caused
widespread landslides in Bhutan, there was a major flash flood on the river Barsa, in which a
considerable numbers of lives were lost, and considerable damage was down to infrastructure at
the Pasakha industrial area. The damage done by these very heavy monsoon rains, to Pasakha,
Phuentsholing and other areas of Bhutan, was considered to be the worst disaster in Bhutan's
recorded history. Ten concrete buildings were damaged at Pasakha by flooding in the residential
complex of BCCL and BFAL leaving more than 400 families homeless. The flooding was caused by a
landslide blocking the river Barsa which then turned toward the colony. Flood waters, mudslides
and boulder slides also caused considerable damage to the access road and bridge. Barsa is a
grazing area - no people live nor farming undertaken in the upper catchment. Previously, BBPL
(Bhutan Board Products Ltd), situated in Tala (near Gedu) used to log this area for raw materials,
but since 2002 this has been banned.
Generally speaking, however, the most severe floods that occur in Bhutan are GLOFs; they are
fortunately relatively rare to date, but when they do occur, they have caused loss of life and
considerable damage. The national GLOF picture raises concerns: over a period of 30 years (1963 to
1993), the horizontal retreat rate of 103 glaciers was examined. The average horizontal retreat rate
was 6.27 meters/year (twice as fast as Nepal, where 100 glaciers were examined). Of 86 glaciers
clearly retreating, the average retreat rate was 7.36 meters/year over the same 30 year period. The
risk of GLOFs is clearly present.
23

The few that have been recorded in recent decades have all occurred on the Pho chu and caused by
outbursts from the lakes in the Lunana area at 4,200 m and above. Out of 24 potentially dangerous
glacier lakes in Bhutan (ICIMOD 2001), eight are located in the head waters of Pho Chhu sub-basin
making downstream areas of Punakha and Wangdue the most GLOF vulnerable valley in Bhutan.
GLOF events have been recorded as follows:
• in the summer of 1956, when the Punakha Dzong was also damaged,
• in the summer of 1961, when the flooding lasted 5 days,
• in September and October 1968, when some floods were caused by glacial lake outbursts at a time
when there were floods caused by unusually heavy autumn rainfall over wide areas of Bhutan. The
flooding along the Pho chu washed away several houses including an ancient temple in the Punakha
valley, the bridge at Wangdi Phodrang, and a house with 12 persons farther downstream.
• the most recent event occurred on 6-7 October 1994, when one outburst at the Lugge Tsho
(eastern Lunana area) triggered another, claiming about 22 lives, mostly in the Punakha-Wangdue
valley, causing huge property and livestock damage downstream of Lunana, and damaging the
famous Punakha Dzong. Following the GLOF in the Punakha valley on 7 October 1994, gabions and
protective embankments have been constructed at several key locations as they have been in Paro
and Phuentsholing (especially following the very serious floods in 2000), and, more recently in
Thimphu.
To reduce the impact of such disasters in future and to give the downstream inhabitants sufficient
time for evacuation, it is planned to install a technical early warning system consisting of sensor
array, communication system, and local warning systems (sirens) in the Punakha-Wangdue valley.
There are many hundreds of glacial lakes in Bhutan but not many of them are at risk of bursting.
None of the lakes in the Wang Basin have been listed in the high risk category - only two glacial lakes
have been examined in the Wang basin and they pose little threat.
The Basachu hydropower station and future hydropower developments on the Punatsang chhu,
however, are at a much higher risk from GLOFs as they lie downstream of the Po chhu.
Despite this generally bright picture, water shortages are experienced in certain isolated rural areas
during the long, generally dry season between November and March (see hydrograph). 90% of rural
households in Bhutan are now served by a pipe water system; some of the remaining 10% of
households without a piped water system fall into these winter shortage areas. Alternative systems
of rainwater harvesting (from roofs) and storage has been tried with some success in several areas of
Bhutan to alleviate this problem.
With increasing urbanization and a vibrant construction industry, there are also reports of springs
drying up. However, this is not causing general or widespread concern as yet.
24

Discharge in m3/s
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Fig. 17: Hydrograph Wang Chu
Wang Chu, Chimakoti, 1976-2006
The figure above shows the typical annual discharge regime of the Wang Chu river basin in its lower
course at the gauge Chimakoti. Most of the annual precipitation is concentrated in the months from
end of June until October during the Monsoon period. Average discharge in this time is about 100
m 3 /s. Runoff is very low between November and May with an average of 35 m 3 /s. Average discharge
in 2005 is 103 m 3 /s. During March, river flows (and thus hydropower generation) are at the lowest.
This figure gives a hint that fresh water availability is very variable in this catchment.
Summarizing there is plenty of water in Bhutan and no major droughts have been recorded.
However, a number of problems exist. According to most climate scientists, flash floods and GLOFS
are likely to increase in number and severity due to more intense rainfall events and the melting of
the glaciers. Rainfall may become less predictable, and winters may become drier.
a) there is a seasonal risk of flash floods during every monsoon season (see hydrograph), especially in
the southern belt in Bhutan;
b) there is a risk of GLOFs, and this risk is increasing due to the recorded melting of glaciers and the
increased extent of the glacial lakes (2 glaciers possess a risk in the Wang Chu basin);
c) risk of droughts is likely to increase due to population growth and rising water demands
The Bhutan Water Policy considers these flood issues. It calls for an integrated and coordinated
approach to flood control and management through action plans and programs for monitoring, early
warning of flood hazards, and disaster management.
The National Environment Commission is a policy making and regulatory agency on all matters
related to the environment in Bhutan, and, from 2002, has been responsible for coordinating and
regulating the water resource sector. The Commission is responsible for coordinating flood and
disaster management in Bhutan, because it has been recognized for some years that floods, GLOFS
and other water-related disasters may become more common due to predictions of climate change
25

and an increase in intense rainfall events. The Disaster Management Division has its focus on the
establishment of early warning systems, training and awareness rising, and community based
planning. Actual activities are
• the creation of a hazards map for Bhutan, developed from census data, and risk areas identified by
partner department and industries;
• development of risk assessment guidelines, standards and methodologies, preparedness plans, and
subsequently legislation;
• the identification of key institutions,
• Establishment of a National Emergency Operation Centre and an early warning system at the
MoHCA (Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs) in Thimphu, and a national emergency
communication network, with units in all districts and geogs.
The Bhutan 2020 Vision of Prosperity and Happiness document has identified watershed
management as the key component of sustainable development. Removal of vegetation cover,
especially in critical watershed areas, will affect the hydrological balance, leading to the localized
drying up of perennial streams and flash flooding. In some cases, this has been aggravated by poorly
conceived and designed new road construction and irrigation systems. The vision document
therefore recognizes watershed management as a key tool for maintaining biodiversity, soil fertility,
the biological productivity of natural systems and for combating erosion and other forms of
environmental degradation.
3.2 Management of floods and droughts in Assam
The federal state Assam with its 22,4 million inhabitants is mainly affected by the high water
variability of the Brahmaputra river. During the Monsoon the region has to cope with floods and in
non-Monsoon period it has to handle droughts. Additionally the area is extremely densely populated
and more people are directly affected by floods and droughts as in Tibet. The Assam valley causes
floods, the stream is not bordered by a mountain range. The river is breaking to the narrow valley in
the Himalaya and constitutes a braided river system with a lot of arms and channels in the flat and
wide Assam valley. Problems are caused due to the constant change of the streams. The region is
characterized by erosion and accumulation processes of the river.
With 40 % of its land surface susceptible to flood damage, the Brahmaputra valley represents one of
the most acutely hazard-prone regions in the country, having a total flood prone area of 3.2 million
hectares. The state has experienced major floods in the years 1954, 1962, 1966, 1972, 1977, 1984,
1986, 1988, 1998 and 2004.The floods of 1988, 1998 and 2004 were the worst in recent history.
Breaching of embankments has been a major cause of intensification of the flood hazard in recent
times.
The existing flood control schemes in Assam had been developed by embanking the river with the
help of flood dykes at vulnerable reaches of the Brahmaputra and the tributaries. Besides flood
embankments many drainage sluices had been built at many flood plain areas for removal of flood
waters during the attenuation period.
The consequence of embankments, especially in channel aggradations and overbank flooding is
clearly visible in Assam. Structural measures, mainly embankments, have been used so far as the sole
26

answer to tackling floods. Out of a total of 15,675 km. of embankments built in the entire country,
Assam alone has as much as 5,027 km., about 32% of the country’s total. In the case of Assam, one of
the main aims of promoting and implementing IWRM must be to provide a viable long-term solution
to the chronic flood problem.
Since fifties of last century, solid and permeable spurs / groynes along with boulder bank revetments
had been constructed in many sites along the Brahmaputra river which are affected by stream bank
erosion. Some of these significant erosion affected sites where the erosion control majors had been
implemented are - Dibrugarh, Kokilamukh, Majuli, Palasbari, Dhubri etc. Also, in recent times, R. C. C.
Porcupine structures have been increasingly used with fair amount of success in arresting stream
bank erosion by dissipating vortex currents and inducing sedimentation. These existing flood and
erosion control schemes are all localized in nature and can be considered primarily as palliative
measures only.
Non-structural measure of flood plain zoning has not been considered for implementation, which is
apparent from the fact that there is no move from Assam government to enact required legislative
act. Furthermore, implementation of this otherwise useful non-structural measure will not be easy at
this juncture, as because now thousands of immigrants had settled well-entrenched deep inside the
riverine `Char` areas and the river bank sides of the Brahmaputra and its tributaries.
No serious attempts have been made so far to earnestly implement other non-structural mitigating
measures such as the highly effective measures of watershed management, soil conservation,
afforestation, real-time flood forecasting, reduction of susceptibility to flood hazards and damage,
and enhancing adaptive capability of the affected people to floods. There is a great imperative need
to execute catchment area treatment plans that include massive afforestation both in upstream
highlands and downstream flood plains to facilitate stability of the channels of the tributaries and the
main stem Brahmaputra by effectively cutting down and reversing the disturbing trend of rising silt
load in the flow.
The debilitating bank erosion phenomenon of the Brahmaputra has its implicit origin and intimate
linkages with the unabated soil erosion process in the watershed areas. The average stream bed
levels of the Brahmaputra and its tributaries are steadily rising which become the raison-de-etre of
bank overflow and floods. At present, the bank erosion process of the Brahmaputra is in severe spate
in Rohmaria near Dibrugarh, Bengena Ati in Majuli, Panikhaity – Khankar near Guwahati, Bhurbandha
near Morigaon besides others. As per a recent GIS & satellite image based study by Sankhua & Nayan
Sharma on the erosion of the prominent heritage site Majuli, the largest River Island in the world,
about its 10% land area had been eroded by the Brahmaputra during the period 1990-2002. The river
training structures mostly used to control bank erosion process are solid spurs made of boulders and
soil material, boulder pitching as bank revetment, porcupines etc. The spur systems are no doubt
effective but highly expensive requiring high recurring maintenance cost. The porcupines, which are
relatively cheaper, operate by inducing sedimentation to check erosion and dissipating the erosive
flow vortex. But the design basis of porcupines still does not have a scientific foundation and their
dimensions are often decided based on experience and conjecture. There is great need to carry out
well-planned R&D programs to scientifically study the underlying causative factors and develop costeffective
measures with some design basis in consonance with IWRM.
27

A practicable judicious combination of structural and non-structural measures aimed at reducing
vulnerability and risks of the people and places to the hazards of flooding and erosion must be a
component of IWRM.
Fig. 18: Flood protection measures in Assam
28
From the above, it will be apparent that there
are multiple government agencies involved in
managing the various inter-related IWRM
aspects of the Brahmaputra system including the
burning issues of flood and erosion. But
presently, there is no effective mechanism to
coordinate these interlinked IWRM activities
undertaken by these diverse state and central
organizations. As a result, the optimal IWRM
practices have become a casualty in letter and
spirit which can be vividly exemplified by the
following actual instances – Kopili, Ranganadi,
Diyung dams built by NEEPCO only for hydro
power, while the potential for flood control and
irrigation remained unexplored.
Currently a cascade of dams on the large Subansiri tributary is under construction by NHPC only to
develop hydro power, thereby curtailing the promising potential for significant flood moderation and
also putting in place the perennial irrigation facilities backed by storages.
Several major and medium run-of-the-river irrigation projects were built on the tributaries of the
Brahmaputra by constructing diversion barrage and canal system, but any possibility for flood
moderation and hydro power was not explored. In two solitary cases namely Dhansiri and Bordikrai
irrigation projects, mini hydro power generation capacity of 12 MW & 3 MW respectively was
provided for in the project report, but was never executed.
The proposed Dihang Dam Project on the main course of the Brahmaputra is now practically
considered not for all the multiple purposes of IWRM, but mainly for hydro power whenever it gets
executed.
In recent times, the Central Government of India has created a separate ministry called Ministry for
Development of North East Region (DoNER). But even DoNER has not been able to bring about the
required effective coordination amongst the concerned government organizations as well as the
eight sister provinces of the region for the sake of deriving optimal benefits by harnessing the sizable
water resources of the Brahmaputra through adoption of IWRM. Perhaps the Subansiri Hydro Electric
Project presently under construction on the largest tributary of the Brahmaputra bears the classic
testimony to substantiate the above observation. A strategy to exploit the water wealth of the
Brahmaputra river system strictly on IWRM basis will accrue optimal all-round benefits to not only
the Brahmaputra basin states, but also to the country as a whole.

3.3 Trans-boundary issues
An integrated water resources management has to meet the needs of varios competing water users
and has to consider trans-boundary aspects to secure the water availability for downstream
countries.
Tab. 5: Brahmaputra countries and population
Country % of total basin area Population (million)
China (Tibet) 51,1 2
Bhutan 6,7 0,635
India 34 31
Bangladesh 8,2 47
Sum 80
(SARMA, 2005: 73; NHPC, 2008; TIANCHOU, 2001:110; WORLD BANK, 2008; RANGACHARI & VERGHESE,
2001:82; CWC, 2008; DOT, 2007; NPB, 2008).
The table with the population distribution in different countries in the Brahmaputra basin indicates
that regional cooperation is essential between downstream countries like India and Bangladesh with
the headwater countries like China and Bhutan for developing flood management and irrigation
projects and getting sufficient flow in the lean season.
A trans-boundary water management in the Brahmaputra river basin is not implemented so far.
There exist only some cooperation and bilateral agreements like between Bhutan and India
concerning hydropower production.
• Cooperation between India and China
In 2002, the Government of India had entered into a Memorandum of understanding (MoU) with
China for sharing of hydrological information on Yarlung Tsangpo/ Brahmaputra River in flood season
from China to India. In accordance with the provisions contained in the MoU, the Chinese side is
providing hydrological information (water level, discharge and rainfall) in respect of three stations,
namely Nugesha, Yangcun and Nuxia located on river Brahmaputra from 1st June to 15th October
every year. The requisite data up to the year 2005 was received and the same was utilized in the
formulation of flood forecasts by the Central Water Commission (CWC).
For hydrological information of the Sutlej/Langqen Zangbo river in flood season both the countries
had signed a MoU in April, 2005 during the visit of Hon’ble Premier of China in April 2005. As per
MoU, the Chinese side has agreed to provide information on any abnormal rise/fall in water
level/discharge and other information, which may lead to sudden floods on the basis of existing
monitoring and data collection facilities on real time basis. Further, the Chinese side agreed to build a
hydrological station on the Sutlej/Langqen Zangbo River before the flood season of the year 2006
and provide the hydrological information to the Indian side. Implementation plan for exchange of
data is yet to be finalized. Talks with China for establishing sites in Palanzangbu and Lohit are
continuing (GOVERNMENT OF INDIA, CWC 2007).
• Cooperation between India and Bangladesh for transmission of data
Under a joint action program between India and Bangladesh, arrangements exist for the transmission
of water levels, discharge and rainfall data to Bangladesh during monsoon season since 1972. These
29

arrangements existed prior to the emergence of Bangladesh as a sovereign nation. Transmission of
water level, discharge and rainfall data to Bangladesh during the monsoon season (15th May to 15th
October) is continuing (GOVERNMENT OF INDIA, CWC 2007).
At this place the different water diversion plans by riparian states have to be described. These plans
induce new conflict potential.
India proposes to interlink the water rich Brahmaputra basin with the water scarce areas of the
Ganga basin. Under the Himalayan Rivers Development in India surplus basins should be linked with
deficit basins. The idea is to transfer water from February to April to the Ganges when water is
abundant in the Brahmaputra and scare in the Ganges.
Fig. 19: Water management plans
(RAHAMAN & VARIS 2008, modified).
China has also considered water diversion projects, e.g. the “South to North Water Diversion Project
SNWDP”. China is preparing to build a dam on the Tsangpo (Brahmaputra) that is expected to have
twice the hydroelectric output as the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtse. However this dam would be
built upstream from populations who depend on the Brahmaputra watershed. One use of the water
would be irrigation in the Xinjiang and Gansu portions of the Gobi Desert over 400 miles away. This
withdraws along with managing the dam could lead to seasonal or permanent water supply problems
for people in India and Bangladesh, who depend heavily on the Brahmaputra waters (UNITED PRESS
INTERNATIONAL 2007). Details to the China project are not yet available, still in planning and not
officially declared.
30

Bangladesh has rejected these diversion plans. The population depends on this water, especially in
dry periods. Instead they suggested the construction of storage reservoirs in Nepal, but water
storage capacity in Nepal is not so high (“New Indian Line”) (arrows). Additionally it is dangerous
because of the geology and the seismic unstable situation.
The background for India’s diversion plans that caused by climatic conditions the eastern rivers
contains more water; this surplus of water shall be diverted to the dry areas in the west and south of
India. This would result in an increase in irrigated area, hydropower production and more water
available to ensure navigation on the Ganga River during the dry season. If the proposed Indian Mega
River Linking project takes place, the rest of the country will also turn into desertification and
experience more droughts and more and frequent floods. Life, culture, property, agriculture,
fisheries and business of Bangladesh will all be affected. India uses the argument that the river
linking would take care of the excess floodwater in both Bangladesh and north eastern part of India.
The fact of the matter is that India needs the water during dry season; it cannot possibly contain or
divert any of the torrential floodwater, further enhanced due to global warming and excessive rain.
4 Comparative analyses
In this report it comes out that the conditions in the twinning river basins are different. While the
area of the Upper Danube river basin is mostly endangered by floods, several types of hazards occur
frequency in the Brahmaputra river basin. Flooding is one important issue in Assam in monsoon
period, as well as erosion. In the non-monsoon period a risk of insufficient water availability is
present. Also in the other riparian states exists times of water scarcity, where competitive water
demands rise conflict potential on local level, but also on trans-boundary level.
There is a urgent need to establish multipurpose dams, but their management is complex because
storage can frequently compromise needs for other uses (for example, the need to lower reservoir
water levels for flood control, maintain levels for energy production and replicate natural flows for
protection of species).
Main prerequisite for IWRM is a superior authority like a river commission. Such a body exists in the
Upper Danube river basin, the ICPDR. Contrary in the UBRB no basin wide organization exists.
The activities carried out at upstream areas are both challenges (eg. soil erosion, landslides, and
deforestation) and opportunities (eg. provision of reliable amounts of quality water to downstream
user communities due to sound watershed management).
River straightening and embankments are not possible to implement in the Assam area, because the
river is widely spread and consist of uncountable small channels. Erosion is an important issue,
because the river streams are continuously changing their ways, processes of erosion lead to land
loss in the riparian area. Here management strategies have to deal with designating settlement areas
which are safe for the poor population, like char dwellers.
31

Discharge in m3/s
5000
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Fig. 20: Hydrographs of European and Asian Rivers
IWRM in the Brahmaputra region is restricted due to conflicts between up- and downstream
countries and due to the debilitating structure of responsible institutions and organization.
But even an implemented IWRM approach in the Upper Danube cannot ban catastrophic events like
floods and debris flows in total. Climate conditions are not detailed predictable and climate
uncertainty will increase further in the future. Nevertheless an IWRM approach is urgent, because it
can help to mitigate the risk of likely climate change caused catastrophes and prevents human life.
32
Lhasa
Wang Chu
Brahmaputra
Lech
Salzach
Danube

References
BAYERISCHES LANDESAMT FÜR WASSERWIRTSCHAFT (2004): Hochwasserschutz für Bayern: Spektrum Wasser
1: Hochwasser Naturereignis und Gefahr. München.
BAYERISCHES LANDESAMT FÜR WASSERWIRTSCHAFT (2005): Bericht zur Bestandsaufnahme gemäß Art.5,
Anhang II, sowie Art.6, Anhang IV, der WRRL für das Deutsche Donaugebiet. München
BAYERISCHES STAATSMINISTERIUM FÜR UMWELT, GESUNDHEIT UND VERBRAUCHERSCHUTZ (2005): Bericht zur
Bestandsaufnahme gemäß Art. 5, Anhang II und Anhang III, sowie Art. 6, Anhang IV, der WRRL für das
Deutsche Donaugebiet. München.
BUNDESMINISTERIUM FÜR LAND- UND FORSTWIRTSCHAFT, UMWELT UND WASSERWIRTSCHAFT (2005): EU
Wasserrahmenrichtlinie 2000/60/EG. Österreichischer Bericht der IST – Bestandsaufnahme.
Zusammenfassung der Ergebnisse für Österreich. Wien.
CARR (2008): Outline and comprehensive evaluation of the development and utilization of water
Resources in Tibet.
CIPRA (2008): Nachhaltige Flussgebietsentwicklung Untere Salzach.
http://www.cipra.org/competition-cc.alps/Staton.
EUROPEAN COMMISSION, JOINT RESEARCH CENTER, INSTITUTE FOR ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABILITY (2007):
Concepts for drought simulation. http://ies.jrc.cec.eu.int/252.html.
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA, CENTRAL WATER COMMISSION (2007): Annual Report 2005-2006.
NI, J. (2000): A Simulation of Biomes on the Tibetan Plateau and Their Responses to Global Climate
Change. In Mountain Research and Development, 20(1): 80-89.
ICIMOD (2005): Integrated river basin management in the Brahmaputra basin. Kathmandu.
ICIMOD (2005): Integrated river basin management in the Brahmaputra basin. Kathmandu.
ICIMOD (2006): ICIMOD Newsletter - Sustainable Mountain Development in the Greater Himalayan
Region, No. 50 Summer 2006. http://www.icimod.org/home/uploads/newsletter/nl50/towards.pdf.
INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION FOR THE PROTECTION OF THE DANUBE RIVER (ICPDR) (2004): Danube River Basin
District, Part A– Roof report. Vienna.
ITP (2007): Assessment of the natural environment in the Yarlung Tsangpo River Basin. Tibet.
RAHAMAN & VARIS (2008): Integrated Water Management of the Brahmaputra basin: perspectives and
hope for regional development.
SUBBA, B. (2001): Himalayan Waters. Promise and Potential. Problems and Politics. Kathmandu.
UNITED PRESS INTERNATIONAL (2007): Walker's World: The most dangerous place.
http://www.upi.com/International_Intelligence/Analysis/2007/05/14/walkers_world_the_most_dan
gerous_place/8726/.
33

Project no: GOCE -036952
Project acronym: BRAHMATWINN
Project title:
Twinning European and South Asian River Basins to enhance
capacity and implement adaptive management approaches
Instrument: Specific Targeted Research Project
Thematic Priority: Global Change and Ecosystems
DL_5.3 Water Consumers and Polluters
Due date of deliverable: September 2008
Actual submission date: September 2008
Start date of project: 01.06.2006 Duration: 43 Month
Organisation name of lead contractor for this deliverable FSU
Project co-funded by the European Commission within the Sixth Framework Program (2002-2006)
Dissemination Level
PU Public PU
PP Restricted to other program participants (including the Commission Services)
RE Restricted to a group specified by the consortium (including the Commission Services)
CO Confidential, only for members of the consortium (including the Commission Services)

List of contributors
Partner 1 FSU
Partner 2 LMU
Partner 6 GeoDa
Partner 7 UniDun
Partner 9 FEEM
Partner 12 ICIMOD
Partner 13 UniBu
Partner 14 ITP
Partner 15 CARR
Partner 20 IITR
Content
1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................... 4
2 Water users and pollution sources in the Upper Danube River Basin ........................................................... 4
2.1 Major water consumers in the UDRB ...................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Water allocation and pollution loads from point and non-point sources in the UDRB .......................... 5
2.1.1 Point sources .................................................................................................................................... 5
2.2.2 Non-point sources ............................................................................................................................ 6
3 Water demands and pollution sources in the Upper Brahmaputra River Basin ............................................ 8
3.1 Trends in Population Growth: Assam study area – Assam .................................................................. 9
3.2 Trends in Population Growth: Bhutan ................................................................................................. 8
3.3 Trends in Population Growth: Tibet .................................................................................................. 15
4 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................... 20
References ....................................................................................................................................................... 21
2

Directory of figures
Fig. 1: Non point sources of nitrogen and phosphorus loads............................................................................ 7
Fig. 2: Population growth rate in Assam ........................................................................................................... 0
Fig. 3: Projected population of the Assam study area....................................................................................... 0
Fig. 4: Population doubling time by Tehsil ........................................................................................................ 0
Fig. 5: 1991 - 2080 Tehsil wise population distribution..................................................................................... 1
Fig. 6: Projected population growth for Bhutan ................................................................................................ 8
Fig. 7: Projected population growth for rural and urban areas of Bhutan ........................................................ 9
Fig. 8: Gewog wise rural population distribution ............................................................................................ 11
Fig. 9: Population growth rate by district ........................................................................................................ 16
Fig. 10: Trends in population increase............................................................................................................. 17
Fig. 11: District population distribution ........................................................................................................... 18
Directory of tables
Tab. 1: Water extraction and use in 2001 in the German Danube River Basin ................................................. 4
Tab. 2: Waste water disposal in the German Danube River Basin in 2001 ....................................................... 5
Tab. 3: Capacity of municipal sewage plants ..................................................................................................... 5
Tab. 4: Diffuse loads through nutrients ............................................................................................................. 6
Tab. 5: Fluoride and arsenic content in surveyed districts in Assam ................................................................ 2
Tab. 6: Urban population projection by Dzongkhag........................................................................................ 10
Explanations
Bayerisches Landesamt für Wasserwirtschaft Bavarian State Office for Water Conservancy
3

1 Introduction
Insufficient water quality is especially a problem in downstream countries. In upstream river ranges the
quality is in most cases quiet good and not influenced but on its way the river receives a lot of waste water
inflows from point and non-point sources. Especially densely populated areas and such of high industrial
activity contribute significant to the pollution of the resources. In the Upper Danube River Basin waste
water treatment and effluences in the river are strictly regularized and controlled. The ICPDR is responsible
for the implementation of the EU water framework directive. This superior authority tries to mitigate water
quality problems and tries to achieve sufficient water availability for downstream water users. In the
Brahmaputra River basin waste water discharge is not far monitored as it is the case in the Danube basin.
The Brahmaputra suffers partly from grave declines in water quality. But the region which has to be
supplied is large, especially in India and Bangladesh millions of people depend on fresh water in sufficient
quantity and quality.
2 Water users and pollution sources in the Upper Danube River Basin
2.1 Major water consumers in the UDRB
The major part of extracted fresh water in southern Germany is used for public water supply, but the water
demand of the industrial sector is high as well. The sector agriculture has comparatively just a small water
demand. In the German UDRB 3 513 hydropower plants are running. They produce about 12 000 GWh
electricity, which is equivalent to 18 percent of the whole Bavarian electricity production. Thermal power
plants produce about 81% (BAYERISCHES LANDESAMT FÜR WASSERWIRTSCHAFT 2005). Water power currently
amounts to a 15% share of the total energy consumption in Bavaria. About 13 billion kilowatt hours are
generated annually in 4 250 water power stations. In Austria 70% of the energy demand is covered by
hydropower (ARBEITSGEMEINSCHAFT ALPINE WASSERKRAFT 2008). A significant amount of water is used for
touristic purposes. For example high amounts of water are necessary for artificial snow production as a
result of the intensive and expanding winter tourism and in addition glaciers are going to retreat in the
alpine region. Other water intensive touristic infrastructures with a high demand on water are golf courses
and pools. But it is really difficult to estimate a real number for water use for touristic purposes.
In the north-eastern part of the UDRB thermal water use and balneological use are playing a role. This deep
groundwater is used in the region between the cities Regensburg, Passau and Linz.
Tab. 1: Water extraction and use in 2001 in the German Danube River Basin
(BAYERISCHES LANDESAMT FÜR WASSERWIRTSCHAFT 2005).
Extraction for Mio. m3/yr
Public Water Supply 791,4
Groundwater 578,8
Spring Water 166,8
Surface Water 45,8
Public Heat Power Plants 2229,3
Manufacturing sector (without agriculture) 747,3
Agriculture 1,76
4

Waste water discharges back through municipal waste water treatment plants as well as through direct
sewage disposal of manufacturing industry and public thermal power plants. In 2001 about 4 billion m 3
waste water were treated.
Tab. 2: Waste water disposal in the German Danube River Basin in 2001
(BAYERISCHES LANDESAMT FÜR WASSERWIRTSCHAFT 2005).
Mio. m3/yr
Annual Waste Water of Municipal Waste
1138
Water Treatment Plants
Direct Sewage Disposal
Manufacturing Industry 581,4
Public Thermal Power Plants 2137
2.2 Water allocation and pollution loads from point and non-point sources in the
UDRB
2.1.1 Point sources
Surface Water
Municipal sewage: In German parts of the UDRB the maximum extendible by a capacity of a sewage plant
is regulated due to the number of habitants of the community. For each of the plants the habitants per
plant, average load, annual wastewater and annual loads for CSB, N und P are collected. In the year 2002,
more than 2000 municipal sewage plants with a population of 19.5 EW exist, 843 of them have more than
2000 habitants. The largest plants are located in Munich (2 plants for 3 Mio. inhabitants) and in other
towns, e.g. Ulm, Augsburg, Regensburg, Rosenheim or Landshut. The table shows the capacity of municipal
sewage plants (BAYERISCHES LANDESAMT FÜR WASSERWIRTSCHAFT 2005).
Tab. 3: Capacity of municipal sewage plants
(BAYERISCHES LANDESAMT FÜR WASSERWIRTSCHAFT 2005).
Capacity (habitants) Number of Sewage Plants Total of habitants (millions)
2001 – 10000 559 273
10001 – 100000 270 1180
100000 -< 1000000 25 458
>1000000 2 2950
Total German UDRB 856 4861
The table lists municipal sewage plants with more than 2000 habitants in the German UDRB.
The catchment around the “Donauversickerung” (Danube sinking) as well as the big south-Bavarian lakes
and reservoirs are declared as sensible regions with lower limits for Phosphorus. Although the rest of the
catchment is not declared as sensible, more than 90 percent of the plants above 10 000 habitants meet the
demands of the phosphorus elimination and 83 percent of the nitrogen elimination (BAYERISCHES LANDESAMT
FÜR WASSERWIRTSCHAFT 2005).
5

Direct industrial loads: 31 direct industrial dischargers which are reportable and excess contaminant
threshold values are known as well as 20 aliment producers.
Other pollution loads: 26 factories are discharging waste heat into rivers. No salt discharge (> 1kg/s) takes
place in Germany.
Groundwater:
Point sources for groundwater in the German parts of the UDRB are 59 former waste deposits and dumping
grounds as well as 49 destructive soil changes (36 industry sites, 13 incidents with dangerous materials).
2.2.2 Non-point sources
Surface water
Diffuse pollution loads result from settlement areas, agricultural areas or atmospheric deposition and
cannot be measured directly. In Germany these pollutions loads for nitrogen and phosphorus and
phytosanitary loads are estimated with the model MONERIS considering the ways through ground water,
erosion, avulsion, atmospheric deposition on open waters, agricultural drainage areas as well as urban
areas (BAYERISCHES LANDESAMT FÜR WASSERWIRTSCHAFT 2005).
Tab. 4: Diffuse loads through nutrients
(BAYERISCHES LANDESAMT FÜR WASSERWIRTSCHAFT 2005):
Nitrogen Phosphorus
Source 1993–1997
[t N/ha]
Groundwater 78090
59.5 %
Drainage 16600
12.6 %
Erosion 2490
1.9 %
Avulsion 4190
3.2 %
Atmospheric
1440
deposition
1.1 %
Urban areas 2800
2.1 %
Sum diffuse sources 105610
80.4 %
Municipal wastewater 24420
treatment plants 18.6 %
Industrial direct load 1270
1 %
Sum point sources 25690
19.6 %
Sum all loads 131300
100%
1998–2000 Source 1993–1997
[t N/ha]
[t P/ha]
80540 Groundwater 590
71.4 %
11.1 %
7510 Drainage 90
6.7 %
1.7 %
1870 Erosion 1910
1.7 %
36 %
4620 Avulsion 810
4.1 %
15.2 %
2310 Atmospheric
29
2 % deposition
0.5 %
3170 Urban areas 370
2.8 %
7 %
100020 Sum diffuse sources 3790
88.7 %
71.5 %
No data Municipal wastewater 1410
treatment plants 26.6 %
No data Industrial direct load 100
1.9 %
12780 Sum point sources 1510
11.3%
28.5 %
112800 Sum all loads 5300
100 %
100%
6
1998–2000
[t P/ha]
611
12.8 %
30
0.6 %
1935
40.7 %
610
12.8 %
38
0.8 %
422
8.9 %
3646
76.7 %
No data
No data
1.113
23.4 %
4759
100 %

In the table is shown that nitrogen mostly comes via the groundwater and interflow into surface waters.
67.8 percent of diffuse load are related to agriculture. Phosphorus mainly comes into the waters through
erosion, 54.8 percent of the diffuse load by agriculture. Via the system MONERIS the nitrogen is monitored.
Due to the results the German parts of the UDRB can be seen as not significantly loaded. For loads from
heavy metals, pesticides and other dangerous substances no information is available (BAYERISCHES
LANDESAMT FÜR WASSERWIRTSCHAFT 2005).
Fig. 1: Non point sources of nitrogen and phosphorus loads
(BAYERISCHES LANDESAMT FÜR WASSERWIRTSCHAFT).
Groundwater
The danger of drainage of nitrogen into the groundwater is analyzed for each municipal area. Therefore the
nitrogen surplus is calculated with which the concentration of 50mg/l in drainage water is just reached. Due
to this calculation sensitive regions for nitrogen loads into the groundwater are the Donauried region and
northeastern Swabian parts of the UDRB. There is no artificial groundwater recharge in the UDRB.
Other non point loads are atmospheric loads with acids in the regions of the Bavarian forest, the
Oberpfälzer Forest and the Fichtelgebirge, which results in acidification. To protect the water the treatment
of dangerous goods for ground water are regularized by law (BAYERISCHES LANDESAMT FÜR WASSERWIRTSCHAFT
2005).
7

3 Water demands and pollution sources in the Upper Brahmaputra River
Basin
This chapter will show some projections in respect to population dynamics and its development in riparian
states of the Brahmaputra River.
The world’s population is growing and there is that this is having profound effect of the world environment
with result impact on livelihood and survival. Although the growth of the world’s population has slowed in
recent years, the Himalayan regions of Assam, Bhutan and Tibet continue to experience rapid growth. The
most recent census in Assam (2001) recorded a population of 26.64 million, corresponding to an annual
average growth rate of 1.7% and a decadal growth rate of 18.9%. The 2005 Bhutan Population and Housing
Census recorded a population head count of 672,425. The reported population represents a growth rate of
1.3%. The 2000 Population Census of Tibet recorded a population head count of 2.6 million corresponding
to a growth rate of 15.8%; the highest among all provinces of China (TIBET STATISTICAL YEARBOOK, 2001).
The populations of these regions are predominantly young and rural. The rapidly increasing population and
scarce land has created an extremely unfavorable land-man ratio, particularly for agriculture production.
The population density of Assam (from the 2001 Population and Housing Census) was estimated at 340
persons per square kilometer (286 per square kilometer in 1990), marginally higher than the national
average density of 324 persons per square kilometer. The population density of Bhutan is estimated at 16
persons per square kilometer (2005 Bhutan Population and Housing Census) and that of Tibet is only 2.1
persons per square kilometer (2000 Tibet Population and Housing Census). While this may indicate no great
pressure on land and resources, the mountainous nature of the region and the harsh weather conditions
greatly influence habitation, availability of arable land and access to services. Aside the harsh climatic
conditions, the rugged terrain of the region sets limits on movement, thereby leaving large areas of the
region uninhabited.
The increasing population density of the region has been attributed to population increases resulting from
large–scale migration from neighboring countries and states as well as high fertility of immigrants. For
example, 20% of Bhutan’s population was captured as migrants and six percent as floating population. With
regards to Assam, experts’ opinion indicates that if the two less densely populated hill districts of Assam (N.
C. Hills and Karbi Anglong) are excluded, the actual figure of population density will undoubtedly jump to a
much higher figure reflecting the acute demographic pressure on land triggering high rural poverty and
unviable farm units. The growing population in the region has in no doubt tumbled land-man ratio and has
been the root cause for massive encroachments and destruction of reserved forest land resulting in
decrease of arable and forest land in the region.
Methods of Population Projection
National population projections from statistical offices in Assam, Bhutan and Tibet show that an
exponential population growth is expected in these states/countries. Thus, for this study we adopted the
exponential population projection technique. For this technique it is assumed that the population has a
constant birth rate through time and is never limited by food or disease. With exponential growth the birth
8

ate alone controls how fast (or slow) the population grows. For the exponential population projection, the
rate of population growth at any instant is given by equation (1) below
dN
= rN
(1)
dt
where r is the rate of natural increase, t is a stated time interval and N is the number of individuals in the
population at a given instant. Population exponentially declines if r < 0, increases of r > 0 and does not
change if r = 0. The population N at any given time t is given by equation 2 below
rt
N = N 0e
(2)
where N 0 is the starting population, N is the population after a certain time t has elapsed and e is the
base of natural logarithms. The doubling time of a population is another important concept of
understanding population growth. Doubling time is the time it takes for a population to double and it is
related to the rate of growth. When the population doubles N = 2N 0 . Thus, the time it takes a population
to double is given by equation (3) below.
t d
ln 2
= (3)
r
where td is the time interval for population doubling time.
The data used for projecting the population of Assam comes from the 1991 and 2001 Population and
Housing Census of Assam. For Bhutan the 2005 Population and Housing Census is used and for Tibet
population data from the Tibet Statistical Yearbooks are used to project the population to 2080.
3.1 Trends in Population Growth: Assam study area – Assam
Between 1991 and 2001, the population of the Assam study area experienced an annual growth rate of
1.4%. Most Tehsils in the basin experienced a positive population growth, except Dibrugah East, Dimow,
Mahmora, Khumtai and Sonari where the growth rates were negative. In Tehsil like Dalgaon, Diphu, Majong
and Kadam the growth rates where almost 3%. The red-bar shows the average annual growth rate for the
Assam study area (Figure 2). If the annual population growth rate of 1.4% is maintained, the population of
the Assam study area will increase to about 15 million by 2010, 27 million by 2050 and to 42 million by
2080.
9

3%
2%
1%
0%
-1%
-2%
-3%
-4%
Subansiri (Part-II)
Mangaldoi
Subansiri (Part-I)
Mikirbheta
Tingkhong
Margherita
Nazira
BASIN
Jorhat East
Phuloni
Teok
Dhakuakhana (Part-II)
Amguri
Moran
Majuli
Sarupathar
Narayanpur
Titabor
Helem
Majbat
Pathorighat
Chariduar
Dergaon
Kalaigaon
Bhuragaon
Udalguri
Naharkatiya
Gohpur
Harisinga
Chabua
Khoirabari
Dhakuakhana (Part-I)
Sonari
Khumtai
Mahmora
Dimow
Dibrugarh East
Fig. 2: Population growth rate in Assam
9
Samaguri
Kadam
Mayong
Diphu
Dalgaon
Kampur
Hojai
Donka
Lanka
Dhekiajuli
North Lakhimpur
Rupahi
Golaghat
Sipajhar
Laharighat
Marigaon
Tengakhat
Tezpur
Doom Dooma
Tinsukia
Silonijan
Dhing
Dibrugarh West
Dhemaji
Bihpuria
Jorhat West
Biswanath
Sibsagar
Naobaicha
Kaliabor
Nagaon
Bokakhat
Raha
Sissibargaon
Na-Duar

Population in millions
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1991 2001 2010
Year
2050 2080
Fig. 3: Projected population of the Assam study area
The figures below show the 1991 and 2001 Tehsil wise population distribution as well as the projected
population distribution for 2010, 2050 and 2080 for the Assam study area. Figure 5 show that between
1991 and 2001, all Tehsils in the Assam study area have a population of below half a million. However, by
2050 the population most Tehsils would have exceeded half a million and by 2080 most Tehsils would have
a population of more than a million.
11

200
150
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
Khoirabari
Chabua
Harisinga
Gohpur
Naharkatiya
Udalguri
Bhuragaon
Kalaigaon
Dergaon
Chariduar
Pathorighat
Majbat
Helem
Titabor
Narayanpur
Sarupathar
Majuli
Moran
Amguri
Dhakuakhana (Part-II)
Teok
Phuloni
Jorhat East
OVERALL
Nazira
Margherita
Tingkhong
Mikirbheta
Subansiri (Part-I)
Mangaldoi
Subansiri (Part-II)
Samaguri
Na-Duar
Sissibargaon
Raha
Bokakhat
Nagaon
Kaliabor
Naobaicha
Sibsagar
Biswanath
Jorhat West
Bihpuria
Dhemaji
Dibrugarh West
Dhing
Silonijan
Tinsukia
Doom Dooma
Tezpur
Tengakhat
Marigaon
Laharighat
Sipajhar
Golaghat
Rupahi
North Lakhimpur
Dhekiajuli
Lanka
Donka
Hojai
Kampur
Dalgaon
Diphu
Mayong
Kadam
Dibrugarh East
Dimow
Mahmora
Khumtai
Sonari
Fig. 4: Population doubling time by Tehsil
11

Fig. 5: 1991 - 2080 Tehsil wise population distribution
Sanitation is one of the basic determinants of quality life and human development index. In Assam
insufficient sanitation services and facilities lead to a pollution of the water resources. India’s sanitation
record is extremely poor. According to the United Nations Human Development Report, 2006, a mere 33
9

per cent of India’s population has access to improved sanitation facilities. And that is the cause of high rate
of infant mortality rate. In case of Assam, we still see poor sanitation. According to 2001 Census report,
while only about 64.65 percent population of Assam have access to toilet facilities, which means the
remaining 35.35 per cent (nearly 93 lakh people) defecate in the open or in the unsafe and most dangerous
way. Moreover, while 64.65 per cent of people of Assam technically have access to toilet facilities, only
about 15.89 per cent actually have scientific and safe toilets that are fitted with water flush. In the rural
areas of Assam on the other hand the situation is so pathetic that only about 8.61 per cent people have
safe, scientific toilets having water flush facilities (RGVN 2008).
In order to assess the water quality of different areas in the State and the nation a program known as
National Water Quality Monitoring Program (NWMP) is being implemented throughout the nation. The
State Pollution Control Board has established a wide network of water quality monitoring by now.
Monitoring is done in surface waters and in ground water.
Under the National Water Quality Monitoring Program (NWQMP), the Pollution Control Board, Assam has
been collecting large number of ground water samples from the district of Karimganj, Kamrup, dhubri,
Nagaon, Lakhimpur, Dhemaji and Golaghat. A brief result of all the districts regarding the Arsenic and
Floride along with physical parameters is presented in the Table.
Tab. 5: Fluoride and arsenic content in surveyed districts in Assam
Districts Fluoride (mg L -1 ) Arsenic (µ g L -1 )
Min Max Min Max
Karimganj 0.25 0.91 BDL 40.20
Kamrup 0.14 2.10 BDL 10.71
Dhubri 0.44 0.78 BDL 9.27
Nagoan 0.31 0.96 0.22 8.7
Lakhimpur 0.64 0.84 3.60 11.42
Dhemaji 0.56 0.71 2.41 5.80
Golaghat 0.38 0.70 6.17 102.14
Out of the ten sampling points, of Brahmaputra river six of sampling points are monitored regularly on
monthly basis. The analytical result shows that the DO (dissolved oxygen) values ranges from 2.0 to 11.2
mg/L during 2005-2007. On very few occasions the DO values were found below the permissible limit. The
BOD (biological oxygen demand) values ranges from 0.20 to 6.2 mg/L during the period. On very few
occasions the BOD values cross the permissible limit. From the analytical results it is observed that
bacteriologically the water quality of the Brahmaputra is very much poor. The total Coliform values range
from zero to 240000 and indicates every possibility of the presence of pathogenic bacteria in the river
water for which the water is unfit even for bathing. The Pollution Control Board Assam also collecting water
samples from Brahmaputra River, Barak River and its tributaries including 3 sampling point from pond/
beel/ tank. The river water is regularly monitored from Sadiya to Dibrugarh throughout the year. All the
physio-chemical and bacteriological parameters are examined. Bacteriologically, the water quality is much
above the prescribed limit for drinking water. During flood, some parameters like total solid, total dissolved
solid etc. increases. There are occasional disturbances of water quality during some festival like Durga Puja
(due to immersion of idols), Ashokastami (mass bathing) etc.
9

3.2 Trends in Population Growth: Bhutan
The 2005 Bhutan Population and Housing Census was the only population data available at the Gewog
level. There was no preceding data to estimate growth rate at the Gewog level. Thus, the estimated
national growth rate was applied to all Gewogs. The population of Bhutan is projected to grow at annual
rate of 1.4%. We also applied a lower variant growth rate of 1% and higher variant growth rate of 2% to
project the population forward. If the population Bhutan is to grow at an annual growth rate of 1%, it will
take approximately 50 years to double. However, if the growth rate is 2.0% then it will take only 35 years to
double. The figure shows the rate at which the population of Bhutan will grow from 2005 to 2080 for
annual growth rates of 1.0%, 1.4% and 2.0%. The population of Bhutan from the 2005 Population and
Housing Census was 634,982. If the population is to grow at an annual rate of 1.0% then by 2080 it will be
1.3 million. At a 1.4% annual growth rate it will be 1.8 million and 2.8 million if the annual grow rate is 2.0%.
3000000
2500000
2000000
1500000
1000000
500000
0
growth rate 1% growth rate 1.4% growth rate 2.0%
2005 2010 2025 2050 2080
Fig. 6: Projected population growth for Bhutan
Bhutan’s population is predominantly rural (69.1%). Figure 7 shows the corresponding trend for rural and
urban areas. For rural areas, the population was 438,871 in 2005. If the population is to grow at an annual
rate of 1.0%, by 2080 the rural population will be about 925,000. At a 1.4% annual growth rate it will be 1.3
million and 1.9 million if the annual grow rate is at 2.0%. For urban areas, the population was 196,111 in
2005. For a 1% annual growth rate the urban population will grow to about 400,000 in 2080, and to
556,000 for a growth rate of 1.4% and 866,000 for 2.0% annual growth rate.
9

2000000
1800000
1600000
1400000
1200000
1000000
800000
600000
400000
200000
Rural
Urban
Fig. 7: Projected population growth for rural and urban areas of Bhutan
Table 6 shows the projected urban population from 2005 to 2080 by Dzongkhag for 1%, 1.4 and 2.0%
annual growth rates. The table shows that the spatial distribution of the urban population of Bhutan is
highly uneven. The urban population is concentrated mainly in Thimphu and Chhukha. The two Dzongkhags
holds more than 57% of the urban population. Figure 8 shows the distribution of the rural population by
Gewog, which is also highly uneven. Nonetheless, by 2080 most of the Gewogs will have rural populations
in excess of 5000.
9
growth rate of 2.0%
growth rate of 1.4%
growth rate of 1.0%
0
2005 2010 2025 2050 2080

Tab. 6: Urban population projection by Dzongkhag
2005 2010 2025 2050 2080 2005 2010 2025 2050 2080 2005 2010 2025 2050 2080
1% growth rate 1.4% growth rate 2.0% growth rate
Bumthang 4203 4417 5128 6577 8865 4203 4506 5550 7857 11924 4203 4640 6245 10246 18560
Lhuentse 1476 1551 1801 2310 3113 1476 1582 1949 2759 4187 1476 1630 2193 3598 6518
Trashi Yangtse 3018 3172 3683 4723 6365 3018 3235 3985 5642 8562 3018 3332 4485 7357 13327
Wangdue 7522 7906 9178 11771 15865 7522 8063 9933 14062 21339 7522 8305 11177 18338 33216
Punakha 2292 2409 2797 3587 4834 2292 2457 3027 4285 6502 2292 2531 3406 5588 10121
Gasa 402 423 491 629 848 402 431 531 752 1140 402 444 597 980 1775
Thimphu 79185 83224 96621 123910 167011 79185 84885 104569 148030 224641 79185 87427 117665 193041 349668
Trongsa 2695 2832 3288 4217 5684 2695 2889 3559 5038 7645 2695 2975 4005 6570 11901
Zhemgang 3386 3559 4132 5298 7142 3386 3630 4471 6330 9606 3386 3738 5031 8255 14952
Monggar 7153 7518 8728 11193 15087 7153 7668 9446 13372 20292 7153 7897 10629 17438 31586
Trashigang 6816 7164 8317 10666 14376 6816 7307 9001 12742 19336 6816 7525 10128 16616 30098
Pemagatshel 2287 2404 2791 3579 4824 2287 2452 3020 4275 6488 2287 2525 3398 5575 10099
Samdrup Jongkhar 10964 11523 13378 17157 23124 10964 11753 14479 20496 31104 10964 12105 16292 26729 48415
Sarpang 12596 13239 15370 19710 26567 12596 13503 16634 23547 35734 12596 13907 18717 30707 55622
Tsirang 1666 1751 2033 2607 3514 1666 1786 2200 3114 4726 1666 1839 2476 4061 7357
Dagana 1958 2058 2389 3064 4130 1958 2099 2586 3660 5555 1958 2162 2909 4773 8646
Chhukha 32926 34606 40176 51523 69445 32926 35296 43481 61553 93408 32926 36353 48926 80269 145396
Samtse 10139 10656 12372 15866 21384 10139 10869 13389 18954 28764 10139 11194 15066 24717 44772
Ha 2495 2622 3044 3904 5262 2495 2675 3295 4664 7078 2495 2755 3707 6082 11018
Paro 2932 3082 3578 4588 6184 2932 3143 3872 5481 8318 2932 3237 4357 7148 12947
9

Fig. 8: Gewog wise rural population distribution
Water consumer and quality aspects
While water resources are abundant in Bhutan, there is increasing pressure on the resources due to
competing demands from different users (eg. domestic consumption, agriculture, industry, tourism
and recreation, hydropower, waterways and new urban areas). This increase in demand has
impacted both the quantity and quality of water in the country necessitating an urgent need for an
integrated water resources management plan within the right institutional and policy environment.
9

Major water user in Bhutan is the public water supply. Most water is needed for urban and rural
water supply. In general Bhutan is endowed with abundant water resources of good quality, which
are derived from its location within the medium to high Himalayas. But in rural areas, there have
been difficulties monitoring the quality of the water provided and its safety for consumption.
Water Quality
In terms of quality, on a macro scale the waters of Bhutan can be described as generally excellent in
the current scenario, highly oxygenated, slightly alkaline, with low conductivities, and very little or no
salinity. Except for BOD/COD (biological/ chemical oxygen demand) testing being carried out at the
sewage works in Thimphu and Phuentsholing, there is no information regarding the state of toxic
pollution of water by heavy metals, pesticides, herbicides, or industrial waste products. In 2001,
however, UNICEF assisted in testing wells in the south of the country, and confirmed the nonexistence
of arsenic.
Indicators for water quantity and water quality are:
Physical indicators
• flow rates at Chhukha hydropower plant
• rainfall records from fixed sites at different altitudes and aspects
• sediment levels at selected sites in the upper and lower Wang Chhu
• salinity
• turbidity
Biological indicators
• E.Coli levels at fixed sites in the major rivers
• E.Coli levels at fixed sites on important third level tributaries
Social indicators
• time spent on collecting water per household per day
• number of new rural water supply schemes
• number of new household water storage supply systems
• number of new on-farm water storage facilities
• a system of PES established.
Economic indicators
• power generated at the Chhukha and Tala Hydropower plants
• household water bills in both rural and urban areas
• hotel water bills
• funds generated through water and sanitation billing at the City Corporations
Pollution risks
There are localized pollution problems that need attention to avoid health problems and
deteriorating recipient and downstream conditions. These include:
9

• Solid waste and liquid effluent from the more concentrated urban areas (eg. Thimphu,
Phuentsholing, Paro) – where surface drainage and grey water sullage from domestic
households and uncontrolled seepage and/or overflow from septic tanks and piping are
conveyed straight into the rivers;
• Unsanitary conditions are found along banks of streams and rivers both in urban areas and in
more rural locations where defecation has occurred close to small concentrations of
population – this effect especially observed around temporary labour sites (eg. for road
construction workers) and camps housing army personnel. High E.Coli levels have also been
measured in both small streams and the major rivers where open latrines have been located
too close to the water ways or open defecation from construction camps has occurred (data
from work undertaken in Dechencholing, Thimphu, and Lango, Paro, by schools participating
in the WWMPRSPN environmental education programme);
• Micro scale point pollution originates from some medium and small industries – for example,
from vehicle workshops in the urban areas, and the Bhutan Particle Board Products factory in
Tala, Chukha, where formaldehyde and formic acid have been a problem in the effluent for
over a decade. With the rapidly increasing number of vehicles on Bhutan’s roads, one
particular fear is pollution from workshops.
• Pesticides and herbicides are also potential source of water pollution. Pesticide ingredients
can enter into the water courses through surface run-off as well as percolation into ground
water table. Although the use of pesticides in the country is moderate and regulated, overall
pesticide and herbicide use has in fact increased over the years. From 1998/99 to 2004/05,
pesticide and herbicide use has grown by more than double from 125,311 to 280,995 kg or
equivalent liters. However, around 94% of the total volume of pesticides and herbicides used
in the country, have no acute hazard as per the toxicity classification of the World Health
Organization (WHO). The use of extremely hazardous (Class Ia) and highly hazardous (Class
Ib) pesticides is negligible, just about one-fiftieth of the total volume of pesticides distributed
between 1998/99-2004/05 (ROYAL GOVERNMENT OF BHUTAN 2008) .
Although currently in generally good condition, with over 65% forest cover remaining, a decrease in
water quality and quantity as a result of population growth and human livelihood activities, or
climate change, can pose a very real threat to the health of the watershed and the profitability of the
huge investments made in the hydropower installations.
The National Environment Commission in Bhutan is responsible for setting water quality standards
and guidelines. But water quality standards are currently very preliminary, as adequate baselines
studies have not been conducted to date.
The Bhutan Water Policy accords highest priority to drinking water, and the fundamental right of
every individual to quality water. This will drive Bhutan’s commitment to the MDG target of halving,
by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and sanitation
and it recognizes the importance of efficient use and proper disposal of wastewater by industries and
recreational activities, and it highlights the importance of water resources protection through the
polluter pays principle.
9

The Public Health Engineering Division (PHED) of the Ministry of Health is responsible for rural water
supply and sanitation programs in the country. The primary objective of the policy is to ensure the
achievement of the vision – “ensuring that present and future generations of rural residents in
Bhutan have access to adequate, safe and affordable water supply and sanitation facilities while
enduring that poorer, vulnerable and marginal parts of the population are not excluded from these
benefits.”
The Water Supply and Sanitation Policy has increased emphasis on water quality monitoring and
sanitary inspections.
Much has been achieved in the past 25 years, yet much remains to be done in terms of disease
transmission and prevention. The incidence of diarrhoea and dysentery morbidity continues to be
high by international standards. The quality of drinking water supplies and sanitary latrine facilities
need more emphasis in future.
In respect to likely pollution due to Mines the Mines and Minerals Management Act, 1995 was
constituted and is responsible for the drinking water quality and sanitation conditions and facilities in
and around the mines.
Nearly 90% of rural households are covered, and receive piped, untreated water from a spring or
stream. A spring is preferred as they are more easily protected and the water quality less
questionable.
The NEC is charged with monitoring the quality of air and water in Bhutan, and new legislation now
requires the polluter to pay. Despite the apparently pristine condition of Bhutan's streams, water
pollution does occur. In 1995, the Danida- RGoB Land Use Planning Project conducted a study on the
wastewater flowing from the Bhutan Boards Product Ltd factory in Tala, Chhukha dzongkhag. The
wastewater was examined due to local reports of damage to rice crops, sickness in people and death
of animals. The contaminant was identified as formaldehyde. Despite the new legislation, nothing
has been done to control this pollution, which continues.
In Thimphu, waste oils and other materials from the auto workshops drains directly in to the nearby
streams and then enters the Thim chhu below the main town. Collecting water from streams and
irrigation channels continues to carry some risk in both urban and rural areas due to pollution or
contamination from industrial waste, animal faeces and agricultural chemicals. In Thimphu, the City
Coorporation has employed Environmental Inspectors to control pollution - these inspectors are
currently undergoing training.
An SNV (Netherlands Development Organization) study in the 1990s relating to quality of rural water
supplies in eastern Bhutan concluded that the quality of piped water is significantly better than water
from traditional sources. Contamination levels for water at the household averaged 7 faecal coliform
per 100ml for villages with piped water, and 64 fc/100ml for villages without piped water. The rural
water supply programme is thus having a significant beneficial effect on community health.
In overall terms, however, it is likely that poor water quality currently still affects more people on an
annual basis than do floods. Despite the major strides forward in provision of good water to the great
majority of settlements in Bhutan during the past two decades, the Health authorities maintain that
9

they still see far too many cases of intestinal infection. Nevertheless, the most likely cause of this
situation is poor household sanitation and personal hygiene rather than poor water quality.
There are no current estimates of groundwater resources or its quality, which are assumed to be in a
sound and stable condition. Only in Phuentsholing are significant amounts of ground water extracted
to provide water to the urban area, and no reports exist as to these sources being stressed. Recent
records do not suggest that rainfall is declining, thus it is assumed that the monsoon continues to
adequately recharge the aquifers and groundwater sources.
Where pollution problems exist, for example at factories permitting dangerous effluent to seep into
the environment, and in areas where raw untreated oils are spilling into rivers, the existing strict
rules needs to be applied with all necessary vigour. There is also a need to continue environmental
and health education and training campaigns, especially in schools and at labour camps, concerning
proper solid waste disposal and health risks from open defection. Problems have been noticed at the
Chhukha hydropower plant in relation to increased solid waste in the river, and school campaigns in
Paro and Thimphu districts have measured high E.Coli levels in tributary streams caused by latrines
being situated on stream and river banks.
3.3 Trends in Population Growth: Tibet
Between 2003 and 2004, the population of Tibet experienced a growth rate of 1.5%. Most districts in
Tibet experienced a positive growth rate. Figure 9 shows the population growth rate by district. The
red-bar shows the annual growth rate for Tibet. The estimated growth rates for thirty-one of the 73
districts are higher than the national average.
9

Percent
4
3,5
3
2,5
2
1,5
1
0,5
0
-0,5
Palbar
Kongpo …
Gyamda
Rutok
Lhorong
Nedong
Tingri
Thongmon
Shigatse City
Zogong
Zayul
Taktse
Metok
Lhodak
Nakartse
Gyatsa
Tsome
Chong Gye
Tsona
Amdo
Tingkye
Danang
Nyemo
Lhasa
Sangri
Rinpung
Gonggar
Gongjo
Paksho
Khangmar
Dayak
Sakya
Markham
Purang
Yatung
Lhuntse
Fig. 9: Population growth rate by district
If the annual population growth rate of 1.5% is maintained, the population of Tibet will increase from about 2.6 million in 2004 to about 5.6 million in 2025 and to
10 million by 2080. Figure 9 shows the projected population of Tibet by year. The estimated growth rate indicates that the population of Tibet will take 44 years to
double. This varies widely between districts – only 18 years in Bachen to 186 years in Purang. Figure 10 shows the population distribution by district from 2004 to
2080. It can clearly be seen that the population is unevenly distributed by district. The districts with high populations are those around the Lhasa City.
9
Gertse
Chamdo
Kyirong
Nyerong
Tsada
Sokshan
TIBET
Lhumdup
Damshung
Nima
District
Saga
Chosum
Metro …
Nyalam
Dirl
Lhatse
Rioche
Miling
Gampa
Palgon
Chali
Dongpa
Ngamring
Nakchu
Panam
Shantsa
Namshan
Pome
Nyingtri
Gyantse
Tsochen
Chushur
Tengchen
Namling
Tolung …
Gar
Gakyi
Bachen

Population
12000000
10000000
8000000
6000000
4000000
2000000
0
2594615
Fig. 10: Trends in population increase
2852346
9
3644209
5639023
10031850
2004 2010 2025 2050 2080
Year

Fig. 11: District population distribution
Water quality in Tibet
Water pollution in China is a major problem and despite the fact that the water quality in water
courses in Tibet is not affected to a huge extent yet, the signs of decreasing quality are already
apparent. There is a lack of institutionalized waste and sewage removal systems in Tibet, even
though the local economy is growing quickly. The sources of contamination are varied: agricultural,
9

human, and animal wastes as well as mining waste products. Copper, gold and chromites are the
major mining activities and tailing from these mines are usually not treated before they get disposed
of in rivers. Sulphuric acid, cyanide and heavy metals are the main pollutants expected in Tibet. In
Central Tibet, only in Lhasa a garbage disposal plant is operational. Major urban centres, including
Xigatse, Tsethang, Chamdo, Nagchu and Gyantse, have no method of handling garbage disposal. In
the Lhasa catchment, the sudden intensification of grain production relies on heavy applications of
chemical fertiliser and pesticides to achieve higher yields, which in turn leads to chemical pollution of
the Yarlung Tsangpo.
Water pollution becomes controlled and water treatment has improved significantly in Tibet over the
last decade. Industrial emissions, historically the largest water pollution concern in the Yarlung
Tsangpo River, have largely come under control. By the end of 2004, 91 percent of industrial
wastewater reportedly met national standards for discharge, a more than 50 percent reduction in
untreated wastewater from 2000. Industrial wastewater that remains untreated is relatively
concentrated geographically. Advances in controlling industrial pollution have largely been the result
of forced closings of smaller industrial facilities and requirements for larger facilities to install
treatment equipment. Despite progress in reducing industrial pollution, increased residential
wastewater and nonpoint agricultural pollution have offset many of these gains. As the most
important daily supply of drinking and irrigation water, the pH of the mainstream river water ranges
from 6.65 to 8.35, and the total dissolved solids are between 40 mg/l and 250 mg/l, the river water is
calcium-bicarbonate type mineral water and is of good quality. Elemental concentrations in the YT
river water display uniformity regardless sampling sites and no significant differences were found
between remote sites and rural sites. A slightly downstream decreasing trend was found for most
elements. Compared with other rivers, elemental concentrations are comparable to those rivers with
minimal influences of anthropogenic activities, and are much lower than those polluted ones. All the
evidences indicate that the YT River is mainly controlled by geological background and under natural
conditions with minimal human impacts (ITP 2007).
Concerning water pollution the Law of the People's Republic of China on the Prevention and Control
of Water Pollution was set up in 1984. The law is formulated for the purpose of preventing and
controlling water pollution, protecting and improving the environment, safeguarding human health,
ensuring the effective use of water resources and facilitating the development of the socialist
modernization. It shall apply to the prevention and control of pollution of rivers, lakes, canals,
irrigation channels, reservoirs and other surface water bodies, and groundwater within the territory
of the People's Republic of China. The environmental protection departments at all levels shall carry
out unified supervision and management of this law. The major provisions of the law in relation to
IWRM are as follows:
• All units and individual shall have the duty to protect the water environment and the right to
supervise any act that pollutes or damages the water environment and to inform against the
polluter.
• The environmental impact statement of a construction project shall assess the water
pollution hazards and its impact on the ecosystem with prevention and control measures
that are likely to produce from the project activities. The statement shall be submitted as per
the specific procedure to the environmental protection department concerned for review
9

and approval. The statement assesses the water pollution hazards the project is likely to
produce and its impact on the ecosystem, with prevention and control measures.
The law prohibits discharging any oil, acid or alkaline solutions, or deadly toxic waste into any water
body. Similarly, the solid wastes, radioactive solid wastes or waste water containing any high or
medium level radioactive substances into any water body are also not allowed. In case of pathogencontained
sewage, discharge is allowed only after it is disinfected to meet the relevant national
standards. The discharge of industrial waste water or urban sewage into agricultural irrigation
channels shall only be made with the assurance that the water quality at the nearest irrigation intake
downstream conforms to the agricultural irrigation water quality standards.
4 Conclusion
Rapid population growth has been identified as a major constraint to the sustainability of the
environment. Assam, Bhutan and Tibet as identified in this study are experiencing positive and high
population growth rates which vary substantially between areas. Given population increase and the
finite extent to which further land can be converted to agricultural uses and the depletion in water
availability, arable land availability and water sources for irrigation could become a major concern in
the near future, the effect is already being felt in the Upper Brahmaputra Basin and the foothills and
valleys of Bhutan and Tibet. Between 1991 and 2001, the population of the Assam study area
experienced an annual growth rate of 1.4%. Bhutan’s population is also expected to grow at an
annual rate of 1.4% and 1.5% in Tibet. At the stated growth rates the population of the Assam study
area and Bhutan are expected to take 49 years to double. In Tibet it will double in 44 years.
Population growth rates vary substantially between Tehsils, Gewogs and Districts in the Assam study
area, Bhutan and Tibet respectively. The population growth and concerned increase in water demand
have to be considered in water management. The increasing need for water and the climate change
linked decrease in water availability constitute a challenge for IWRM in the area. Water pollution is
particularly a problem in downstream countries. In upstream states population is dense, industrial
sector is little and pollution is comparatively low. But especially the north-eastern Indian states have
to cope with polluted surface- and groundwater. Here population is high and respectively the water
needs. Coverage with safe drinking water is lowest in Assam.
9

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Wasserkraft.com/WasserkraftUmwelt.html.
BAYERISCHES LANDESAMT FÜR WASSERWIRTSCHAFT (2005): Bericht zur Bestandsaufnahme gemäß Art.5,
Anhang II, sowie Art.6, Anhang IV, der WRRL für das Deutsche Donaugebiet. München
NATIONAL STATISTICS BUREAU. The 2005 Bhutan Population and Housing Census. Thimphu, Bhutan
OFFICE OF THE REGISTRAR GENERAL. 1991 Population and Housing Census of Assam. India
OFFICE OF THE REGISTRAR GENERAL. 2001 Population and Housing Census of Assam. India
RGVN (2008): Basic Needs for Human Existence. Guwahati.
http://www.rgvnindia.org/microcredit.htm.
ROYAL GOVERNMENT OF BHUTAN (2008): Bhutan Environment Outlook 2008. Thimphu.
http://www.nec.gov.bt/publications/Bhutan%20Environment%20Outlook%202008.pdf.
TIBET POPULATION AND HOUSING CENSUS. 2000. TAR
TIBET STATISTICAL YEARBOOK (2001): China Statistics Press, 2001. Major Figures on 2000 Population
Census of China. China Statistics Press.
9

Project no: GOCE -036952
Project acronym: BRAHMATWINN
Project title:
Twinning European and South Asian River Basins to enhance
capacity and implement adaptive management approaches
Instrument: Specific Targeted Research Project
Thematic Priority: Global Change and Ecosystems
DL_5.4 Irrigation Agriculture, Fertilization and Crop Pattern
Due date of deliverable: September 2008
Actual submission date: September 2008
Start date of project: 01.06.2006 Duration: 43 Month
Organisation name of lead contractor for this deliverable FSU
Project co-funded by the European Commission within the Sixth Framework Program (2002-2006)
Dissemination Level
PU Public PU
PP Restricted to other program participants (including the Commission Services)
RE Restricted to a group specified by the consortium (including the Commission
Services)
CO Confidential, only for members of the consortium (including the Commission
Services)

List of contributors
Partner 1 FSU
Partner 2 LMU
Partner 6 GeoDa
Partner 13 UniBu
Partner 15 CARR
Partner 20 IITR
Content
1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 4
2 Agricultural water demand in the Upper Danube River Basin ............................................................. 4
3 Agricultural water demand in the Brahmaputra river basin ................................................................ 6
3.1 Irrigation in Tibet/Lhasa ................................................................................................................ 6
3.2 Agricultural water management in Bhutan ................................................................................... 9
3.3 Agriculture in Assam .................................................................................................................... 15
4 Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 20
References ............................................................................................................................................. 21
2

Directory of figures
Fig. 1: Irrigation channel in the Lhasa basin ............................................................................................ 9
Fig. 2: Agriculture in Bhutan .................................................................................................................. 11
Fig. 3: Plant protection chemicals distributed to farmers by years and chemicals............................... 14
Fig. 4: Sale of fertilizers by dzongkhags and years ................................................................................ 14
Directory of tables
Tab. 1: Extract of the KULAP support program ....................................................................................... 5
Tab. 2: Irrigation in Tibet ......................................................................................................................... 6
Tab. 3: Reservoirs in Lhasa ...................................................................................................................... 7
Tab. 4: Irrigation projects in Lhasa .......................................................................................................... 8
Tab. 5: Irrigation potential in Assam achieved from completed and ongoing schemes ....................... 18
Abbreviations
Crore: An Indian crore is equal to 100 lakh or 10,000,000
GoB: Government of Bhutan
KULAP: Bayerischen Kulturlandschaftsprogramm in Wasserschutzgebieten (Bavarian culture
landscape program in water protection areas)
Lakh: a unit in the Indian numbering system equal to one hundred thousand (1 lakh = 100000)
MoA : Ministry of Agriculture, Bhutan
WUA: Water Users Association, Bhutan
3

1 Introduction
Irrigation is an important contributor to global food security. But it also contributes to a number of
serious water management problems in countries around the world. These are for example
groundwater subsidence, reduced water quality, salinization and degraded ecosystems. Steps are
being taken to modernize irrigation, both in terms of technologies and institutions.
Irrigation agriculture is especially an important issue in the Brahmaputra River Basin. Agricultural
water use accounts here for about 70- 80% of total water used. Huge amounts of this water get lost
unused in consequence of inappropriate irrigation techniques with low efficiencies and high losses
due to evapotranspiration. Governance has to be improved; attention is needed to considerations
such as transparency in decision making; equity in stakeholder involvement; integration among
related systems (e.g., land and water, water and economy); the scale of decision making; and the
balance between state and non-state actors.
Contrary in the Upper Danube River Basin agricultural water use accounts only a small part of used
fresh water.
2 Agricultural water demand in the Upper Danube River Basin
In the Upper Danube River Catchment water withdrawal for irrigation is not relevant compared to
other withdrawals. At the moment no IWRM is implemented.
The total water demand of the agricultural sector in the German DRB is 1,76 Mio. m 3 /yr. In the
Upper Danube 85 % of the water extracted for the agricultural sector is used for irrigation. This is
equivalent to a volume of 390 m³ irrigation water per ha. Intensive agriculture with artificial drainage
accounts for approx. 10% of the agricultural area. Intensive agriculture captures in total 35 % of the
catchment area (German Danube River Basin).
Actual vegetation
• Plains: >70% agriculture (wheat, barley, corn, grassland), 25% forest
• Uplands: 50% forest, >20% agriculture (grassland, corn, wheat, barley)
It has to be considered there are strong changes of land use expected due to climate change (area
may serve as substitution in the EU context for crop producing Mediterranean regions, which
become increasingly water stressed).
Agriculture contributes to the pollution of the resources. Nitrogen and Phosphorus lead to a
decrease in quality. Nitrogen mostly comes via the groundwater and interflow into surface waters.
67.8 percent of diffuse load are related to agriculture. Phosphorus mainly comes into the waters
through erosion, 54.8 percent of the diffuse load by agriculture.
4

Example of government aid for sustainable agriculture
An area-wide sustainable agriculture is the target within the scope of the Bavarian program for
cultivated landscape – Part A (KULAP). Those farmers, who commit to take care for the protection of
the natural livelihood (soil, water, air) with agricultural environment measures, are encouraged. In
the years 1998 to 2002 1.05 billion Euros (54 percent by Germany a 46 percent by the EU) have been
paid out in total. The following table shows an extract of the KULAP support program (BAYERISCHER
OBERSTER RECHNUNGSHOF 2008).
Tab. 1: Extract of the KULAP support program
(BAYERISCHER OBERSTER RECHNUNGSHOF 2008).
Supported measures Amount of aid
Extensive permanent grassland use (“grassland bonus”
Level A
• Abandonment of area-wide chemical pesticides and
• General interdiction of plug away of permanent
grassland areas
Level B – measures after level A –
Additional abandonment of mineral fertilizer
Extensification of fields with cutting time requirements
Level 1: cutting time from the 1 st of June and
abandonment of mineral fertilization
Level 2: cutting time from the 1 st of July as well as
abandonment of any kind of mineral fertilization and
chemical pesticides
Abandonment of any kind of fertilization and chemical
pesticides on grasslands along water bodies and other
sensitive areas
5
Between 95 €/ha/yr and 100 €/ha/yr
Between 190 €/ha/yr and 250 €/ha/yr
230 €/ha/yr
305 €/ha/yr
360 €/ha/yr
With the agreement of these measures there are more additional requirements e.g. crop
commandment respectively a ban on mulch, limitation of live stock, no extension of agricultural crop
land by debiting the grassland, ban on a disposal of sludge. Particularly the advancement of extensive
grassland cultivation (“grassland bonus”) is demanded. About 553 000 ha are under contract.
Therefore, almost 74 million € (thereof 37 million € state funds) are paid out yearly (BAYERISCHER
OBERSTER RECHNUNGSHOF 2008).
The Joint Research Center (being actively involved in the work of the ICPDR) is developing a set of
droughts indicators, incorporating the impact of water stress on the natural vegetation and on
agriculture. The production of a soil moisture and plant water stress map (using the so called
LISFLOOD model) is also included. In this study crop water requirements were considered.

3 Agricultural water demand in the Brahmaputra river basin
3.1 Irrigation in Tibet/Lhasa
Water saving agriculture is not so urgent for the southeast of Tibet. But for the mid-stream of the
Yarlung Tsangpo (including Lhasa, Nagqu, Shannan, Xigaze region), water-saving agriculture has been
conducting. One way is by the engineering approach to prevent the penetration under the stream.
Water pipeline is also used for water transport and land irrigation.
A new method for land irrigation should be developed and practiced in the water saving agricultural
activity in Tibet. The water resources management should be improved by enhancing the planning of
water utilization, adjustment of water resource, redistribution of water right, and adjusting price
policy in the water usage. In the watershed the cultivated land areas account for 59 % of the total
areas in Tibet. Thus this area is the most strongly androgenic activity-influenced area in Tibet,
however, these cultivated land areas only account for 0.6 % of the total drainage area, and the YT
River is still the cleanest river and the “pristine” region in the world (ITP 2007). Due to the diversity of
the river and lake systems in Tibet, the water use by agriculture is different. One situation is that the
river water cannot be adequately used by agricultural irrigation, for the scarcity of the farmland near
the lower river valleys, and thus no lack of water exists. Another situation is that the lack of water is a
problem not immediate so far but will be in the future, because of increasing agricultural activity. In
addition, for small rivers, the water shortage will become a problem in the low-flow months. Even
the river water die away in some period, and it will cause a serious problem for land irrigation. The
following table lists the irrigation statistics in Tibet.
Tab. 2: Irrigation in Tibet
(ITP 2007).
Area Land area
(10 3 Irrigated agriculture Land Guaranteed Irrigated Irrigated pasture
ha) area
agriculture Land area area (10 3 ha)
Area (10 3 ha) % of total Area (10
land area
3 ha) % of total
land area
Lhasa 38.80 28.60 74.00 18.60 48.00 4.00
Shannan 35.13 27.13 77.00 14.00 40.00 13.33
Xigaze 92.47 55.00 60.00 27.67 30.00 39.33
Total 166.40 106.73 60.20 60.27 32.30 56.66
Because of the uneven spatial distribution and low efficient utilization of water resources in Tibet,
there are one third of the cultivated land cannot be irrigated, and only 0.18% of grassland can be
irrigated. The total usage of water is only 1.8% (ITP 2007). The middle of the Brahmaputra River Basin
(including the area from Lhazi to Lhasa along the Yarlung Tsangpo, and Lhasa and Nyanchu River
Basin), is the most cultivated area in Tibet and also with most urgent water demand. A project about
the groundwater in the arid counties of these areas had been carried out from 2004 to 2006. Several
projects have solved the problem of drinking water for 100 000 local habitants and 2 millions of
cattle. About 3 500 ha of farmland has been guaranteed for irrigation and about 8 000 ha of barren
land developed for cultivation, about 15% of the Tibetan population have benefit from these projects
(ITP 2007).
6

In Lhasa
Gravity Irrigation is mainly distributed in the two sides of the mainstream of Lhasa River valley and
the tributaries Mozhumaqu, Pengbo and Duilongqu. There are 39 main channels with a controlled
area of 321,000 mu, irrigating 277,300 mu of farmland and 20,000 mu of forest and pasture. A mu is
a Chinese Unit for area. One mu is equal to (660m 2 ) or 666.6667 m 2 . There are six power irrigation
stations in Qushui County, irrigating 3,000 mu of farmland. Because the power cannot be guaranteed
and water seepage of channels is serious, the irrigation efficiency is poor. Irrigation channels have a
total length of 372, 4 km. Water conservancy facilities in Lhasa area are difficult to guarantee the
agricultural irrigation water. 330,000 mu of farmland and 20,000 mu of forest and pasture were
irrigated by the existing water supply facilities. Groundwater is exploided in Pengboqu Basin in a
small-scale for the farmland irrigation as well as for living and industrial water of the organs, armies
and enterprises in urban Lhasa.
Tab. 3: Reservoirs in Lhasa
City
(county, district)
Lhasa City
Name Drainage area total storage
capacity
(10 4 m3)
7
Irrigation
Area
(10 4 mu)
Qushui County Redui 1 st channel of Lhasa river 12 0.03
Duilongdeqing
County
Laji Duilongqu, the branch of Lhasa river 14 0.04
Duilongdeqing
County
Dadong Duilongqu, the branch of Lhasa river 10 0.06
Duilongdeqing
County
Deyang Duilongqu, the branch of Lhasa river 17 0.3
Chengguan District Baiding Duilongqu, the branch of Lhasa river 16 0.06
Chengguan District Yuejin Duilongqu, the branch of Lhasa river 10 0.06
Chengguan District Guangmin
gyihao
Duilongqu, the branch of Lhasa river 10 0.06
Chengguan District Qianjin Duilongqu, the branch of Lhasa river 10 0.06
Dazi County Lupu Duilongqu, the branch of Lhasa river 45 0.33
Dazi County Yeba Duilongqu, the branch of Lhasa river 83 0.16
Linzhou County Hutoushan Duilongqu, the branch of Lhasa river 1200 1.7
Linzhou County Kaze Duilongqu, the branch of Lhasa river 370 1.0
Linzhou County Longquan Duilongqu, the branch of Lhasa river 800 0.3
Linzhou County Xiangshan Duilongqu, the branch of Lhasa river 10 0.06
Linzhou County Na mu Duilongqu, the branch of Lhasa river 10 0.07
Total 2617 4.29
The total capacity of the 15 existing reservoirs is 26.17 million cubic meters ( 3 of them, Hutoushan,
Kaze and Longquan, are more than 10,000 cubic meters, respectively 12, 3.7 and 8 million cubic
meters ), and the irrigation area is about 47,000 mu, mainly distributed in the Lhasa River tributary
Pengboqu and other small tributaries. The project is small and scattered. Because of lack of
coordination and reservoir leakage, and other factors, some of the reservoir could not store water
anymore and some of them had a decreasing efficiency of irrigation because of siltation. The
possibility of repair and expansion only existed in Kaze of Pengbo, Hutoushan, Longquan, Xiangshan
and Namu.

Tab. 4: Irrigation projects in Lhasa
Name River Irrigation area(10 4
mu)
Total Farmland
8
Forest
and
grass
Flow rate
of water
diversion
(m 3 /s)
Length
of
channel
(km)
Benefit
county
1, Gesang Mainstream 0.6 0.6 7 14 Mozhugongka
2, Dongbugang Mainstream 0.1 0.1 5 5 Mozhugongka
3, Mozhong Mainstream 0.4 0.4 4 16.7 Mozhugongka
4, Laodong Mainstream 0.69 0.69 4 16 Mozhugongka
5, Tangga Mainstream 1.2 1.2 15 8 Mozhugongka
6, Moda Mainstream 0.15 0.15 1.25 22 Dazi
7, Dazi Mainstream 0.12 0.12 6.7 22 Dazi
8, Lamo Mainstream 0.10 0.10 6.7 4 Dazi
9, Zhangduo Mainstream 0.37 0.37 5.3 10.7 Dazi
10, Tajie Mainstream 0.08 0.08 5.95 6 Dazi
11, Keri Mainstream 0.12 0.12 4 3.3 Dazi
12, Bangdui Mainstream 0.8 0.8 2.6 3.7 Dazi
13, Bagaxue Mainstream 0.15 0.15 6.0 2.4 Dazi
14, Sangzhulin Mainstream 0.33 0.33 0.5 3.9 Dazi
15, Chengguanqu Mainstream 1.0 1.0 4.0 9 Chengguan
District
16、
Lhasa
channel
North Mainstream 1.2 1.2 Chengguan
District
Central Mainstream 0.2 0.2 Chengguan
District
South Mainstream 0.6 0.6 Chengguan
District
17, Liuji Mainstream 1.2 0.2 1.0 5.6 Chengguan
District
18, Sangda Mainstream 1.0 1.0 5 Duilongdeqing
19, Deji Mainstream 0.63 0.63 1 10 Duilongdeqing
20, Baidui Mainstream 0.38 0.38 1 18 Qushui
21, Caina Mainstream 0.34 0.34 0.5 14 Qushui
22, Xierong Mainstream 0.30 0.30 0.5 6 Qushui
23, Jiangqu Mainstream 0.29 0.29 1 7 Qushui
24, Chabala Mainstream 0.3 0.3 1 5 Qushui
25, Ha’ersa Mainstream 0.14 0.14 0.5 12 Qushui
26, Huiba Mainstream 0.07 0.07 0.3 2 Qushui
27, Jia'erduo Mozhugongka
branch
0.15 0.15 3 2 Mozhugongka
28, Jigu Maqu 0.19 0.19 8 Mozhugongka
29, Mojie Maqu 0.19 0.19 3 11 Mozhugongka
30, Taba Maqu 0.10 0.10 2 8 Mozhugongka
31, Gongga Maqu 0.14 0.14 0.5 8 Mozhugongka
32, Naiqiong Duilongqu, the
branch of Lhasa river
2.0 2.0 11 19.2 Duilongdeqing
33, Shengli Duilongqu, the
branch of Lhasa river
6.0 6.0 3 27 Linzhou
34, Beiping Duilongqu, the
branch of Lhasa river
3.0 3.0 3.5 18 Linzhou
35, Wusi Duilongqu, the
branch of Lhasa river
1.0 1.0 2 9 Linzhou

36, Wuqi Duilongqu, the
branch of Lhasa river
0.6 0.6 1.8 8 Linzhou
37, Kebu Duilongqu, the
branch of Lhasa river
0.5 0.5 2.5 10 Linzhou
38, Kaze Duilongqu, the
branch of Lhasa river
1.0 1.0 2.0 5 Linzhou
39、Dongfeng
channel
Nimumaqu 2.0 1.0 1.0 19.5 Nimu
Total 29.73 27.73 2 372.4
A network of more than 370 channel kilometers provides about 200 km 2 of irrigated agricultural land
with water.
3.2 Agricultural water management in Bhutan
Agriculture provides employment to some 80% of the Bhutanese population. Less than 7% of
Bhutan's total land area is used for arable cropping, and only 12.5% of the arable land is under
irrigation. This amounts to about 38 000 ha. Water is most crucial in the agricultural sector for the
irrigation of the rice crop. Therefore water management needs to focus on provision of water to the
irrigated areas, especially in times of shortage and price increases.
The nature of the
topography in Bhutan
allows for gravity fed
channels supplying water
from mountain streams.
The total length of
irrigation channel is about
1676.5 km for the whole
country. Water has
traditionally been used for
irrigation for many
Fig. 1: Irrigation channel in the Lhasa basin
hundreds of years, and the
availability of water has
determined the settlement
sites in Bhutan. Indigenous
irrigation channels often
running over great
distances can still be found
in the vicinity of less steeply sloping land which is suitable for rice cultivation. The Irrigation Division
was set up in the MoA in 1975 to rehabilitate old irrigation schemes and construct new ones. As a
result, the area of irrigated paddy, by far the dominant crop produced in the summer on these
irrigated lands, increased rapidly in the late 70s and early 80s with rice assuming an increasing
importance of rural diets. Some 50% of the rice consumed in recent years, however, has to be
imported from India. Bhutan is far from food self-sufficient, and increased self-sufficiency is a high
GoB priority. Recent MoA policies have also stressed the need to widen the crops that are grown
under irrigation, and to introduce new forms of modern micro irrigation and intensified farming.
9

Following, the steep rise in price of rice in early 2008 and subsequent ban on the export of rice from
India, the importance of increased self-sufficiency is clear. Bhutan obtained an exemption from the
Indian ban on rice exports this time, but this does not guarantee continued future imports, especially
in the face of climate change concerns and potential impacts.
It is estimated that there are between 1 500 and 1 800 small irrigation schemes in the country, and
stream or river diversion is the source of all irrigation water in Bhutan, beside a lift irrigation scheme
managed by the Ministry of Agriculture in Sarpang. Irrigated areas are generally small in area,
between 10 and 100 ha, due to the nature of the terrain and shape of the valleys. Two types of small
scale scheme exist:
i. valley bottom schemes, located on relatively gently sloping terraces beside the major rivers.
Water is provided by gravity fed channels from secondary rivers, occasionally primary rivers
where there are broader valleys (eg. Wangdi and Paro) and flatter plains (eg. in Sarpang) - in these
latter areas, areas under paddy are more extensive and take off points from the main valley rivers
occur;
ii. hill schemes, located at higher elevations, above the flood plains, on more steeply sloping land
where tertiary streams and rivers are the sources of water.
All schemes are farmer-managed through Water User's Associations (WUAs), except for two larger
schemes in the south which are managed by the government.
In the low altitude, wet subtropical belt, cost of scheme development is much higher because of the
unstable nature of the foothills, and a number of irrigation schemes are now defunct.
Rice is grown on all irrigated land during the monsoon season. In the dry season, winter crops such as
wheat, mustard, fodder oats, barley, potatoes and buckwheat are irrigated when water is available.
Kitchen gardens are watered, as are smaller areas of horticultural crops such as apples and other
fruits. Polytunnels using drip irrigation systems have recently been introduced in the west of Bhutan.
The problems associated with irrigation in a mountain landscape are significant. Following a sample
survey in 1992, 50% of schemes reported stability and alignment problems to the Irrigation Division.
Problems included:
• minor landslides commonly cause canal blockages or sinking;
• overflowing of canals can cause undercutting and erosion;
• due to small catchments of mountain streams, the time lag between heavy rain and peak discharge
is often less than an hour. It is sometimes difficult to entirely prevent peak discharges entering the
canal which leads to overflow, or damaging drainage events at the end of the canal;
• peak discharges can also bring coarse sediment into the canals, causing blockages;
• roaming cattle, attracted by easy accessible water and green grass, cause damage to the canals,
trampling embankments and damaging cement works;
• lack of water at peak demand seasons (eg. paddy preparation and planting in the pre-monsoon
period of May to June) can be a problem in lower lying and hotter areas (eg. Wangdi and Punakha);
• Upstream-downstream conflicts are not uncommon, although most of these are managed by the
WUAs.
10

These problems have led to a very low overall irrigation efficiency, between 24% and 36%, mainly
due to an estimated low conveyance efficiency of

• potential for irrigating land far away from village and community life is discouraged by damage
from wild animals;
• Improvement in the conveyance efficiency as the nation develops, and use of less water consuming
methods of irrigation.
On the other hand, the production of irrigated cash crops may increase in certain areas. This may be
produced with drip and micro-jet irrigation which will compensate increased water requirements,
and potentially encourage storage using tanks or ponds. The rice crop is irrigated 3 times a year in
the inner valleys, but 4 to 5 times a year in the southern areas, where it is significantly hotter. Each
“flooding” adds some 60mm per irrigation, from which can be calculated that crop water
requirement in the inner valleys is 180 mm per crop, and in the south, up to 300 mm per crop. There
is no metered record of water used for irrigation in Bhutan.
Water use has historically been predominantly by agriculture. With growing urbanization, the fast
developing hydropower sector, and increased quantities of water being used for irrigation in the
winter (for winter crops, fodder crops, and polyhouse production), there is now far more
competition for water, especially in the water-short winter months. As it is most unlikely that there
will be any marked increase in paddy areas, the most important aspect on which the MoA needs to
focus is increasing the efficiency of irrigation, and demonstrating and extending new technologies in
both irrigation and land management that use less and conserve more water (eg. SRI, drip and micro
sprinkler irrigation, mulching, and water storage techniques). Structural, technological and social
measures are required, and these must be supported by a concerted program of appropriate actionresearch,
focusing on the technologies and crop and varietal suitability, as well as integrated water
resource management at the community and farm level.
In terms of national water resource, the MoA is one of the main stakeholders, given that between 70
and 80% of Bhutanese are dependent for their livelihood on agriculture. Water for use in irrigated
agriculture derives mainly from the smaller tributaries and streams, and for two main reasons, has
not, in the past, been consider as a major competitor for water for hydropower development:
a) agricultural land makes up less than 7% of Bhutan’s total area, and irrigated agriculture less than
1%;
b) there is little scope for expansion of flat irrigated land (eg. paddies for rice), except possibly in
the central south of the country which lie below the intakes for the main existing hydropower
schemes.
However, with major emphasis in the coming decades placed on accelerated hydropower
development, the main engine of growth in Bhutan, conflicts between these sectors and other
water-using sectors will occur – another reason to integrate the management of water.
Modernization of agriculture will entail increased irrigation of dryland and winter crops (eg. cash
crops, medicinal plants, fruit, vegetable and exotics), but sensible development will ensure that this
will involve drip, microjet and modern techniques, and avoid unnecessary water wastage.
Water use for irrigation is bound by the National Irrigation Policy. Essential ingredients of this Policy
include the effective participation of the water users, the establishment of sustainable water users’
groups, the operation and management of the irrigation schemes by the users, with only a
supportive role played by the Government of Bhutan.
12

The National Irrigation Policy was drafted in the early 1990s in order to lay the foundation for a
sustainable approach to irrigation development through the effective participation of the water
users. It covers the whole process of irrigation development, from site selection to operation and
maintenance, basic principles of NIP include:
• an approach to irrigation scheme development, management and operation that is participatory
and farmer-centered at all stages;
• farmers will take responsibility for the operation and maintenance of irrigation schemes;
• a sense of inclusive community ownership is essential as is participation in the key decisionmaking
processes:
• the role and responsibilities of the Government or other parties will be strictly supportive and
limited to those the farmers cannot assume:
• the upgrading of the institutional, financial and management capabilities of the farmer groups,
and strengthening of local water users organizations.
A key aspect of NIP requires that project beneficiaries associate themselves in an organization of
water users which has to be formally constituted as a Water Users Association. The WUA can be
officially established at any time, but preferably before project implementation begins. In many
instances informal water users’ organizations already exist.
Operation and maintenance of the irrigation schemes is undertaken by the beneficiaries themselves,
through the WUAs. Traditional water rights and sharing systems exist in all the irrigation schemes.
The general rule of thumb applied in water rights has been “first come, first served”, and “the nearer
to the source, the more access you have”. This is inequitable and, as can be expected, leads to
common conflicts– the Bhutan Water Policy takes account of this issue, and legal solutions will be
included in the Water Act. Water use by the livestock sector is not well documented and has been
taken for granted.
While there are a number of cases where such organizations have fallen into disorganization, there
are also cases where the existing organizations have been operating quite successfully for a long time
under established leadership.
In future a small increase in demand for irrigation is expected during the winter and spring periods as
farmers make more use of polytunnels and glasshouses, expand the area under winter food and
fodder crops, diversify into marketable cash crops, and generally intensify the farming system.
The Ministry of Agriculture also distributes plant protection chemicals and fertilizers to the farmers.
The amount of various chemicals and fertilizers distributed in the recent years are reflected in the
figures 3 and 4.
13

Fig. 3: Plant protection chemicals distributed to farmers by years and chemicals
ROYAL GOVERNMENT OF BHUTAN (2009)
Fig. 4: Sale of fertilizers by dzongkhags and years
ROYAL GOVERNMENT OF BHUTAN (2009)
Legislation to regulate the procurement and use of chemical pesticides is in place since 2000. The law
called “The Pesticides Act of Bhutan 2000” has been enacted with the objective to: ensure that
integrated pest management (IPM) is pursued, limiting the use of pesticides as the last resort; ensure
that only appropriate types and quality of pesticides are introduced in the country; ensure that
14

pesticides are effective when used as recommended; minimize deleterious effects on human health
and the environment consequent to the application of pesticides; and enable privatization of sale of
pesticides as and when required. The procurement and distribution of pesticides in Bhutan is well
controlled through a centralized system. Application of hazardous chemicals is not encouraged and
prescribed only as a last resort when pest attacks reach economic threshold. IPM strategy is being
pursued by agricultural extension agents and to facilitate the implementation of this strategy the
National Plant Protection Center has produced a series of IPM extension guidelines covering some 40
pest problems in agricultural crops. From the 1970s to the early 1990s, Bhutan had accumulated
32.19 MT of obsolete pesticides for use in the agriculture and health sectors. In 2004, through
international cooperation under the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movement
of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, Bhutan successfully disposed all the obsolete pesticides to
Switzerland for safe disposal. Apart from the Government of Switzerland, who aided the disposal
process, Bhutan received cooperation from the Governments of India, Denmark, Germany and the
Netherlands for the safe transit of the pesticides in the spirit of cooperation under the Basel
Convention.
3.3 Agriculture in Assam
The economy of Assam continues to be predominantly agrarian; the dependence of rural labor force
on agriculture and allied activities was nearly 53 per cent as per population census, 2001. During the
year 2006-07, the State experienced a drought like situation in almost all districts which stood in the
way of agriculture development in the State.
All the existing irrigation projects in Assam had been conceived as river diversion run-of-the-riverschemes
as single purpose development of water resources. Some of these existing major and
medium irrigation projects are Dhansiri, Bordikrai, Sukla, Jamuna, Dikhari, Borolia, Pahumara,
Dekadong, Champamati, Longa, Intergrated Kollong, Kulsi etc.
As stated earlier, the diversion type run-of-the-river existing irrigation projects are oriented mainly as
assured irrigation systems for the drought prone areas and also to provide required soil moisture in
the rain-shadow areas of Assam. These existing diversion type irrigation schemes are not geared to
make a breakthrough in the stagnant agricultural scenario in the Brahmaputra basin by desirably
stepping up cropping intensity and crop productivity. This is because there is not a single storage
type irrigation system in Assam which can provide the essentially required storage back-up to
significantly step up cropping intensity and crop productivity to their fullest potential. Without
irrigation water which is the most critical input, it is not feasible to step up the agricultural
production in Assam from its current stagnation level.
The major agricultural crops grown in Assam consist of different varieties of paddy, wheat,
sugarcane, jute, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables etc. The traditional varieties of paddy crops requiring
standing water in the field for percolation are grown on an extensive area mainly during the summer
season. Obviously, the water demand of paddy, jute, sugarcane is quite high and depends on
monsoon rains as well as protective irrigation. The monsoon rainy season is restricted primarily
during June to October months when most of the annual precipitation occurs.
15

Main Problems of Water Management:
Owing to this high total rainfall, development of irrigation system in Assam was not given due
attention during the post-independence plan periods. Nevertheless, the need for irrigation can be
visualized from the following considerations.
• Although total precipitation is quite high, it is mostly confined to 7 months leaving other 5
months dry necessitating irrigation for successful crop production.
• During the gather part of the year, dry spells are encountered when irrigation is necessary.
• Delay in onset of monsoon or early withdrawal of monsoon call for irrigation.
• The crop production in the pre-flood and post-flood periods needs irrigation.
There are a number of problems for which efficient utilization of irrigation water has not been
achieved. A few of them are mentioned below:
• Irrigation water is not readily available at the time of need. The seasons may be ascribed to the
fact that different departments involved in the supply of irrigation water but without the
expected integration.
• Even in irrigated areas, drainage system has not been developed for which the areas become
inundated during monsoon.
• In the non-irrigated areas, problems are of two fields :
o A dry situation, if rainfall is not in time and in proper quantity.
o Complete stagnation of water due to excessive rainfall in absence of proper drainage
systems.
• In spite of establishment of medium irrigation projects in Assam. The avenues for proper
application and utilization of irrigation water have not been created. Except the main channel,
there are no field distribution channels. Therefore irrigation is possible only on those lands
which are nearer to the channel outlets.
• The land development such as leveling has not been done in the irrigation commands and
therefore, irrigation water is not often available in the fields situated in upper elevations and
stagnation of water occur in the fields situated at the lower elevations.
• The fields are mostly irrigated by flooding from plot to plot.
• There is no structure for measurement and control of flow of water in the field level and as such
fields are often over irrigated. The problem becomes more acute in absence of field
distributaries when farmers are tempted to apply more water than required into their fields.
• Iron content in ground water is high in certain areas where irrigation potential has been created
through deep and shallow tube wells.
• In most of the diversion type medium or small irrigation projects, the river flow fluctuates
depending on the rainfall in the catchment area. As the irrigation commands of the state area
designed without storage reservoirs at the head work, the designed commands experience
shortage of water during pre and post monsoon seasons.
• A big gap remains between the created and utilized potential during the summer and Rabi
seasons due to absence of field channels, poor field leveling, improper rotational schedules,
inadequate on farm irrigation management and ineffective participation of the farming
community.
16

• Region of Applicability of Results: The state of Assam and most of the areas of the North-East
Region come under humid climate. The findings of this center applicable to the whole of Assam
and also the plains of, valleys and low altitude areas of the North-Eastern Region.
The Ministry of Agriculture is involved in watershed development programs and river valley projects
in flood-prone river and rain-fed areas through its implementation of the National Watershed
Development Project for Rain-Fed Areas and the Integrated Watershed Development Project in the
country, including in the northeastern states. The project reports are prepared, supervised, and
implemented by a multidisciplinary group of technical officers of the state agriculture departments,
for which funds are provided by the Ministry of Agriculture. The ministry also operates a scheme
known as the Watershed Development Project in Shifting Cultivation Areas in the Northeastern
Region. The objective of the scheme is the overall development of jhum (shifting cultivation) areas on
a watershed basis, reclaiming the land affected by shifting cultivation and encouraging
socioeconomic up gradation of jhumia families to encourage them to practice settled agriculture.
The scheme provides 100 per cent central assistance to the state plan for the following components
of watershed management:
• Administration cost
• Community organization
• Training program and rehabilitation components for households in land-based production systems
The scheme has been taken up through governmental and non-governmental organizations and
scientific and technical institutions in the northeastern States in watersheds where a minimum of 25
per cent of the area is under shifting cultivation and 50 per cent and above of families are engaged in
shifting cultivation as their only means of livelihood and are living below the poverty line.
From the above review of the existing practices and development of water resources in Assam, it will
be apparent that even though the water resources potential of the Brahmaputra river system in
Assam is very high, there is still not desirable exploitation of the water wealth to its potential. The
prime reason for this state of low water resources development can be ascribed to the absence of a
well-thought-out basin-wide planning strategy for achieving optimal Integrated Water Resources
Management (IWRM) embracing irrigation, hydropower, flood control, navigation and ecology.
For a sustained development in the agricultural sector availability of assured irrigation facility is
undoubtedly the most important prerequisite. The development of agricultural practices vis-à-vis
increase in productivity of crops cannot be conceived in absence of assured irrigation facilities.
Like other leading States in India, the programs for development of irrigation in Assam have been
launched under two heads, viz., Major & Medium Irrigation and Minor Irrigation. While the Irrigation
Schemes are classified as Major, Medium and Minor, they are categorized as Surface Flow, Surface
Lift (For Major / Medium and Minor) and Ground Water Lift (for Minor only).
At present three Departments, viz. Irrigation, Agriculture and Panchayat & Rural Development are
associated with development of irrigation facilities in the State. While the Irrigation Department,
which is the Nodal Department for development of irrigation in State, executes and maintains Major,
Medium and Minor Irrigation Schemes, the irrigation works of the other two departments are
confined to Minor Schemes only. It may further be mentioned that the Assam State Minor Irrigation
17

Development Corporation (ASMIDC) Ltd. was also earlier closely associated with the development of
Minor Irrigation in the State by installing Private Shallow Tube Wells (STWs) and Low Lift Points (LLPs)
through provision of institutional finance up to 1992-93. But its field works have since remained
suspended due to stoppage of institutional finance.
The details of Irrigation Potential achieved from Completed and Ongoing Schemes are given in the
Table. Following irrigation schemes were divided in the three categories Minor, Medium and Major
irrigation schemes.
Tab. 5: Irrigation potential in Assam achieved from completed and ongoing schemes
(a) Under Major/Medium Sector (Government) 2.22 Lakh Hectares
(b) Under Minor Irrigation Sector (Government) 3.24 Lakh Hectares
Total 5.46 Lakh Hectares
(c) Under Private Sectors through ASMIDC 1.49 Lakh Hectares
Grand Total from all sources 6.95 Lakh Hectares
(GOVERNMENT OF ASSAM, IRRIGATION DEPARTMENT 2008).
Applied typed of irrigation types are gravity/ flow irrigation whereby water is headed up at upstream
of head works and thereby diverted to canal system, lift irrigation whereby water is lifted by pumps
either from river/reservoir and then diverted to canal network and groundwater scheme by
employing tube wells.
The state-wise irrigation Program was formally started in the Fifth Five Year Plan. Up to early part of
Eighth Plan, the department completed 10 no. of Major/Medium projects, viz. Jamuna, Sukla, Longa,
Horguti, Dikhari, Kaliabor, Bhumki, Kaldiya, Kulsik and Dekadong Irrigation Projects and 1521 no. of
Minor Irrigation Schemes. Due to low plan allocation during VIIIth Plan, 10 no. of ongoing
Major/Medium Projects like Dhansiri, Champamati, Bordikrai, Intd. Kallong, Borolia, Pahumara,
Rupohi, Buridehing, Hawaipur and 1327 no. of ongoing Minor Irrigation Schemes spilled over to IXth
Plan. The plan allocation further deteriorated during IXth Plan and salary expenditure increased due
to revision of pay scale and hence practically no works could be done out of the normal plan
allocation after meeting the salary expenses. However, some works of Major/Medium projects could
be taken up with AIBP fund since 1997-98 and some works of Minor Irrigation Schemes under NLCP
and ARIASP Program and lately under AIBP also (2001-02)
• Accelerated Irrigation Beneficiary Program (AIBP) (General and Hills)
The program was started in 1996-97. The department received Central Loan Assistance (CLA) up to
March/2004 amounting to Rs. 89.22 Crore against CLA of Rs. 98.12 Crores released by the
Government of India under this program against which achievement made is 30,491 Hectares. For
Minor Irrigation Schemes, department has received Rs. 9.08 Crore from 1999-2000 to 2003-2004 and
achieved a potential of 5,690 Hectares.
• National Lake Conversation Program (NLCP) (General Area)
In the first phase of this program, in General Area, the department took up 86 Nos. of ongoing Minor
Irrigation Schemes for completion at Rs. 11.21 Crores and a potential of 12,745 Hectares has already
been achieved. In the second phase, works of 25 Nos. of ongoing Minor Irrigation Schemes are taken
18

up at Rs. 3.19 Crore for a target of 3,490 Hectares; out of which 13 Nos. have been completed upto
June’04 achieving around 2878 Hectares. The works of the remaining schemes are in progress.
• National Lake Conversation Program (NLCP) (Hill Area)
Since 1999-2000, 12 Nos. of ongoing schemes are taken up at Rs. 79.88 Crores for a target of 10,099
Hectares out of which 5 Nos. have been completed while the remaining 7 are partially completed
achieving 2,339 hectares.
• Assam-Rural-Infrastructure-and-Agricultural-Services-Project (ARIASP)
Under this program, in General Area, rehabilitation of 192 Nos. of Minor Irrigation Schemes have
been completed out of 222 Nos. of schemes at Rs. 8.734 Crore stabilizing irrigation in 6,067 Hectares
and another proposal for 34 Nos. Schemes (31 MLIS + 3 Rehab of RPS) at Rs.83.23 Lakhs and bringing
462 Hectares under irrigation coverage have been submitted.
• Command Area Development Program (CAD)
The department has taken up CAD works in 6 Major/Medium Projects like Jamuna, Sukla, Kaliabor,
Kaldiya, Dekadong and Bordikorai irrigation Projects for increasing utilization of already created
potential. Due to low plan allocation, much work could not be done under CAD Sector. The updated
achievement in Major items of works is Field Channel – 55,466 Hectares, Field Drain – 32,145
Hectares, Warabandi – 55,618 Hectares and Topo Survey – 74,490 Hectares with a total expenditure
of Rs. 60.33 Crore.
• Maintenance Works of Irrigation Schemes
Due to fund constraints, adequate maintenance works of schemes could not be taken up for a long
period. As a result, many schemes remained partially or fully inoperative.
• Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM)
For better irrigation Management, and to improve Irrigation efficiency, active participation of
farmers is necessary which is attained through PIM by formation of Water User’s Association (WUA)
from the beneficiary members. The WUA will be responsible for Operation & Maintenance of the
schemes. This concept has only recently been introduced in the department. In Major/Medium
projects, 40 Nos. of WUA under CAD Program, 254 Nos. in Minor Irrigation Schemes and 215 nos.
under ARIASP have already been formed, and more numbers are in the process of formation to cover
the irrigated areas of all schemes. The process of handing over of the schemes to WUA for Operation
& Maintenance has already been started.
In Assam demand for water resources arises due to numbers of factor of which irrigation alone is
accounted for almost 91 per cent of total water consumption. However, most of the waters
withdrawn for irrigation are lost as non-beneficial depletion. Such losses can be reduced by using
effective irrigation practices, including precision irrigation techniques, adjustment of crop planting to
match less evaporative periods of demand, and increased reuse of water. Overall irrigation efficiency
in the Brahmaputra basin is 32 per cent, and potential annual evapotranspiration is calculated as
1,144 millimeters, which is lowest among the basins.
19

For ensuring economy and efficiency in the use of water resources, conservation of these resources
is very important. In Assam many of the irrigation projects are no longer in service. Therefore proper
steps must be taken to develop those irrigation projects which can provide maximum benefits at a
cheaper cost.
While the irrigation potential created (annually) is predicted for the coming decade based on recent
data available, the earlier estimation (based on 1979-80 and 1991-92 data series) emerged as
overestimated. This is due to the fact that the actual growth of irrigation potential created during the
period of 2001-2007 was less than the projected values based on 1979-1991. The slow growth of
irrigation potential created during the period is due to some reasons like non-practicing of cropping
pattern as per designed cropping pattern of the scheme. Lack of eagerness of the farmers to utilized
irrigation water which again may be due to very unreliable and uncertain services provided by the
irrigation authorities or may be due to lack of awareness about the role played by irrigation in
increasing the yield rate of crops, non-repair of schemes due to paucity of fund, non-energisation of
pump sets and irregular supply of electricity, etc. The imposition of irrigation service charges may
also have an impact on it.
4 Summary
An effective agricultural water management has to consider all system elements, which are for
example climate conditions, water availability and applicable irrigation systems for chosen crop
cultures. Rules and laws for irrigation management, like an irrigation policy, have to be implemented
into governance systems. The governance system consisting of formal and informal institutions and
organizations as well as the public and local farmers constitute the frame for agricultural water
management.
These organizational structures differ in the riparian countries of the Brahmaputra river basin.
Whereby in Tibet and Bhutan problems of sufficient water availability occur only seldom, the Indian
state Assam suffers from too much water in monsoon season and too less water in the rest of the
year.
In consequence of these different conditions no overall unique system for water management in this
sector can be developed. An agricultural water management has to be adaptive and has to consider
local conditions.
20

References
BAYRISCHER OBERSTER RECHNUNGSHOF (2008): KULAP.
http://www.orh.bayern.de/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=291&Itemid=211.
GOVERNMENT OF ASSAM, IRRIGATION DEPARTMENT (2008): Irrigation schemes.
HTTP://IRRIGASSAM.NIC.IN/IRR_SCH_CAT.HTM.
ICIMOD (2008): Integrated Water Resources Management in Bhutan.WP5 Report. Final report.
ITP (2007): Assessment of the natural environment in the Yarlung Tsangpo River Basin. Tibet.
ROYAL GOVERNMENT OF BHUTAN (2009): CountrySTAT-Bhutan. Gateway to food and agricultural
statistics.
http://www.rnrstat.bt/csbhutan/index.asp
21

Project no: GOCE -036952
Project acronym: BRAHMATWINN
Project title:
Twinning European and South Asian River Basins to enhance
capacity and implement adaptive management approaches
Instrument: Specific Targeted Research Project
Thematic Priority: Global Change and Ecosystems
DL_5.5 Groundwater Recharge Pattern, Quality and Exploitation
Due date of deliverable: September 2008
Actual submission date: September 2008
Start date of project: 01.06.2006 Duration: 43 Month
Organisation name of lead contractor for this deliverable FSU
Project co-funded by the European Commission within the Sixth Framework Program (2002-2006)
Dissemination Level
PU Public PU
PP Restricted to other program participants (including the Commission Services)
RE Restricted to a group specified by the consortium (including the Commission
Services)
CO Confidential, only for members of the consortium (including the Commission
Services)

List of contributors
Partner 1 FSU
Partner 5 UniVie
Partner 13 UniBu
Partner 14 ITP
Partner 20 IITR
Content
1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 2
2 Groundwater use in the Upper Danube River Basin ............................................................................ 2
3 Groundwater occurrence and use in the Brahmaputra basin .............................................................. 3
3.1 Groundwater in Tibet .................................................................................................................... 3
3.2 Groundwater use and management in Bhutan ............................................................................. 5
3.3 Groundwater issues in Assam ....................................................................................................... 6
4 Summary ............................................................................................................................................... 7
References ............................................................................................................................................... 8
1 Introduction
Groundwater plays an important role in the ecosystem. Most it is characterized as fresh water of
highest quality. But the resource is also endangered in respect to its quality injury due to pollution at
the one side and in respect to quantity due to overexploitation. The combination of these problems
is particularly an issue in the Indian state Assam. In general groundwater needs a long time to
achieve this good quality and groundwater resources have to be protected.
The groundwater situation in the twinning river basins of Upper Brahmaputra and Upper Danube
river basin were presented in this report.
2 Groundwater use in the Upper Danube River Basin
In respect to the ratio of groundwater recharge and groundwater extraction it is also in general
below 10% in the German Danube river basin, except the Ostalb with extraction rates till 15% or 25%.
This can be explained by the use of a spring by the Landeswasserversorgung in Baden-Württemberg.
In 2001 the groundwater exploitation in the German Danube River Bain accounts 580 mio. m 3
(UMWELTMINISTERIUM BADEN-WÜRTTEMBERG 2008).
An adequate water quality is endangered due to inputs from nitrates and pesticides which are
caused by extensive agriculture. Furthermore the risk of other pollutants still exists due to industrial
sewage. The pollution of water bodies can be divided in chemical and physical loads. Physical loads
can be caused by changing temperatures. Strong industrial water use can result in chemical and
physical loads.
2

The main problems remain due to the uncountable diffuse pollution sources, which cannot be
located exactly. The agricultural sector causes mainly loads of nitrogen and phosphorus, which
attains mostly due to infiltration in the groundwater body.
Conflicts regarding nitrates, pesticides, and pathogens in groundwater, originating from both point
(industry) and non point (agriculture) sources. Diffuse pollution loads result from settlement areas,
agricultural areas or atmospheric deposition and cannot be measured directly. In Germany these
pollutions loads for nitrogen, phosphorus and phytosanitary loads are estimated with the model
MONERIS considering the ways through groundwater, erosion, avulsion, atmospheric deposition on
open waters, agricultural drainage areas as well as urban areas. Nitrogen mostly comes via the
groundwater and interflow into surface waters. 67.8 percent of diffuse load are related to
agriculture. Phosphorus mainly comes into the waters through erosion, 54.8 percent of the diffuse
load by agriculture. Due to the results of the model the German parts of the UDRB can be seen as not
significantly loaded. Due to this calculation sensitive regions for nitrogen loads into the groundwater
are the Donauried region and north-eastern Swabian parts of the UDRB. Other non point loads are
atmospheric loads with acids in the regions of the Bavarian forest, the Oberpfälzer Forest and the
Fichtelgebirge, which results in acidification. To protect the water the treatment of dangerous goods
for groundwater are regularized by law (BAYERISCHES LANDESAMT FÜR WASSERWIRTSCHAFT 2005). In
summary decreasing water quality particularly occurs due to the agricultural and industrial sector.
Rivers have been used as receiving waters for both urban and industrial waste water effluents for
hundreds of years. In general over the past decades water quality has improved considerably through
large investments into wastewater treatment plants. There have been substantial reductions in the
oxygen-sapping organic substances and nutrients, such as phosphate and nitrogen. Since 1950 the
number of wastewater treatment plants has increased from 20 to about 3 000. In the year 2000,
around 93% of the Bavarian population was connected to these wastewater disposal facilities. The
waste water of the remaining 7% is treated in around 190 000 small wastewater plants (ICPDR 2007).
Groundwater which requires a purifying treatment is processed largely for technical reasons:
substances such as iron, manganese or carbonic acid, which might cause corrosion or deposits in the
pipes, are removed. Only a small amount of the water has to be disinfected for health care
purposes, so in general the groundwater quality of the available appearance can be estimated as
good.
3 Groundwater occurrence and use in the Brahmaputra basin
3.1 Groundwater in Tibet
Annual runoff variation (in months) subjects to recharge. The low flow winter runoff is recharged
mainly by groundwater. The higher summer runoff is recharged mainly by rainfall and melting water.
Spring and autumn are the transition period, and the amounts are between winter and summer.
Therefore, the annual runoff distribution in Tibet is uneven. The river recharged mainly by
groundwater has a high proportion in dry season, e.g. it is up to 32% in Shiquanhe. However, the
underground water supply and demand does not match in Yarlung Zangbo, the upstream is rich in
underground water resources, and keeps 43.36% of the total underground water resources. But less
cultivated land and poor industrial activity does not demand such high quality of underground water.
3

In the middle of the river basins, where the total area is only 5.49% of the Tibet area, but the
cultivated land is 44.06% of that of the Tibet the annual average underground water supply is only
11.31% of the total groundwater. The runoff supply from upstream to downstream are: groundwater
mainly - groundwater, Rainfall - Rainfall, melting water - Rainfall mainly.
The climate, topography and landscape conditions in northern and northwest Tibet are
disadvantaged to river to form surface runoff but advantaged to underground runoff. Besides being
consumed by evaporation, rainfall and melting water infiltrate to ground and recharge rivers in the
form of groundwater. About 70% of recharge for Sengezangbu and 50% for langqinzangbu originate
from groundwater contribution.
The Rivers in southern (referring to the southern slope of the Himalayas) and southeast Tibet, which
are mostly in the front of water vapor route way and therefore rich of precipitation, are recharged
mainly by rainfall, and even amounted to 80% in several rivers, such as Danlongqu, Danbaqu, Zayuqu
downstream and Xibaxiaqu downstream.
In total only 5 % of extracted fresh water is coming from groundwater bodies in the Lhasa area.
Groundwater is exploited in Pengboqu basin in a small-scale for the farmland irrigation as well as for
living and industrial water of the organs, armies and enterprises in urban Lhasa.
Groundwater is the main source of water in Lhasa city and accounts for more than 90 % of water
used for human consumption and production.
In order to probe the dynamic changing pattern of the groundwater, monitoring was started in 1992
in Lhasa city. Now a distribution monitoring network system has been established, which includes 50
monitoring points (including 9 national-levels) and has launched the monitoring of the groundwater
level, water quality and temperature in an all-round way. The area of monitoring is from Najin
hydropower station in the east to 2 km west of Doilungdeqing County, and includes the main alluvial
fan on both sides of the Lhasa-river valley region from north to south. The whole area is about 300
km 2 . The obvious characteristic of the groundwater level of the city is that it is changing seasonally.
Meteorological and hydrological factors caused the dynamic change of the groundwater decisively.
The reinforcing of human activities and over-exploitation of the groundwater also cause the
downward trend of the groundwater level.
Besides, being heavily affected by the terrain gradient and controlled by the physiognomy and the
supplements, the depth is affected by mining in the main economically active areas. In the alluvium
fan or diluvium fan head area of the Duodi channel and Niangre channel, there are many factories
and mines such as the Lhasa brewhouse, the San-di mineral water factory and the North water
factory. They draw much groundwater, therefore the groundwater level is clearly decreased, and the
depth of groundwater increased greatly.
“The distribution characteristic of the groundwater level is high in the east and low in the west, high
on both sides and low in the middle in Lhasa city. That is to say, that the groundwater level is high in
the district of the alluvial fan intermountain area and low in the valley alluvial plain, high upriver and
low downriver. The groundwater level change has obviously seasonal characteristics. Over the years,
the groundwater level rises and drops but generally it remains basically in the whole region. There
4

are differences in dynamic characteristic in each district because of the different geo-environment”
(FAN et al 2005).
3.2 Groundwater use and management in Bhutan
In a national context groundwater occurrence can be generalized as a two-layered geological system
consisting of relatively impermeable basement rock and relatively permeable quaternary deposits,
where the quaternary deposits would be expected to have a higher yield and exploitation level.
Yields are experienced as high in the alluvial deposits in hydraulic contact with rivers whilst
exploitable groundwater extraction rate in the fracture zones with overlying mudflow deposits has
been estimated at 3 liters/second per km 2 .
A common type of landscape in Bhutan is the gently sloped farmlands formed by landslide material.
Farmers living in such areas depend on springs emerging from these landslides for their domestic
use. These springs can yield as much as 10 liters of water per minute. The recharge amount has been
estimated at around 400 mm/year, 200 each from precipitation and from fractures. Springs emerging
from basement rocks are ubiquitous in mountain regions but here in the Bhutan the potential of such
has not been surveyed. Areas in the foothills promise exploitable groundwater as these areas are
formed from fluvial deposits in connection with present and ancient riverbeds. Groundwater wells
and infiltration facilities exist in a few places in Bhutan. The southern belt of the country bears good
scope for groundwater utilization as a source of drinking water (WHO BHUTAN 2006).
Detailed information on groundwater in Bhutan is scarce as exploration and development of these
resources have yet to be exploited to any degree. However, groundwater resources are now being
used in Phuentsholing for household and industrial supplies, especially after the floods in 2000 which
damaged much infrastructure, and there is potential in the flatter areas of southern Bhutan to use
more groundwater for irrigation and household supply. These eight boreholes of Phuentsholing are
somewhat unique, because extraction of groundwater in Bhutan is rare.
To date, only one study has focused on ground water - the JICA Ground Water Development Project,
which focused on investigations in Wangdi and Thimphu Dzongkhags. In brief, the findings, reported
in 1995, were as follows:
• the low terraces (2 to 10m above the river) are rich in subsurface water, and the water table
fluctuates with the adjacent stream or river;
• the middle terraces (~ 25m) have a water table about 5m above the level of the river, and much of
the recharge comes from lateral seepage from the surrounding hills and mountains;
• the high terraces are deeply dissected, of limited extent and have no usable groundwater.
Groundwater is rarely used in the middle and high mountain areas of Bhutan, and has yet to be
exploited to any degree in the southern foothills. Use of groundwater in the lower lying flatter areas
and foothills in southern Bhutan, however, has some potential as recharge is good in these areas -
pumping groundwater may in places be a cheaper alternative to building long irrigation channels or
pipe lines. Areas with reasonable to good potential for extraction of groundwater for irrigation are
parts of the following districts: Samdrupjongkhar, Samtse and Sarpang.
There are no current estimates of groundwater resources or its quality, which are assumed to be in a
sound and stable condition. Only in Phuentsholing are significant amounts of ground water extracted
5

to provide water to the urban area, and no reports exist as to these sources being stressed. Recent
records do not suggest that rainfall is declining, thus it is assumed that the monsoon continues to
adequately recharge the aquifers and groundwater sources.
3.3 Groundwater issues in Assam
Groundwater being a hidden resource in the area is often developed without proper understanding
of its occurrence in time and space and threatened by overexploitation and contamination. There is
an inherent linkage between development and management of ground water resources. For an
effective supply side management, it is essential to have full knowledge of hydrogeological controls,
which govern the yields, and behavior of groundwater levels under abstraction stress. The effects of
ground water development can be short term and reversible or long term and quasi-reversible which
require a strong monitoring mechanism for scientific management. There is need for scientific
planning in development of ground water under different hydrogeological situations and to evolve
effect management practices. The demand driven development of ground water resources by
different user groups without any scientific planning and proper understanding of local ground water
regime behavior - leads to a sharp depletion of the resources and quality degradation. Signals of mis-
management of groundwater resources are seen in areas where ground water extraction rate has
exceeded the natural recharge.
Information on groundwater quality of North Eastern India is scanty. Available literature shows that
groundwater of Assam valleys are highly ferruginous. The incidence of high fluoride in groundwater
of Karbi Anglong and Nagoan district of Assam and its manifestation in the form of fluorosis were
already reported. These alarming pictures of the water quality in the region and continuous
consumption of this water has the potential of posing serious health hazard to the local population.
The observation warrants an extensive and exhaustive study to identify the contamination sites both
from the standpoint of protecting public health and preserving the natural resources.
In India after West Bengal and the bordering districts of Bangladesh, arsenic in groundwater was
detected in part of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Nagaland and Tripura. Maximum arsenic
content was observed in Jorhat (Titabor, Dhakgorah, Selenghat and Moriani Block), Dhemaji
(Sissiborgoan and Dhemaji Block), Golaghat district (Podumani Block) and Lakhimpur (Boginodi,
Lakhimpur Block) in Assam. The groundwater of these blocks of the states is affected with arsenic
contamination.
A long-term environmental planning is essential to blunt the danger from such pollution.
In the North Eastern region of India, natural springs and dug wells are the only cost effective and
viable means of fulfilling the needs of freshwater for present population. In hilly areas, most of the
drinking water is used to be harnessed from rivers, ponds and natural springs. Many springs are
reportedly becoming seasonal. In valleys, most of the domestic water is harnessed from groundwater
through shallow tubewells and dug wells. Availability of drinking water in summers is severely
marred and the overall quality is questionable.
The Assam is blessed with plenty of water resources management of this resources is not adequate
as a result the region is experiencing frequent floods and drought like situation. In spite of having
huge water resources, Assam could not utilize these resources satisfactorily. The ground water
potential in Assam is quite high and about 50 per cent of the total area of the state is found suitable
6

for the exploration of ground water. As per the reconnaissance in the late fifties, there are about 16
billion cubic meters of ground water available for exploration in this region. Such a huge volume of
ground water can be utilized for irrigation nearly 1.6 billion hectares of land. But unfortunately,
utilization of ground water potential for irrigation purposes is very low in Assam. As on March 2005-
06, the ultimate Gross Irrigated Potential (Annually Irrigable Area) was estimated at about 27 lakh
hectares, which constitutes 66.06 per cent of the Gross Cropped Area.
The Central Groundwater Board is a national apex organization, established in 1954. The Board has
responsibilities to array out scientific surveys, exploration, monitoring of development, and
management and regulation of the country’s vast groundwater resources for irrigation, drinking,
domestic, and industrial needs. The Central Groundwater Board functions under the Ministry of
Water Resources, Government of India. The board carries out the following activities:
• Hydrogeological surveys
• Exploratory drilling
• Groundwater monitoring
• Hydrochemical studies
• Hydrometeorological studies
• Geophysical studies
• Remote sensing
• Water supply investigations
• Groundwater resource estimation
• Special project studies
• Assistance to user agencies
• Preparation of groundwater user maps
• Mass awareness and training programs
• Rainwater harvesting schemes
4 Summary
Within this report it becomes clear that groundwater exploitation and pollution are important issues
particularly in Assam. Due to never ending population growth and increased economic development
more and water is needed to satisfy water user demands. Solving these problems constitutes a
challenge for IWRM.
In fact pollution cannot be stopped until not all people have access to sanitation facilities. Insufficient
sanitation services lead for the main part to the pollution of water resources. Other reasons are for
example the worst waste disposal and its management situation and of course industrial pollution
sources and agriculture.
7

References
BAYERISCHES LANDESAMT FÜR WASSERWIRTSCHAFT (2005): Bericht zur Bestandsaufnahme gemäß Art.5,
Anhang II, sowie Art.6, Anhang IV, der WRRL für das Deutsche Donaugebiet. München
FAN JI-HUI , LIU QIAO, ZHANG YAN, CHENG GEN-WEI IT , FAN XIANG-DE, LU WEN-MING (2005): Dynamic
Variations and Influencing Factors of Groundwater Levels in Lhasa City. In: Wuhan Journal of Natural
Sciences, University Vol. 10 No. 4 2005.
MoA – JICA (1996) : The JICA Groundwater Report
WHO BHUTAN (2006): Overview of External Support to the Water and Sanitation Sectors.
http://www.whobhutan.org/EN/Section4_26.htm.
8

Project no: GOCE -036952
Project acronym: BRAHMATWINN
Project title:
Twinning European and South Asian River Basins to enhance
capacity and implement adaptive management approaches
Instrument: Specific Targeted Research Project
Thematic Priority: Global Change and Ecosystems
DL_5.6 IWRM Enhancement of the HRU regionalisation approach
Due date of deliverable: December 2008
Actual submission date: October 2009
Start date of project: 01.06.2006 Duration: 43 Month
Organisation name of lead contractor for this deliverable FSU
Project co-funded by the European Commission within the Sixth Framework Programme (2002-2006)
Dissemination Level
PU Public PU
PP Restricted to other programme participants (including the Commission Services)
RE Restricted to a group specified by the consortium (including the Commission Services)
CO Confidential, only for members of the consortium (including the Commission Services)

Content
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 3
1 Objectives ........................................................................................................................................ 3
2 State of the art ................................................................................................................................ 3
3 Applied methods ............................................................................................................................. 4
4 Results ............................................................................................................................................. 4
5 Impact of global climate change ..................................................................................................... 9
6 Conclusions for IWRM ................................................................................................................... 10
References ............................................................................................................................................. 11
Annex ..................................................................................................................................................... 13
A Effective precipitation ................................................................................................................ 13
B Surface runoff ............................................................................................................................. 14
C Interflow ..................................................................................................................................... 15
D Baseflow ..................................................................................................................................... 16
E Water Resources Response Unit Klassen ................................................................................... 17
Directory of figures
Fig. 1: Components of PROMET model ................................................................................................... 5
Fig. 2: Average modeled water balance components in the UBRB for the time period 1971 to 2000 ... 5
Fig. 3: Average modeled water balance in the UBRB from 2051 to 2080 ............................................... 8
Directory of tables
Tab. 1: Classes to aggregate surface runoff (SR) and interflow (Int) ....................................................... 4
Tab. 2: WRRU discharge height classes (mm) by adding surface runoff (SR) and interflow (Int) ........... 7
Tab. 3: Distribution and accumulated WRRU area (A) and runoff contribution (RC) ............................. 9
2

Introduction
IWRM is understood as continuous process of coordinating sustainable land and water resources
management with the aims (1) to maximise the socio-economic development and social welfare
without (2) compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems (GWP 2000). From a practical point of
view IWRM has to provide the administrative and technological means to (1) manage the available
surface and subsurface water resource, (2) guarantee their sustainable recharge dynamics both in
terms of water quantity and quality, and (3) protect water users and the society against destructive
flood and drought hazards.
1 Objectives
The main objectives of the basin analysis presented herein was (1) to apply the conceptual landscape
model of Response Units (RU) for the delineation of Hydrological Response Units (RU) and (2) their
enhancement to Water Resources Response Units (WRRU) by applying the results from the
hydrological water balance modeling done by means of the DANUBIA hydrological model. The
resulting WRRU should be explored regarding their potential for providing decision support for
implementing sustainable IWRM.
2 State of the art
Sustainable IWRM is based on a coordinated land and water resources management within a river
basin and therefore in sufficient detail requires information about the natural landscape
components, e.g. geology, soils, topography and LULC. The latter in their specific composition control
the hydrological dynamics in landscape components and their contributions towards subsurface and
surface water resources as response to the precipitation input (Flügel 1996). Aggregated in
hydrological relevant landscape component assemblies their individual process structures is
identified by means of thorough hydrological river basin system analysis (Flügel 2000) comprising
field campaigns and GIS analysis. In result Hydrological Response Units (HRU) are identified as
landscape classes by means of digital GIS analysis applying process relevant delineation criteria that
specify the hydrological response of each entity within its HRU class (Flügel 1995). The RU conceptual
distributed landscape model has been validated in numerous basin model studies (Fink et al. 2007,
Flügel 1996, Flügel and Märker 2003, Helmschrot 2006a, 2006b, Krause 2002, Krause and Flügel
2005, Krause et al. 2006) and proved to provide the means for distributed water resources
assessment within a river basin.
The application of the RU conceptual landscape model requires a set of software tools that comprise
and integrate different techniques of Geoinformatics like remote sensing, GIS, MFS, distributed
process models that use RU as model entities and a comprehensive data and information system
(Flügel and Rijsberman 2003, Flügel 2007). The Jena Environment System Analysis Toolset (JESAT)
introduced by Flügel (2009) has been developed as such a toolset for implanting sustainable IWRM.
Enhancing the RU concept toward WRRU requires an objective function related to IWRM and as
BRAHMATWINN is strongly related to flood vulnerabilities the runoff generation and groundwater
3

echarge dynamics was chosen as the main water resources to be represented in their spatial
distribution within the Upper Brahmaputra River Basin (UBRB) by means of the WRRU.
3 Applied methods
The knowledge-based GIS methods applied were threefold and comprised in a first step the HRU
were delineated for the UDRB and the UBRB by applying the knowledge based GIS methods
described by Flügel (1995, 1996). For this purpose a hydrological system analysis was carried out by
means of field campaigns and hydro-meteorological time series analysis (Flügel 2000). Digital basin
maps of the UDRB and the UBRB were produced for LULC (Boston University 2008), soils (FAO 2003)
and topography from reanalyzed SRTM data (Wolf et al. 2009). By means of GIS analysis HRU were
delineated for both twinning basins and aggregated according to Pfennig et al. (2009) by applying a
threshold value of 5 km 2 .
In a second step the mean annual water balance components obtained from the hydrological
modelling done by applying the DANUBIA hydrological model were used as inputs for the delineation
of the WRRU. The latter were generated with respect to (1) discharge generation by surface runoff
and interflow and (2) groundwater recharge.
Finally in a third step the distribution of WRRU classes for each HRU class was analysed revealing
their distribution of dominant water balance components and thereby linking their LULC,
topography, and soil information to the respective WRRU classes.
In the annex the set of input data and intermediate data for the WRRU delineation is presented.
4 Results
HRU were delineated by means of GIS analysis for the UDBR and UBRB twinning basins. They
represent the process based landscape model entities to which the results of the modeled water
balances for the historical and the projected time periods will be referred to.
The 1 x 1 km raster based average water balance components surface runoff, interflow and
groundwater have been aggregated with respect to runoff generation from surface runoff and
interflow as listed in Tab. 8.1.
Tab. 1: Classes to aggregate surface runoff (SR) and interflow (Int)
Class
no.
Ranking
SR (mm)
from to
Int (mm)
from to
1 very low 0 125 0 125
2 low >125 250 >125 250
3 moderate >250 500 >250 500
4 high >500 1000 >500 1000
5 very high >1000 5200 >1000 2188
4

Fig. 1: Components of PROMET model
Schematic diagram of the components (boxes) of PROMET and the interfaces between them for data exchange
(arrows) (Mauser and Bach 2009).
Fig. 2: Average modeled water balance components in the UBRB for the time period 1971 to 2000
The modeled data were forced by CLM ERA meteorological input data.
5

They are shown in Fig. 8.1 and 8.2 respectively and from a visual inspection reveal the following
interpretations with respect to surface runoff contributing to river flow:
(i) Surface runoff is very low in most of the Tibetan part of the URBR located in lee of the alpine
Himalaya mountain ridge but reaches moderate till high values at the southwards exposed
slopes of the Himalaya located in the windward direction towards the summer Monsoon.
(ii) The floodplain is also showing moderate till higher runoff contribution to river flow as most of
the rain is either falling on wetlands, paddy fields or the braided Brahmaputra river itself and
directly contributes to runoff.
(iii) The distribution of interflow classes is showing a more differentiated pattern and reflects the
interaction of precipitation, topography and LULC.
(iv) Again the north-western parts of the UBRB in Tibet show very low and low runoff contribution
by interflow.
(v) Interflow contribution to river runoff is also low in the valley floors and especially in the
floodplain of the Brahmaputra in Assam.
(vi) Moving westwards with precipitation increasing toward more than 3000 mm the interflow
contribution becomes more moderate and eventually is reaching high and very high values at
the eastern part of the UBRB.
(vii) The Himalayan slopes located windwards to the summer monsoon also reach high and very
high values of interflow contribution to river runoff.
WRRU are delineated based on the classified surface runoff and interflow distribution by combining
them according to their contribution to river runoff and consequent flood generation. The resulting
nine WRRU classes are listed in Tab. 8.2 and shown in their distributed pattern in Fig. 8.3. They have
overlapping class limits as they have been designed to provide information with respect to flood
generation and water management.
6

WRRU
class no.
Tab. 2: WRRU discharge height classes (mm) by adding surface runoff (SR) and interflow (Int)
Added classes Ranking
Discharge height
(mm)
Percntage area
in
UBRB
Runoff
(m 3 /s*km 2 )
SR Int SR Int WRRU from to % from to
1 1 1 very low very low very low 0 250 16,84 16,84 0,000 0,008
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1 2 very low low
1,67
low 125 375
2 1 low very low 15,06
2 2 low low
0,42
moderate
3 1 moderate very low 250 625 4,16
low
1 3 very low moderate 18,37
1 4 very low high
11,94
2 3 low moderate 1,37
moderate 500 1125
3 2 moderate low 0,53
4 1 high very low 7,30
1 5 very low very high
0,63
2 4 low high 3,87
moderate
3 3 moderate moderate 625 5325 1,38
high
4 2 high low 1,08
5 1 very high very low 2,42
2 5 low very high
0,44
3 4 moderate high 4,19
high 1000 5450
4 3 high moderate 2,02
5 2 very high low 0,21
3 5 very high moderate
0,61
4 4 high high very high 1250 5700 2,88
5 3 moderate very high 0,28
4 5 very high high
0,51
extremly
5 4 very high very high 1500 7400 0,25
high
5 5 high very high 0,06
16,73
22,95
21,14
9,38
6,86
3,77
0,82
0,004 0,012
0,008 0,020
0,016 0,036
0,020 0,169
0,032 0,173
0,040 0,181
0,048 0,235
9 6 6 receives precipitation directly Open water 1,51 1,51 all precipitation
7

Fig. 3: Average modeled water balance in the UBRB from 2051 to 2080
Modeled data were forced by CLM Echam5, IPCC SRES A1B meteorological input data.
In combination with Tab. 8.2 the visual analysis of Fig. 8.3 leads to the following interpretations:
(i) The very dry character of the north-western part of the UBRB is confirmed as both surface
runoff and interflow are very low till low and this situation holds for about a third of the
UBRB located in Tibet. Discharge in the Yarlung Tsangpo in this part of the basin is mainly
supported by snow and glacier melt.
(ii) About 33 % of the UBRB mainly located in Tibet and the flood plain of Assam is characterized
by moderate low runoff contributions from surface runoff and interflow summing up to a
annual maximum of 625 mm on an average.
(iii) The Himalaya mountain ridge clearly comes up as a high runoff contributing area. It shows,
however, a significant differentiation in (1) moderate till moderate high river runoff
contribution in the north-west facing slopes in the lee of the ridge and (2) high till extremely
high contributions to river runoff and floods the south facing slopes windwards to the
summer monsoon.
(iv) The floodplain of the Brahmaputra in Assam is showing up as another characteristic region in
the UBRB. The runoff contribution in flat flood plain ranges between moderate low and
moderate high and is mainly the result of the high rainfall input on water bodies, wetlands,
and saturated soils that directly contribute to the river runoff. Higher topographies in the
south-east of Assam, however, produce high till extremely high runoff contributions.
The results presented in Fig. 8.3 have been further condensed in Tab. 8.3 and clearly point out the
twofold hydrological runoff contribution of the UBRB:
(i) The distribution of the WRRU areas is skewed towards the dry WRRU meanwhile the runoff
contribution is almost normal distributed.
8

(ii) About 57% of the basin represented by WRRU 1 -3 and mainly located in Tibet generate only
25% of the basin runoff contribution meanwhile WRRU 7 and 8 located in the monsoon
receiving mountains contribute 15%.
Tab. 3: Distribution and accumulated WRRU area (A) and runoff contribution (RC)
WRRU
class no.
Distribution Accumulation
A (%) RC (%) A (%) RC (%)
1 16,8 3,4 16,8 3,4
2 16,7 5,1 33,6 8,5
3 23,0 16,3 56,5 24,8
4 21,1 27,1 77,7 51,9
5 9,4 19,0 87,0 70,9
6 6,9 14,0 93,9 84,9
7 3,8 10,9 97,7 95,8
8 0,8 4,3 98,5 100,0
9 1,5 100,0
In the third methodical GIS analysis the WRRU classes were overlain with the distributed HRU
delineated in the first GIS analysis for the UBRB. In addition to the information about LULC, soil and
topography each HRU class will afterwards contain additional information about its distributed
WRRU and their runoff contribution from surface runoff and interflow.
5 Impact of global climate change
The application of the conceptual RU landscape model realized by means of HRU and WRRU provide
information of distributed runoff contribution within the twinning basins. If the methodical steps two
and three are repeated for water balance components modelled for historical and projected time
periods the GIS analysis will provide the following information:
(i) Spatial distribution of classified runoff generation from surface runoff and interflow in WRRU
for visual inspection and digital evaluation.
(ii) Analysis of flood and drought generation from the distributed runoff contribution of HRU
classes and their georeferenced HRU entities.
(iii) Spatial distributed impact assessment of climate change to the HRU related runoff
contribution and its dynamics with respect to surface runoff and interflow by means of GIS
based change detection.
9

6 Conclusions for IWRM
The application of the RU conceptual landscape model offers substantial progress for a hydrological
and process oriented water balance analysis in river basins. The hydrological system analysis will
yield the definition of process based delineation criteria to delineate HRU by means of GIS analysis.
The latter represent distributed and process based landscape entities of unique hydrological system
response. Based on modeled water balance component WRRU complementary provide information
about the distributed runoff contribution by surface runoff and interflow. Joining the HRU and WRRU
will associate the HRU LULC, soil and topography information with the modeled water balance
components. Depending on the in-depth GIS analysis the elaborated results have different degree of
detail and quantification.
Calculating the individual runoff generation of each HRU class will provide water and land managers
with the means to link the natural landscape environment, e.g. LULC, soil, geology and climate with
the water yield produced from each hydrological response class and its individual georeferenced HRU
entities. The RU concept as presented herein provides the Geoinformatics means to coordinate land
and water management for sustainable IWRM and the assessment of climate change impact on river
basin water balances.
10

References
Fink, M., Krause, P., Kralisch, S., Bende-Michl, U. & Flügel, W.-A. (2007). Development and application
of the modelling system J2000-S for the EU-water framework directive. - Advances in Geosciences 11,
123-130.
Flügel, W.-A. (1995). Delineating Hydrological Response Units (HRU's) by GIS analysis for regional
hydrological modelling using PRMS/MMS in the drainage basin of the River Bröl, Germany. -
Hydrological Processes, 9, 423-436
Flügel, W.-A. (1996). Hydrological Response Units (HRU) as modelling entities for hydrological river
basin simulation and their methodological potential for modelling complex environmental process
systems. - Results from the Sieg catchment. - DIE ERDE, 127, 42-62
Flügel, W.-A. (2000). Systembezogene Entwicklung regionaler hydrologischer Modellsysteme. - Wasser
& Boden, 52(3). 14-17
Flügel, W.-A. (2000). Systembezogene Entwicklung regionaler hydrologischer Modellsysteme. - Wasser
& Boden, 52(3). 14-17
Flügel, W.-A. and Märker, M. (2003). The Response Units Concept and Its Application for the
Assessment of Hydrologically Related Erosion Processes in Semiarid Catchments of Southern Africa.
ASTM-STP 1420, 163-177
Flügel, W.-A. and Rijsberman, F. (2003). The Challenge Program “Water and Food” for river basin
scale water resources assessment. Proc. MODSIM’03, 1, 434-439
Flügel, W.-A. (2007). The Adaptive Integrated Data Information System (AIDIS) for global water
research. Water Resources Management (WARM) Journal, 21, 199-210
Flügel, W.-A. (2009): Applied Geoinformatics for sustainable IWRM and climate change impact
analysis. – Technology, Resource Management & Development, Vol. 6, 57-85
Helmschrot, J. (2006a). An integrated, landscape-based approach to model the formation and
hydrological functioning of wetlands in semiarid headwater catchments of the Umzimvubu River,
South Africa. Sierke Verlag, Göttingen, 314 p. ISBN: 3-933893-75-5.
Helmschrot, J. (2006b). Assessment of temporal and spatial effects of landuse changes on wetland
hydrology: a case study from South Africa. In: Kotowski, W., Maltby, E., Miroslaw–Swiatek, D.,
Okruszko, T. and Szatylowicz, J. (eds). Wetlands: modelling, monitoring, management, Taylor &
Francis The Netherlands/ A.A. Balkema Publisher, 197-204
Krause, P. (2002). Quantifying the impact of land use changes on the water balance of large
catchments using the J2000 model. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 27, 663-673
Krause, P., and Flügel, W.-A. (2005). Model Integration and Development of Modular Modelling
Systems. Advances in Geosciences, 4, 1-2
11

Krause, P., Bende-Michl, U., Bäse, F., Fink, M., Flügel, W.-A., and Pfennig, B. (2006). Investigations in a
Mesoscale Catchment – Hydrological Modelling in the Gera Catchment. Advances in Geosciences, Vol.
9, 53-61.
Mauser, W. and Bach, H. (2009): PROMET – Large scale distributed hydrological modelling to study
the impact of climate change on the water flows of mountain watersheds. Journal of Hydrology 376,
p. 362-377
Pfennig, B., Kipka, H., Wolf, M., Fink, M., Krause, P. and Flügel, W.-A. (2009): Development of an
extended spatially distributed routing scheme and its impact on process oriented hydrological
modelling results. - IAHS PUBL., 333, 37-43
Wolf, M., Pfennig, B., Krause, P. and Flügel, W.-A. (2009): Landscape dependent derivation of J2000
model parameters for hydrological modelling in Ungauged Basins. - IAHS PUBL., 333, 1-14
12

Annex
The used dataset was prepared by the partner LMU. From the model runs using the DANUBIA model
with the ECHAM 5 climate data the 30year mean values for the parameter total precipitation, the
evapotranspiration, the interflow, the surface flow and the baseflow were extracted. To get this data
the model was used in a modus without the routing, so that in each cell only the water which was
created on this cell will be used for the different flow components on this cell. Within the routing the
upstream/uphill cell will produce water which will then be routed to the downstream/downhill
situated cells.
A Effective precipitation
CLASS VALUE FROM VALUE TO
1 -211 0
2 0 500
3 500 1000
4 1000 2500
5 2500 5534
Classification schema effective precipitation
49%
0%
4%
Class distribution of effective precitpitation
14%
33%
1
2
3
4
5
13

B Surface runoff
CLASS VALUE FROM VALUE TO
1 0 125
2 125 250
3 250 500
4 500 1000
5 1000 5200
Classification schema surface runoff
11%
8%
14%
Distribution of surface runoff
4%
63%
1
2
3
4
5
14

C Interflow
CLASS VALUE FROM VALUE TO
1 0 125
2 125 250
3 250 500
4 500 1000
5 1000 2188
Classification schema interflow
24%
Distribution of interflow
23%
2%
17%
34%
1
2
3
4
5
15

D Baseflow
CLASS VALUE FROM VALUE TO
1 -139 0
2 0 250
3 250 500
4 500 750
5 750 1500
6 1500 3577
Classification schema baseflow
28%
Distribution of baseflow
22%
6%
3%
8%
33%
1
2
3
4
5
6
16

E Water Resources Response Unit Klassen
Water Resources Response Units Klassenverteilung
17

21%
9%
7%
WRRU class distribution UBRB
4% 1% 1%
17%
23%
17%
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
18