Silica (crystalline, respirable) - OEHHA

FINAL February 2005
with silicates, which, in addition to silicon and oxygen, contain other metals such as iron,
magnesium, aluminum, calcium, potassium, and sodium.
The major uses of silica are in the manufacture of glass, abrasives, ceramics, and enamels, in
scouring and grinding compounds, and in molds for castings. Silica is also used in decolorizing
and purifying oils and petroleum products; as a clarifying agent; in filtering liquids; and in the
manufacture of heat insulators, firebrick, and fire- and acid-proof packing materials. As
diatomite (naturally occurring diatomaceous earth), silica is used as a filtration agent, as an
abrasive, and as an industrial filler. Sources of ambient respirable crystalline silica in California
include mines, quarries, diatomaceous earth calcining plants, sand blasting, and entrained fines
(e.g., PM10) from surface soil. The annual statewide industrial emissions from facilities
reporting under the Air Toxics Hot Spots Act in California based on the most recent inventory
were estimated to be 2,514,981 pounds of crystalline silica (CARB, 2001. The fraction, which is
respirable as defined either occupationally or environmentally, is not known.
Measurement of crystalline silica has evolved. Instrumentation has varied by country. In South
Africa since the 1930s, dust was collected with a konimeter (Le Roux, 1970; Cherrie and Aitken,
1999). A small volume of air (e.g., 5 cm 3 captured in less than a second) was collected
(impacted) onto a small area of a glass slide coated with adhesive. Total dust particles were
counted and expressed as dust particles per cubic centimeter. Later, slides were heated to 500-
550 ºC (ignition) to remove carbonaceous materials and immersed in hot 50% hydrochloric acid
followed by a second ignition to remove acid-soluble materials. The remainder was mostly silica
particles, which could be counted. The konimeter was superseded by the thermal precipitator,
which also deposited particles onto glass but could sample larger air volumes at high flow rates
(> 1 L/minute) for several hours. With time, particle counting was replaced by estimation of a
particle’s surface area, initially by examining slides but more recently by an automated method
(Kitto, 1960; 1970).
In the United States the impinger method was used from 1922 until 1984 (Lippmann, 2001). Air
was drawn into a trap containing fluid, particles in an aliquot of the fluid were counted under
magnification, and concentrations were expressed as million particles per cubic foot of air
sampled. Later, gravimetric analysis was introduced. Gravimetric analysis is dominated by the
larger particles in any given size range.
When it was realized that only a fraction of the dust was responsible for silicosis, respirable dust
was collected onto filters using size-specific dust collectors, such as horizontal plate elutriators in
South Africa and cyclones in the United States. The sizes of particles collected on the filter were
a function of the apparatus used and the rate of airflow through the apparatus. Quartz dust was
quantified by examining filters in an electron microscope with a specific X-ray diffraction beam
absorbed by crystalline silica. The National Institute of Occupational Sciences and Health
(NIOSH, 2003) has approved Method 7500, which uses one of three approved cyclones and a 5
µm PVC membrane filter to sample, and X-ray diffraction to measure crystalline silica. The
ARB has used Method 7500 in research projects.
In order to harmonize respirable particulate sampling methodology in workers, an international
agreement has been reached to use dust samplers that have a 50% cut point for particles of 4 µm
aerodynamic diameter (ISO, 1995; ACGIH, 2004).
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