Fundamental Astronomy

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$P 0.1 Stabilişti natura şsi suma seriilor: a) Σ 1 n\ ; b) Σ arctan 1 n# + n ...$

13.3 Eruptive Variables Fig. 13.12. In 1975 a new variable, Nova Cygni or V1500 Cygni, was discovered in Cygnus. In the upper photograph the nova is at its brightest (about 2 magnitudes), and in the lower photograph it has faded to magnitude 15. (Photographs Lick Observatory) 287
288 13. Variable Stars Fig. 13.13. The novae are thought to be white dwarfs accreting matter from a nearby companion star. At times, nuclear reactions burning the accreted hydrogen are ignited, and this is seen as the flare-up of a nova The supernovae are exploding stars. In the explosion a gas shell expanding with a velocity around 10,000 km/s is ejected. The expanding gas shell remains visible for thousands of years. A few tens of such supernova remnants have been discovered in the Milky Way. The remnant of the actual star may be a neutron star or a black hole. The supernovae are classified as type I and type II based on whether their spectra show evidence of hydrogen. Type I supernovae are further divided into types Ia (silicon is present), Ib (no silicon, but helium present), and Ic (no silicon, little helium). Fig. 13.14. The lightcurves of the two types of supernovae. Above SN 1972e type I and below SN 1970g type II. (Kirchner, R.P. (1976): Sci. Am. 235, No. 6, 88) The supernova types also differ in regard to their light curves (Fig. 13.14). Type I supernovae fade away in a regular manner, almost exponentially. The decline of a type II supernova is less regular and its maximum luminosity is smaller. Type II supernovae have been further subdivided into several classes on the basis of their light curves. In Chap. 11 it was mentioned that there are several possible ways in which a star may come to explode at the end of its evolution. The type II supernova is the natural endpoint of the evolution of a single star. Types Ib and Ic also arise from massive stars that have lost their hydrogen envelope by winds or to a companion (e. g. Wolf–Rayet stars). These types are collectively referred to as core-collapse supernovae. The type Ia supernovae, on the other hand, have about the mass of the Sun and should end up as white dwarfs. However, if a star is accreting mass from a binary companion, it will undergo repeated nova outbursts. Some of the accreted material will then be turned into helium or carbon and oxygen, and will collect on the star and increase its mass. Finally the mass may exceed the Chandrasekhar limit. The star will then collapse and explode as a supernova. At least six supernova explosions have been observed in the Milky Way. Best known are the “guest star” seen in China in 1054 (whose remnant is the Crab nebula), Tycho Brahe’s supernova in 1572 and Kepler’s supernova in 1604. On the basis of observations of other Sb–Sc-type spiral galaxies, the interval between supernova explosions in the Milky Way is
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Fundamental Astronomy
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Dr. Hannu Karttunen University of T
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VI Preface to the First Edition The
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VIII Contents 5.6 Continuous Spectr
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X Contents 16. Star Clusters and As
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1. Introduction 1.1 TheRoleofAstron
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1.2 Astronomical Objects of Researc
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theory of relativity must be used t
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of the gas may be 10 −21 kg m −
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12 2. Spherical Astronomy angles co
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14 or 2. Spherical Astronomy sin B
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16 2. Spherical Astronomy defined t
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18 2. Spherical Astronomy the verna
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20 2. Spherical Astronomy pole. The
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22 2. Spherical Astronomy Fig. 2.16
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26 2. Spherical Astronomy
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30 2. Spherical Astronomy numbers,
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32 2. Spherical Astronomy In the 19
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34 2. Spherical Astronomy mid-Septe
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36 2. Spherical Astronomy correspon
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38 2. Spherical Astronomy second of
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2. Spherical Astronomy 40 Since ∆
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42 2. Spherical Astronomy For the s
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44 2. Spherical Astronomy red. What
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3. Observations and Instruments Up
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the long, oblique path through the
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Fig. 3.6a-e. Diffraction and resolv
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3.2 Optical Telescopes Fig. 3.10. T
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3.2 Optical Telescopes Fig. 3.13. T
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so thin that it absorbs very little
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3.2 Optical Telescopes 59
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3.2 Optical Telescopes 61
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3.2 Optical Telescopes ◭ Fig. 3.1
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and CCD-cameras have largely replac
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Fig. 3.22a-e. The principle of read
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than a prism. The dispersion can be
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3.4 Radio Telescopes Fig. 3.25. The
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Fig. 3.27. The Atacama Large Millim
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Fig. 3.30. The VLA at Socorro, New
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Fig. 3.31. (a) X-rays are not refle
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Fig. 3.33. Refractors are not suita
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tored by laser interferometers. If
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4. Photometric Concepts and Magnitu
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If we are outside the source, where
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magnitudes can be equal, the flux d
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flux L will now decrease with incre
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this line is extrapolated to X = 0,
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since due to extinction, radiation
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96 5. Radiation Mechanisms Fig. 5.1
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98 5. Radiation Mechanisms From (5.
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100 5. Radiation Mechanisms Fig. 5.
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104 5. Radiation Mechanisms We now
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5. Radiation Mechanisms 106 Again F
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110 5. Radiation Mechanisms We can
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112 5. Radiation Mechanisms differe
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114 6. Celestial Mechanics The solu
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116 6. Celestial Mechanics prove (6
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118 6. Celestial Mechanics in the d
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120 6. Celestial Mechanics But cons
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122 6. Celestial Mechanics by the e
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124 6. Celestial Mechanics Substitu
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126 6. Celestial Mechanics a cloud
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128 6. Celestial Mechanics Since th
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130 6. Celestial Mechanics Exercise
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132 7. The Solar System Fig. 7.1. (
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134 7. The Solar System for each ob
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136 7. The Solar System Fig. 7.5. L
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138 7. The Solar System Inserting t
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140 7. The Solar System Therefore o
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142 7. The Solar System Fig. 7.10.
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144 7. The Solar System behaves mor
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146 7. The Solar System Table 7.1.
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150 7. The Solar System of the plan
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152 7. The Solar System If we denot
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154 7. The Solar System where F⊥
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158 7. The Solar System larized fea
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162 7. The Solar System The outer c
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168 7. The Solar System weak and co
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170 7. The Solar System amount of w
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176 7. The Solar System ter the rin
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178 7. The Solar System face, most
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180 7. The Solar System The F ring,
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182 7. The Solar System Herschel hi
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188 7. The Solar System liding, sin
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196 7. The Solar System of this mat
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202 7. The Solar System Near the po
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204 7. The Solar System be solved f
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8. Stellar Spectra All our informat
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which appears as irregular fluctuat
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8.2 The Harvard Spectral Classifica
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ate of ionization is essentially de
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lines of titanium, scandium and van
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efore τ = 1, i. e. the radiation i
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yielding Iν(0,θ)= Sν(τ ∗ ) +
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222 9. Binary Stars and Stellar Mas
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10. Stellar Structure The stars are
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where a = 4σ/c = 7.564 × 10−16
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where me is the electron mass and N
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Page 242 and 243: oxygen, which in turn reacts to for
Page 244 and 245: According to (4.7), (4.4) and (5.16
Page 246 and 247: Example 10.6 The Radiation Pressure
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Page 252 and 253: Since stars are most likely to be f
Page 254 and 255: Fig. 11.4a-c. Energy transport in t
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Page 258 and 259: tract to planetlike brown dwarfs. S
Page 260 and 261: Fig. 11.10a-f. Evolution of a low-m
Page 262 and 263: Fig. 11.12. The Wolf-Rayet star WR
Page 264 and 265: In a neutron capture, a nucleus wit
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Page 268 and 269: 264 12.TheSun Fig. 12.2. (a) The ro
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Page 286 and 287: Fig. 13.5. The lightcurve of a long
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Page 292 and 293: Fig. 13.15. Supernova 1987A in the
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338 15. The Interstellar Medium the
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340 16. Star Clusters and Associati
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17. The Milky Way On clear, moonles
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Fig. 17.3. The directions to the ga
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classes of stars are main sequence
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Fig. 17.9. The size of the volume e
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lar material similarly moves in the
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Fig. 17.14. In order to derive Oort
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Fig. 17.17. The radial velocity as
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a suitable mass distribution, such
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esting because it may be a small-sc
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material constituting the galaxy. I
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18. Galaxies The galaxies are the f
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Fig. 18.3. The classification of no
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18.1 The Classification of Galaxies
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Fig. 18.7. Compound luminosity func
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In order to measure the mass at eve
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length r0 = 1-5 kpc. In Sc galaxies
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18.4 Dynamics of Galaxies We have s
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gas. Some normal spirals may have b
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the Large and Small Magellanic Clou
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stars are forming and evolving into
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panion galaxy. The tail is interpre
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een made at these wavelengths with
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galaxies in our present neighbourho
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394 19. Cosmology tographs form an
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396 19. Cosmology Fig. 19.3. Hubble
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398 19. Cosmology element after hyd
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400 19. Cosmology 19.3 Homogeneous
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402 19. Cosmology The potential ene
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404 19. Cosmology In an expanding c
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406 19. Cosmology about 40,000 degr
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408 19. Cosmology rather slowly. In
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410 19. Cosmology Fig. 19.15. Corre
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412 19. Cosmology where Ω0 = ρ0/
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414 19. Cosmology Example 19.2 Find
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416 20. Astrobiology According to t
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418 20. Astrobiology of spiral gala
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420 20. Astrobiology Fig. 20.2. Bla
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422 20. Astrobiology reached 10% of
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424 20. Astrobiology Now panspermia
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426 20. Astrobiology 20.9 Detecting
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428 20. Astrobiology cles that we s
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Appendices 431
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Ellipse. Equation in rectangular co
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A and B can be determined graphical
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When using matrix formalism it is c
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Similarly, a volume integral I = f
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B. Theory of Relativity Albert Eins
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time interval between the events is
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C. Tables Table C.1. SI basic units
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Table C.6. The Sun Property Symbol
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Table C.11. Osculating elements of
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Discoverer Year of a Psid e i r M
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Table C.16. Periodic comets with se
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Table C.17 (continued) C. Tables Na
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C. Tables Table C.19. Some double s
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Table C.22. Optically brightest gal
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Table C.23 (continued) Abbreviation
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C. Tables Table C.26. Millimetre an
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Table C.27 (continued) Satellite La
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468 Answers to Exercises 6.2 a = 1.
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470 Answers to Exercises Chapter 17
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472 Further Reading Morrison (ed.):
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474 Further Reading Maps and Catalo
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Name and Subject Index A aberration
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coherent radiation 95 Cold Dark Mat
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forbidden transition 101, 332 four-
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Kellman, Edith 212 Kepler’s equat
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nautical mile 15 nautical triangle
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Reber, Grote 69 recombination 95, 9
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synchronous rotation 135 synchrotro
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Colour Supplement 491
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Plate 14. The first view from the s
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Plate 1 Plate 2 Colour Supplement 4
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Plate 6 Plate 5 Colour Supplement 4
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Plate 9 Colour Supplement Plate 10
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Plate 23 Plate 24 Colour Supplement
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Colour Supplement Plate 29 507
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