Emerging contaminants in groundwater - NERC Open Research ...

OR/11/013
Correct
disposal
Disposal
Domestic household
Pharmacy Household waste Sink/toilet
Landfill
Groundwater Surface water
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Usage
Body
Toilet
STW
Metabolised
Leachate Treated leachate Treated effluent Biosolids spread on land
Figure 5.2 Pathways for domestic pharmaceuticals to reach the aqueous environment (adapted from
Bound and Voulvoulis, 2005)
Jones et al. (2005) assessed the potential for pharmaceuticals to enter the aqueous
environment, reviewed the levels reported in drinking water world-wide and assessed the
implications. Johnson et al. (2007a) applied an existing GIS model to predict the
concentrations of 2 pharmaceuticals, diclofenac and propanalol, in surface water catchments.
The model input parameters included consumption, excretion and fate. Concentrations
predicted throughout the catchments were 1 ng/L under low flow except for downstream of
small STW where concentrations of up to 25 ng/L were predicted.
OTHERS
Plant sterols (phyto-oestrogens) are ingested in edible plants and excreted to wastewater.
Wastewater may therefore be the largest source of these compounds in the environment (Liu
et al., 2010).
Synthetic musks are widely employed in the perfume and cosmetics industries as well as for
cleaning, polishing and washing (Fromme et al., 2001). Rimkus (1999) estimated a worldwide
production of about 6000 tonnes in 1999. The main route into the environment for these
compounds is also via the sewerage system. They are degraded to more polar metabolites
during treatment and in sediments and soil.
Bisphenol A is used in can coatings, powder paints, additives in thermal paper and as an
antioxidant in plastics (Fromme et al., 2002). Routes to the environment are from
manufacturing and leaching from the final product. Phthalates are similar, being used mainly
in the manufacture of PVC and a plasticisers for building materials, home furnishings, food
packaging and insect repellents (Fromme et al., 2002). Routes to the environment are also
from manufacturing and leaching from the final product.
Polybrominated diphenyl ether flame retardants are extensively used in resins for household
and industrial use (Rahman et al., 2001). They may enter the environment via waste disposal
to landfill and incineration. Water runoff from dumps and landfill leachate may be a pathway.
PFOS was used in fire-fighting foams and entry to the environment was by run-off from sites