Asking the Right Questions, A Guide to Critical Thinking, 8th Ed

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18 Chapter 2 clue is knowledge of the author's background, such as organizations to which she belongs. So check for background information about the author as you try to determine the issue. When you are identifying the issue, try to resist the idea that there is one and only one correct way to state the issue. Once you have found a question that the entire essay or speech is addressing, and you can show the link between that question and the essay or speech, you have found the issue. Just make certain that what you are calling an issue meets the definitional criteria for that idea. The surest way to detect an issue when it is not explicitly stated, however, is to locate the conclusion. In many cases, the conclusion must be found before you can identify the issue. Thus, in such cases, the first step in critical evaluation is to find the conclusion—a frequently difficult step. We cannot critically evaluate until we find the conclusion! Let's see how we go about looking for that very important structural element. Attention: A conclusion is the message that the speaker or writer wishes you to accept. Searching for the Author's or Speaker's Conclusion To identify the conclusion, the critical thinker must ask, "What is the writer or speaker trying to prove?" or "What is the communicator's main point?" The answer to either of these questions will be the conclusion. Any answer to the question provided by the speaker or writer will be the conclusion. In searching for a conclusion, you will be looking for a statement or set of statements that the writer or speaker wants you to believe. She wants you to believe the conclusion on the basis of her other statements. In short, the basic structure of persuasive communication or argument is: This because of that. This refers to the conclusion; that refers to the support for the conclusion. This structure represents the process of inference. Conclusions are inferred; they are derived from reasoning. Conclusions are ideas that require other ideas to support them. Thus, whenever someone claims something is true or ought to be done and provides no statements to support her claim, that claim is not a conclusion because no one has offered any basis for belief. In contrast, unsupported claims are what we refer to as mere opinions.
What Are the Issue and the Conclusion? 19 The last paragraph says a lot. It would be a good idea for you to read it again. Understanding the nature of a conclusion is an essential step toward critical reading and listening. Let's look closely at a conclusion and at the inference process. Here is a brief paragraph; see whether you can identify the conclusion, then the statements that support it. Factory farming should not be legal. There are other more natural ways to produce needed food supply. "Factory farming should not be legal." This is the author's answer to the question: should factory farming be legalized? It is her conclusion. The author supports this belief with another: "There are other more natural ways to produce needed food supply." Do you see why the supporting belief is not a conclusion? It is not the conclusion because it is used to prove something else. Remember. To believe one statement (the conclusion) because you think it is well supported by other beliefs is to make an inference. When people engage in this process, they are reasoning; the conclusion is the outcome of this reasoning. Sometimes, communicators will not make their conclusions explicit; in such cases you will have to infer the conclusion from what you believe the author is trying to prove by the set of ideas she has presented. USING THIS CRITICAL QUESTION Once you have found the conclusion, use it as the focus of your evaluation. It is the destination that the writer or speaker wants you to choose. Your ongoing concern is: Should I accept that conclusion on the basis of what is supporting the claim? Clues to Discovery: How to Find the Conclusion There are a number of clues to help you identify the conclusion. CLUE NO. 1: Ask what the issue is. Because a conclusion is always a response to an issue, it will help you find the conclusion if you know the issue. We discussed earlier how to identify the issue. First, look at the title. Next, look at the opening paragraphs. If this technique does not help, skimming several pages may be necessary.
Page 3 and 4: Eighth Edition Asking the Right Que
Page 5 and 6: Contents Preface viii 1 The Benefit
Page 7 and 8: Contents v Summary 79 Practice Exer
Page 9 and 10: Practice and Review 193 Question Ch
Page 11 and 12: Preface ix audience requires us to
Page 13 and 14: Preface xi he or she knows best? Cr
Page 15 and 16: CHAPTER 1 THE BENEFIT OF ASKING THE
Page 17 and 18: The Benefit of Asking the Right Que
Page 27: The Benefit of Asking the Right Que
Page 30 and 31: 16 Chapter 2 When we read or listen
Page 34 and 35: 20 Chapter 2 Clue No. 2: Look for i
Page 36 and 37: 22 Chapter 2 Practice Exercises (JM
Page 39 and 40: CHAPTER 3 I WHAT ARE THE REASONS? R
Page 41 and 42: What Are the Reasons? 27 So when we
Page 43 and 44: What Are the Reasons? 29 One of the
Page 45 and 46: What Are the Reasons? 31 author bel
Page 47 and 48: What Are the Reasons? 33 Critical T
Page 49: What Are the Reasons? 35 b. Student
Page 52 and 53: 38 Chapter 4 mind. A quota for tour
Page 54 and 55: 40 Chapter 4 Another useful guide f
Page 56 and 57: 42 Chapter 4 meanings. Isn't it tru
Page 58 and 59: 44 Chapter 4 The phrase "give great
Page 60 and 61: 46 Chapter 4 how much work is requi
Page 62 and 63: 48 Chapter 4 through strength, the
Page 64 and 65: 50 Chapter 4 Passage 1 School dress
Page 66 and 67: 52 Chapter 4 ff\ V^t CRITICAL QUEST
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68 Chapter 5 Summary Assumptions ar
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CHAPTER 6 I WHAT ARE THE DESCRIPTIV
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What Are the Descriptive Assumption
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90 Chapter 7 F: Appeal to questiona
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92 Chapter 7 the two choices are be
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96 Chapter 7 This sort of "reasonin
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98 Chapter 7 you are most likely to
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100 Chapter 7 of the AIDS hysteria
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102 Chapter 7 JOE'S CONCLUSION: Bee
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104 Chapter 8 Qfj Critical Question
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106 Chapter 8 supporting a prescrip
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108 Chapter 8 reflects strong biase
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110 Chapter 8 grants to do research
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112 Chapter 8 Was the authority in
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114 Chapter 8 In this chapter, we h
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116 Chapter 8 Passage 2 CONCLUSION:
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118 Chapter 9 see or hear, selectin
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120 Chapter 9 answered only tentati
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122 Chapter 9 Clues for Evaluating
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124 Chapter 9 generalize have an eq
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126 Chapter 9 Survey and questionna
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128 Chapter 9 Case Examples as Evid
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130 Chapter 9 Identifying and Compr
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132 Chapter 9 however, is a human b
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134 Chapter 9 you can rely most on
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136 Chapter 9 being an alcoholic, a
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138 Chapter 10 litde boy offered on
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140 Chapter 10 In this study, the r
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142 Chapter 10 The Cause or A Cause
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144 Chapter 10 Should parents take
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146 Chapter 10 Confusing Causation
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148 Chapter 10 To appreciate the fl
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150 Chapter 10 Evaluating Rival Cau
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152 Chapter 10 Sample Responses Pas
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CHAPTER 11 ARE THE STATISTICS DECEP
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Are the Statistics Deceptive? 157 t
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Are the Statistics Deceptive? 1 59
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Are the Statistics Deceptive? 161 h
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Are the Statistics Deceptive? 163 P
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168 Chapter 12 By asking questions
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170 Chapter 12 Questions that Ident
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172 Chapter 12 Being aware of these
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174 Chapter 12 differ from tests pe
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176 Chapter 12 whether it is possib
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178 Chapter 12 Before we all start
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CHAPTER 13 WHAT REASONABLE CONCLUSI
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What Reasonable Conclusions Are Pos
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CHAPTER 14 PRACTICE AND REVIEW In t
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Practice and Review 195 a healthy d
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5. Obesity has resulted in high lev
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Practice and Review 199 that many i
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Pra cti ce an d Revi ew 201 What is
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Practice and Review 203 author's ar
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Final Word Critical thinking is a t
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Final Word 207 6. Ask the other per
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210 Index Communication (effective)
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212 Index Question (s): begging the
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