jewish cemeteries, synagogues, and mass grave sites in ukraine

inadvertent defilement of some religious Jews, who could only come in contact with the dead
under certain conditions.
The Holocaust, however, destroyed this situation. Living communities were entirely destroyed,
so no one remained to tend to the dead. Walls were broken, boundaries overgrown, and
gravestones were stolen. Cemeteries were neglected so that they often became one with the
surrounding fields and woods. The existence of the cemeteries was often forgotten, and,
sometimes, denied.
Under Soviet law, however, any cemetery not used for twenty-five years was considered
abandoned. It could be destroyed or reused in any fashion. Thus, Jewish remains were moved, or
were lost entirely. This law, as much as any other single reason, has stymied efforts over the
years to protect historic Jewish burial grounds. This problem was addressed by an executive
decree in 1998 and a law in 2003.
The actual appearance and form of Jewish cemeteries in Ukraine are the result of a centuries-old
development that began with the migration of Jews from Western Europe, tempered by contact
with local non-Jewish traditions. In turn, all Ukrainian cemeteries have been, since the late 19 th
century, impacted by new technologies, including those that allow increased availability of
varied stones. Popular trends, such as the inclusion of images of the deceased upon the
gravestone, are also due to the widespread introduction and acceptance of photography.
The oldest and largest cemeteries are located in western Ukraine in the territories of Volyn and
Podillia, and these most resemble the cemeteries found in Poland. 36 In areas that were formerly
part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Jewish cemeteries frequently resemble those still found in
Hungary and Slovakia.
As a rule, Jewish cemeteries were situated on elevated sites near settlements or on the slopes of
hills. This was usually because Jews were granted permission to locate cemeteries on land
unsuited for agricultural use, or because Jews chose this land as it was often the most available.
Other factors, such as better drainage and less likelihood of flooding also affected cemetery
location selection.
For the most part, Jewish cemeteries were located outside of settled areas, unlike Christian
cemeteries, which until the 19 th century were often within city boundaries, particularly in
churchyards. Expansion of populated centers, however, especially during the rapid urbanization
of the 19 th century, frequently brought cemeteries within city urban areas.
Many of these cemeteries were already at risk before the Holocaust due to the need for land.
Some were seized before the Second World War, and many were “liquidated” subsequently.
Individual gravesites are situated in rows, though in older cemeteries this arrangement is often
hard to reconstruct due to the loss of many stones, and the tilting and toppling of others. The
inscribed fronts of monuments were mostly turned to the east, in the direction of Jerusalem.
36 On the history, form, and devastation of Polish cemeteries, see Monika Krajewska, Time of Stones (Warsaw:
Interpress, 1983); and Samuel Gruber and Phyllis Myers, Survey of Historic Jewish Sites in Poland (New York:
World Monuments Fund, second edition 1995).
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