Fundamental Astronomy

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$P 0.1 Stabilişti natura şsi suma seriilor: a) Σ 1 n\ ; b) Σ arctan 1 n# + n ...$

198 7. The Solar System Fig. 7.65. Hubble Space Telescope images of four protoplanetary disks, “proplyds”, around young stars in the Orion nebula. The disk diameters are two to eight times the diameter of our solar system. There is a T Tauri star in the centre of each disk. (Mark McCaughrean/Max- Planck-Institute for <strong>Astronomy</strong>, C. Robert O’Dell/Rice University, and NASA) tary formation are now thought to be reasonably well understood. The oldest rocks found on the Earth are about 3.9 × 10 9 years old; some lunar and meteorite samples are somewhat older. When all the facts are put together, it can be estimated that the Earth and other planets were formed about 4.6 × 10 9 years ago. On the other hand, the age of the Galaxy is at least twice as high, so the overall conditions have not changed significantly during the lifetime of the solar system. Moreover, there is even direct evidence nowadays, such as other planetary systems and protoplanetary disks, proplyds (Fig. 7.65). The Sun and practically the whole solar system simultaneously condensed from a rotating collapsing cloud of dust and gas, the density of which was some 10,000 atoms or molecules per cm 3 and the temper- ature 10–50 K (Fig. 7.66). The elements heavier than helium were formed in the interiors of stars of preceding generations, as will be explained in Sect. 11.8. The collapse of the cloud was initiated perhaps by a shock wave emanating from a nearby supernova explosion. The original mass of the cloud must be thousands of Solar masses to exceed the Jeans mass. When the cloud contract the Jeans mass decrease. Cloud fragments and each fragment contract independently as explained in later chapters of star formation. One of the fragments became the Sun. When the fragment continued its collapse, particles inside the cloud collided with each other. Rotation of the cloud allowed the particles to sink toward the same plane, perpendicular to the rotation axis of the cloud, but prevented them from moving toward the axis.
7.18 Origin of the Solar System Fig. 7.66a–g. A schematic plot on the formation of the solar system. (a) A large rotating cloud, the mass of which was 3–4 solar masses, began to condense. (b) The innermost part condensed most rapidly and a disk of gas and dust formed around the protosun. (c) Dust particles in the disk collided with each other forming larger particles and sinking rapidly to a single plane. (d) Particles clumped together into planetesimals which were of the size of present asteroids. (e) These clumps drifted together, forming planet-size bodies which began (f) tocollect gas and dust from the surrounding cloud. (g) The strong solar wind “blew” away extra gas and dust; the planet formation was finished 199
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Fundamental Astronomy
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Dr. Hannu Karttunen University of T
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VI Preface to the First Edition The
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VIII Contents 5.6 Continuous Spectr
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X Contents 16. Star Clusters and As
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1. Introduction 1.1 TheRoleofAstron
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1.2 Astronomical Objects of Researc
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theory of relativity must be used t
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of the gas may be 10 −21 kg m −
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12 2. Spherical Astronomy angles co
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14 or 2. Spherical Astronomy sin B
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16 2. Spherical Astronomy defined t
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18 2. Spherical Astronomy the verna
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20 2. Spherical Astronomy pole. The
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22 2. Spherical Astronomy Fig. 2.16
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26 2. Spherical Astronomy
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30 2. Spherical Astronomy numbers,
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32 2. Spherical Astronomy In the 19
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34 2. Spherical Astronomy mid-Septe
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36 2. Spherical Astronomy correspon
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38 2. Spherical Astronomy second of
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2. Spherical Astronomy 40 Since ∆
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42 2. Spherical Astronomy For the s
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44 2. Spherical Astronomy red. What
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3. Observations and Instruments Up
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the long, oblique path through the
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Fig. 3.6a-e. Diffraction and resolv
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3.2 Optical Telescopes Fig. 3.10. T
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3.2 Optical Telescopes Fig. 3.13. T
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so thin that it absorbs very little
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3.2 Optical Telescopes 59
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3.2 Optical Telescopes 61
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3.2 Optical Telescopes ◭ Fig. 3.1
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and CCD-cameras have largely replac
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Fig. 3.22a-e. The principle of read
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than a prism. The dispersion can be
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3.4 Radio Telescopes Fig. 3.25. The
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Fig. 3.27. The Atacama Large Millim
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Fig. 3.30. The VLA at Socorro, New
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Fig. 3.31. (a) X-rays are not refle
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Fig. 3.33. Refractors are not suita
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tored by laser interferometers. If
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4. Photometric Concepts and Magnitu
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If we are outside the source, where
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magnitudes can be equal, the flux d
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flux L will now decrease with incre
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this line is extrapolated to X = 0,
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since due to extinction, radiation
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96 5. Radiation Mechanisms Fig. 5.1
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98 5. Radiation Mechanisms From (5.
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100 5. Radiation Mechanisms Fig. 5.
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104 5. Radiation Mechanisms We now
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5. Radiation Mechanisms 106 Again F
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110 5. Radiation Mechanisms We can
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112 5. Radiation Mechanisms differe
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114 6. Celestial Mechanics The solu
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116 6. Celestial Mechanics prove (6
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118 6. Celestial Mechanics in the d
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120 6. Celestial Mechanics But cons
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122 6. Celestial Mechanics by the e
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124 6. Celestial Mechanics Substitu
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126 6. Celestial Mechanics a cloud
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128 6. Celestial Mechanics Since th
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130 6. Celestial Mechanics Exercise
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132 7. The Solar System Fig. 7.1. (
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134 7. The Solar System for each ob
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136 7. The Solar System Fig. 7.5. L
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138 7. The Solar System Inserting t
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140 7. The Solar System Therefore o
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142 7. The Solar System Fig. 7.10.
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144 7. The Solar System behaves mor
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146 7. The Solar System Table 7.1.
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Page 214 and 215: 8. Stellar Spectra All our informat
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Page 238 and 239: where me is the electron mass and N
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Page 242 and 243: oxygen, which in turn reacts to for
Page 244 and 245: According to (4.7), (4.4) and (5.16
Page 246 and 247: Example 10.6 The Radiation Pressure
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Fig. 11.5. The structure of a massi
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tract to planetlike brown dwarfs. S
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Fig. 11.10a-f. Evolution of a low-m
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Fig. 11.12. The Wolf-Rayet star WR
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In a neutron capture, a nucleus wit
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This is several orders of magnitude
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264 12.TheSun Fig. 12.2. (a) The ro
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266 12.TheSun according to the heli
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268 12.TheSun shines into view for
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270 12.TheSun was established that
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272 12.TheSun Fig. 12.11. In pairs
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274 12.TheSun Fig. 12.15. (a) Quies
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276 12.TheSun Fig. 12.17. An X-ray
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13. Variable Stars Stars with chang
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Fig. 13.3. The variation of brightn
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Fig. 13.5. The lightcurve of a long
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duced when the carbon condenses int
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13.3 Eruptive Variables Fig. 13.12.
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Fig. 13.15. Supernova 1987A in the
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14. Compact Stars In astrophysics t
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about 1.4 M⊙, which is thus the u
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1968. In the following year it was
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ditions required for hypernova expl
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This is greater than the speed of l
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Fig. 14.12. Scale drawings of 16 bl
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are (or, in the radio case, have on
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14.6 Exercises Exercise 14.1 The ma
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308 15. The Interstellar Medium Fig
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310 15. The Interstellar Medium R d
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312 15. The Interstellar Medium pol
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318 15. The Interstellar Medium Tab
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322 15. The Interstellar Medium met
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324 15. The Interstellar Medium
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326 15. The Interstellar Medium He
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330 15. The Interstellar Medium up
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332 15. The Interstellar Medium hav
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334 15. The Interstellar Medium len
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336 15. The Interstellar Medium dro
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338 15. The Interstellar Medium the
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340 16. Star Clusters and Associati
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17. The Milky Way On clear, moonles
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Fig. 17.3. The directions to the ga
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classes of stars are main sequence
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Fig. 17.9. The size of the volume e
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lar material similarly moves in the
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Fig. 17.14. In order to derive Oort
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Fig. 17.17. The radial velocity as
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a suitable mass distribution, such
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esting because it may be a small-sc
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material constituting the galaxy. I
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18. Galaxies The galaxies are the f
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Fig. 18.3. The classification of no
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18.1 The Classification of Galaxies
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Fig. 18.7. Compound luminosity func
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In order to measure the mass at eve
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length r0 = 1-5 kpc. In Sc galaxies
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18.4 Dynamics of Galaxies We have s
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gas. Some normal spirals may have b
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the Large and Small Magellanic Clou
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stars are forming and evolving into
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panion galaxy. The tail is interpre
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een made at these wavelengths with
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galaxies in our present neighbourho
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394 19. Cosmology tographs form an
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396 19. Cosmology Fig. 19.3. Hubble
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398 19. Cosmology element after hyd
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400 19. Cosmology 19.3 Homogeneous
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402 19. Cosmology The potential ene
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404 19. Cosmology In an expanding c
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406 19. Cosmology about 40,000 degr
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408 19. Cosmology rather slowly. In
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410 19. Cosmology Fig. 19.15. Corre
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412 19. Cosmology where Ω0 = ρ0/
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414 19. Cosmology Example 19.2 Find
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416 20. Astrobiology According to t
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418 20. Astrobiology of spiral gala
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420 20. Astrobiology Fig. 20.2. Bla
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422 20. Astrobiology reached 10% of
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424 20. Astrobiology Now panspermia
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426 20. Astrobiology 20.9 Detecting
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428 20. Astrobiology cles that we s
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Appendices 431
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Ellipse. Equation in rectangular co
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A and B can be determined graphical
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When using matrix formalism it is c
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Similarly, a volume integral I = f
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B. Theory of Relativity Albert Eins
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time interval between the events is
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C. Tables Table C.1. SI basic units
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Table C.6. The Sun Property Symbol
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Table C.11. Osculating elements of
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Discoverer Year of a Psid e i r M
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Table C.16. Periodic comets with se
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Table C.17 (continued) C. Tables Na
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C. Tables Table C.19. Some double s
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Table C.22. Optically brightest gal
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Table C.23 (continued) Abbreviation
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C. Tables Table C.26. Millimetre an
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Table C.27 (continued) Satellite La
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468 Answers to Exercises 6.2 a = 1.
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470 Answers to Exercises Chapter 17
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472 Further Reading Morrison (ed.):
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474 Further Reading Maps and Catalo
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Name and Subject Index A aberration
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coherent radiation 95 Cold Dark Mat
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forbidden transition 101, 332 four-
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Kellman, Edith 212 Kepler’s equat
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nautical mile 15 nautical triangle
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Reber, Grote 69 recombination 95, 9
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synchronous rotation 135 synchrotro
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Colour Supplement 491
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Plate 14. The first view from the s
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Plate 1 Plate 2 Colour Supplement 4
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Plate 6 Plate 5 Colour Supplement 4
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Plate 9 Colour Supplement Plate 10
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Plate 23 Plate 24 Colour Supplement
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Colour Supplement Plate 29 507
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