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eNDNOTeS
272 In September 1986, the first Zone of Peace, Freedom, and Neutrality (ZOPFAN)
in the Philippines was declared in Naga City in southern Luzon. This was a
community-based and people-initiated peace effort, involving the council of
elders and the church. Since then, this model has gained ground around the
country. For more details, see: Pushpa Iyer, Peace Zones of Mindanao,
Philippines: Civil Society Efforts to End Violence (Massachusetts: Collaborative
Learning Projects, October 2004); Mario Cabrera, “Schools as ‘Zones of Peace’,”
UNICEF Philippines; Tilman Wörtz Zeitenspiegel, The Philippines: Peace Zones in
a War Region (Tuebingen, Germany: Institute for Peace Education); and Debbie
Uy, “Philippines: Local Communities Push for Peace Zones,” Institute for War and
Peace Reporting, 3 October 2008.
273 Church groups involved were of various denominations depending on the
community. In communities where more than one religious or church group is
present, the full range of religious groups would ideally be involved in the
process.
274 Mario Cabrera, “Schools as ‘Zones of Peace’,” UNICEF Philippines.
275 See, for example: HRW, Lessons in Terror: Attacks on Education in
Afghanistan (New York: HRW, July 2006), 24.
276 Antonio Giustozzi and Claudio Franco, The Battle for the Schools: The Taleban
and State Education (Afghanistan Analysts Network, 13 December 2011), 3-5.
277 HRW, Lessons in Terror: Attacks on Education in Afghanistan (New York: HRW,
July 2006), 32-34; Marit Glad, Knowledge on Fire: Attacks on Education in
Afghanistan - Risks and Measures for Successful Mitigation (Afghanistan: CARE
International, September 2009), 33-36. See also: Dana Burde, “Preventing
Violent Attacks on Education in Afghanistan: Considering The Role of Community-
Based Schools,” in Protecting Education from Attack: A State-of-the-Art Review
(Paris: UNESCO, 2010). For a detailed analysis of the nature, scope and motives
of attacks, please see the Afghanistan profile in Part III of the present volume;
and UNSC, Children and Armed Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General,
A/66/782–S/2012/261, 26 April 2012, para 16.
278 Results from CARE’s research showed that 85% of key informants felt protection
of schools is the community’s responsibility. See Marit Glad, Knowledge on
Fire: Attacks on Education in Afghanistan - Risks and Measures for Successful
Mitigation (Afghanistan: CARE International, September 2009), 44.
279 Afghanistan Ministry of Education, National Education Strategic Plan for
Afghanistan 2010-2014, 6. See also GCPEA, Study on Field-based Programmatic
Measures to Protect Education from Attack (New York: GCPEA, 2011), 36-37.
280 The concept of community schools has been taken to scale by national and
international agencies. Community schools are now estimated to reach 156,000
students, according to data given in Morten Sigsgaard, Education and Fragility in
Afghanistan: A Situational Analysis (Paris: UNESCO International Institute for
Educational Planning, 2009), 19. This information illustrates the scope for variation
in the level at which communities engage in one specific form of programmatic
action. Some villages have initiated community schools themselves, others
have been involved primarily in their implementation.
281 Dana Burde, “Preventing Violent Attacks on Education in Afghanistan:
Considering The Role of Community-Based Schools,” in Protecting Education
from Attack: A State-of-the-Art Review (Paris: UNESCO, 2010), 257, 259.
282 HRW, Lessons in Terror: Attacks on Education in Afghanistan (New York: HRW,
2006), 115.
283 Brendan O’Malley, Education Under Attack 2010 (Paris: UNESCO, 2010), 30.
284 Antonio Giustozzi and Claudio Franco, The battle for the schools: The Taleban
and state education (Afghanistan Analysts Network, August 2011), 2, 10-13.
285 Ibid., 10-13.
286 Antonio Giustozzi and Claudio Franco, The ongoing battle for schools:
Uprisings, negotiations and Taleban tactics (Afghanistan Analysts Network,
February 2013), 1-3.
287 Dana Burde, “Preventing Violent Attacks on Education in Afghanistan:
Considering The Role of Community-Based Schools,” in Protecting Education
from Attack: A State-of-the-Art Review (Paris: UNESCO, 2010), 258.
288 Some examples include: In Herat in western Afghanistan, police collaborated
with the community after an attack to arrange meetings to negotiate an end to
attacks and the reopening of schools. Global Education Cluster, Protecting
Education in Countries Affected by Conflict Booklet 3: Community-based
Protection and Prevention (Global Education Cluster, October 2012), 8. In 2010, it
was reported that a school in Jowzjan reopened after local communities put pressure
on the Taliban. Elsewhere, the Taliban closed schools for two months as the
government wanted to use them as election stations. The local elders convinced
the government not to conduct election polling in schools and the Taliban to
permit the schools to function. Antonio Giustozzi and Claudio Franco, The Battle
for the Schools:The Taleban and State Education (Afghanistan Analysts Network,
13 December 2011), 6.
289 Antonio Giustozzi and Claudio Franco, The Battle for the Schools: The Taliban
and State Education (Afghanistan Analysts Network, 13 December 2011), 14-15.
290 Boys’ enrolment rates in community schools versus traditional government
schools were 34.4% higher and girls’ enrolment was 51.1% higher. The performance
gap between girls and boys was reduced by a third. Dana Burde and Leigh
Linden, The Effect of Village-Based Schools: Evidence from a Randomized
Controlled Trial in Afghanistan, IZA DP No. 6531 (Bonn, Germany: Institute for the
Study of Labor, April 2012).
291 Marit Glad, Knowledge on Fire: Attacks on Education in Afghanistan - Risks
and Measures for Successful Mitigation (Afghanistan: CARE International,
September 2009), 44, 47.
292 Ibid., 55.
293 While there is reluctance amongst communities to negotiate with armed
insurgents, fear of criminal groups may be greater. Marit Glad, Knowledge on
Fire: Attacks on Education in Afghanistan - Risks and Measures for Successful
Mitigation (Afghanistan: CARE International, September 2009), 47-49.
294 Antonio Giustozzi and Claudio Franco, The Battle for the Schools:The Taleban
and State Education (Afghanistan Analysts Network, 13 December 2011), 17.
295 Marit Glad, Knowledge on Fire: Attacks on Education in Afghanistan - Risks
and Measures for Successful Mitigation (Afghanistan: CARE International,
September 2009), 50-51, 54.
296 Based on the information contained in CARE’s report, with regards to threats
to girls’ education. Marit Glad, Knowledge on Fire: Attacks on Education in
Afghanistan - Risks and Measures for Successful Mitigation (Afghanistan: CARE
International, September 2009), 21.
297 Key informant interview with INGO staff member based in Kabul, May 2013.
298 Marit Glad, Knowledge on Fire: Attacks on Education in Afghanistan - Risks
and Measures for Successful Mitigation (Afghanistan: CARE International,
September 2009), 4.
299 Key informant interview with INGO staff member based in Kabul, May 2013.
300 Pushpa Iyer, Peace Zones of Mindanao, Philippines: Civil Society Efforts to
End Violence (Massachusetts: Collaborative Learning Projects, October 2004).
301 See, for example: Save the Children, Rewrite the Future Global Evaluation
Nepal Midterm Country Report (London: Save the Children, March 2009), 11.
302 In the case of Liberia, unarmed guards evolved into a permanent measure
with costs to the school. See UNESCO, Protecting Education from Attack: A Stateof-the-Art
Review (Paris: UNESCO, 2010), 28.
303 Current debates are characterized by a lack of consensus over what constitutes
an ‘attack’ on higher education communities, versus an infringement of
academic freedom [or of the right to education] that falls short of the meaning of
the term ‘attack’. This has methodological repercussions evident in the difficulty
of establishing an agreed-upon set of indicators for monitoring attacks.
216