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Production of chromium ores and concentrates tonnes Country 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Albania 72 600 98 000 160 300 170 000 201 120 Finland 566 090 549 000 580 000 572 000 549 000 Russia 71 000 169 200 447 300 772 000 966 095 Turkey 326 390 281 783 436 639 688 377 457 893 Madagascar 10 737 45 040 77 386 140 847 132 335 South Africa 6 435 746 7 405 391 7 676 799 7 502 762 7 418 326 Sudan 14 000 37 000 26 000 21 654 28 772 Zimbabwe 725 822 572 558 668 391 614 720 700 001 Cuba 20 400 34 300 40 300 34 000 *34 000 Brazil 283 991 376 862 593 476 616 534 562 739 Afghanistan 6 136 6 364 6 591 — — Burma (a) *3 000 *3 000 *3 000 *3 000 *3 000 China 164 200 197 800 230 000 220 000 220 000 India (a) 3 068 631 2 904 809 3 621 394 3 422 880 3 957 000 Iran (b) (c) 232 068 150 316 134 872 234 376 244 603 Kazakhstan 2 369 500 2 927 900 3 287 100 3 581 242 3 366 078 Oman 27 400 13 800 24 300 18 386 70 500 Pakistan (d) 16 679 30 657 29 230 56 359 64 572 Philippines (b) 22 000 33 778 42 139 36 070 *50 000 United Arab Emirates — — 7 089 — — Vietnam 66 300 91 000 82 000 89 000 *90 000 Australia 57 142 67 271 110 273 90 260 107 103 World Total 14 600 000 16 000 000 18 300 000 18 900 000 19 200 000 Note(s):- (1) In addition to the countries listed, Bulgaria is believed to produce chromite (a) Years ended 31 March following that stated (b) Including foundry sand and/or lumpy ore (c) Years ended 20 March following that stated (d) Years ended 30 June of that stated 16
COAL Characteristics Coal is a combustible sedimentary rock made of lithified plant remains. A coal seam is formed by the alteration of dead plant material that initially accumulates as peat on the land surface. As the peat becomes buried beneath younger sediments the temperature increases with increasing depth of burial. Peat is sequentially altered by the process of ‘coalification’, a process involving the loss of water and volatile components, through brown coals to black coals. The physical and chemical properties of coal, that is coal quality, determine whether a coal can be used commercially. Calorific value, or the heat energy given off by the combustion of a unit quantity of fuel is one of the main quality criteria used by coal consumers. Coal quality is important as it affects the operation of plant, and thus the costs of generating power, through its impact on the costs of both maintenance and conformity with environmental legislation. Chlorine and sulphur are both detrimental in coal, causing pollution as well as corrosion in boilers. Based on the physical properties of different bituminous coals, a fundamental distinction is made worldwide between steam coal (or thermal coal), used for burning in boilers, chiefly for electricity generation, and coking coal, which is used to make coke for the metallurgical industries. Coking coal produces coke with sufficient strength to support the loads imposed within a blast furnace. Steam coal tends to have calorific values at the lower end of the range. Uses Power generation is the primary use for coal. Roughly 40 per cent of electricity, worldwide, is generated from coal and this may be considerably higher in many individual countries. In the US, for example, a little over half of the electricity generated is through coal-fired power stations and in China, 70 per cent. Approximately 25 per cent of world primary energy consumption is from coal. Almost two-thirds of world steel production is made from iron produced in blast furnaces which use coal, mainly in the form of coke. Coke is made from coking coals, which are characterised by their chemical and physical properties: they are low in sulphur and phosphorus, liquefy when heated in the absence of air and solidify into hard, porous lumps. The lumps of coke are produced by processing coal in a series of coke ovens with an oxygen-deficient atmosphere in order to concentrate the carbon. The coke has a high energy value and provides the permeability, heat and gases which are required to reduce and melt the iron ore, pellets and sinter consumed in iron-making. Another, less-used, method is pulverised coal injection, which can utilise a wide range of coals, including the less-expensive steam coal. About a third of world steel production is produced from scrap in electric arc furnaces, and it follows that much of the electricity for this process is produced from coal. Liquid fuels derived from coal are sulphur-free and have low levels of nitrogen oxides and particulate matter. Coal may be converted into liquid fuel (and other products such as waxes, lubricants and chemicals) by two methods: direct liquefaction, where coal is dissolved in solvents at high temperature and pressure; and indirect liquefaction, which gasifies the coal to produce a ‘syngas’ which is then condensed over a catalyst (the Fischer-Tropsch process). The Fischer-Tropsch process produces a clean, high-quality product, whilst the liquid fuel produced through the direct process requires further refining. The South African company, Sasol, is the sole producer of liquid fuel and chemicals from coal on a commercial scale. The first coal liquefaction project in China, in the Inner Mongolia Province of China, is due to commence operation in 2008. Three companies, Shenua Group Corp., Jiali Chemical Ltd, and Baotou Mingtian Science and Technology Co. Ltd, invested in this project which will produce liquids from coal by direct liquefaction. Its aim is to reduce China's reliance on crude oil imports by 10 per cent or more. Projects are also under way or planned in the USA and Australia, and projects are being considered in Indonesia, India and Germany (Copley, 2007). Coal is used as an energy source in cement production – a process that requires a large amount of energy. The coal consumed is half the mass of cement produced. Coal may also be gasified to produce a combination of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, which may be used for a range of purposes such as industrial heating, electricity generation and manufacture of chemicals. It is the source of numerous chemicals, as byproducts, which are used in soap, pharmaceutical products, solvents, plastics, dyes and synthetic fibres. Coal is used in alumina refineries and in the production of activated carbon, carbon fibre and silicon metal. World production in 2006 World coal production in 2006 was 6194 million tonnes. This was a five per cent increase on 2005. Production increased steadily during the period 2002 to 2006, with an overall increase of 29 per cent. China was the top-producing country with 2380 million tonnes. This represents a nine per cent increase on 2005 and a 68 per cent increase since 2002. The USA was the second largest producer with 1054 million tonnes and India, third, with production of 462 million tonnes. For many countries experiencing steady and rapid economic growth, availability of low-cost coal has been a key factor in large-scale electrification and this is driving demand and increased production. China is now 99 per cent electrified, and 77 per cent of the electricity is produced in coal-fired power stations. The BBC reported that about two large coal-fired power stations were being built every week in China (Harrabin, 2007). This raises concerns about emissions, particularly the raised carbon dioxide concentrations, and health and safety matters. In 2006, 6000 deaths were officially recorded in coal mines in China. Asia showed the fastest increases in coal production. Overall, there was an eight per cent increase in 2006 compared to 2005, and 53 per cent since 2002. Although much of this was due to the Chinese output, other countries have significantly increased their production. For 2002 to 2006, Indian production increased by 26 per cent, Indonesia by 71 per cent and Mongolia by 110 per cent. Coal production in Europe, excluding Russia, has largely been stable during 2002 to 2006, falling by only two per cent to 809 million tonnes. Russia, the world’s fifth largest producer, has increased production by 21 per cent from 256 million tonnes to 309 million tonnes. African production is dominated by South Africa, the sixth largest coal-producing country in the world. Production of 245 million tonnes by South Africa represents an 11 per cent increase from 2002 to 2006. Coal production in the Americas has increased by eight per cent over the same time span, with 17
Page 1: World Mineral Production 2002-2006
Page 4 and 5: © NERC 2008 all rights reserved Fi
Page 6 and 7: CONTENTS Commodity Index Alumina 2
Page 9 and 10: STATISTICAL TABLES
Page 11 and 12: US$/tonne US$/tonne 700 600 500 400
Page 13 and 14: Production of bauxite tonnes Countr
Page 15 and 16: Production of primary aluminium ton
Page 17 and 18: Production of asbestos tonnes Count
Page 19 and 20: Production of bentonite and fuller'
Page 21 and 22: Production of bentonite and fuller'
Page 23: Production of bromine kilograms Cou
Page 27 and 28: to government approvals, would incr
Page 29 and 30: Production of coal tonnes Country 2
Page 31 and 32: Mine production of cobalt tonnes (m
Page 33 and 34: US$/tonne 10000 9000 8000 7000 6000
Page 35 and 36: Mine production of copper tonnes (m
Page 37 and 38: Production of refined copper tonnes
Page 39 and 40: Production of diatomite tonnes Coun
Page 41 and 42: FLUORSPAR Characteristics Fluorspar
Page 43 and 44: GOLD Characteristics Gold is a soft
Page 45 and 46: MERCER, D. 2007. BHP Billiton boost
Page 47 and 48: Production of graphite tonnes Count
Page 49 and 50: Production of gypsum tonnes Country
Page 51 and 52: Cents per tonne Fe unit f.o.b 90 80
Page 53 and 54: Production of pig iron tonnes Count
Page 55 and 56: Production of crude steel tonnes Co
Page 57 and 58: Production of ferro-alloys tonnes C
Page 59 and 60: Production of kaolin tonnes Country
Page 61 and 62: LEAD Characteristics Lead is a dens
Page 63 and 64: America has not been without contro
Page 65 and 66: Production of refined lead tonnes C
Page 67 and 68: Production of magnesite tonnes Coun
Page 69 and 70: Production of mercury kilograms Cou
Page 71 and 72: Mine production of molybdenum tonne
Page 73 and 74: US$/tonne 60000 50000 40000 30000 2
Page 75 and 76:
RIO TINTO. 2007. Rio Tinto to enter
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Production of perlite tonnes Countr
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Production of crude petroleum tonne
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Production of natural gas million m
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Mine production of platinum group m
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Production of salt tonnes Country 2
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Production of salt tonnes Country 2
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Mine production of silver kilograms
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Production of sulphur and pyrites t
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Production of sulphur and pyrites t
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Production of talc tonnes Country 2
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Mine production of tin tonnes (meta
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(TG100; 12 x 120 mm) Metal Bulletin
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Production of titanium minerals ton
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US$/lb 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20
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Mine production of uranium tonnes (
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ZINC Characteristics Zinc is the 23
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five per cent. The tax refund on zi
Page 111 and 112:
Mine production of zinc tonnes (met
Page 114:
Price £30
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