A Case Study from Anamalai Hills since 1500 years BP - Cafet Innova

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ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 05, No. 06 (01) 

December2012,P.P.1771-1778 

Evidence of degradation of Shola Forest in South Indian Montane: 

A Case Study from Anamalai Hills since 1500 years BP 

S. K. BERA, KANUPRIYA GUPTA, A. RAJANIKANTH and B. SEKAR 

Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, 53, University Road, Lucknow-226007, India 

Email: skbera_2000@yahoo.com, gupta.kanupriya07@gmail.com, rajanikanth.annamraju@gmail.com, 

Sekar_b2001@yahoo.co.in 

Abstract: The Palynological result of sedimentary profiles from Anamalai Hills dated back to 1500 years B.P., had 

been documented through retrieved pollen/spores from sediments and modern surface samples (moss cushions). The 

investigated sites cover Karian shola, Arumparai, Kalikamthi and Schichalli regions of Anamalai Hills, South India. 

Lithology of the profile is largely consisted of organic mud and silty clay with higher pH. Pollen yield from soil 

profile was documented from organic mud only, whereas, silty clay was found palynologically barren. The 

sedimentation rate is 4.02 cm/every 100 years. The generated pollen analytical data from the organic mud chiefly 

represents nonarboreal taxa in contrast to arboreals, which remain either absent or sporadic. The major shola 

arboreals like Elaeocarpus, Glochidion, Osbeckia, Palaquium and Myrtaceae are represented by less than one 

percent of the total assemblage. The overall emerged vegetation is largely dominated by herbaceous taxa 

interspersed with shrubby elements. Pollen diagram depicts that around 1500 years BP, the landscape was almost 

treeless but the presence of nonarboreals namely Strobilanthes, Senecio, Heracleum, Impatiens and Peperomia 

which are closely associated with the existing forests in South India, demonstrate the existence of shola woods under 

arid climate during the period. The occurrence of a number of fungal remains along with degraded pollen and spores 

recovered from sediments hint an indication of biological degradation of microbiota during the time of deposition. 

Keywords: Shola forest; Vegetation Succession; Late Holocene; Anamalai Hills. 

Introduction: 

Anamalai Hills are the range of mountains, located in 

the Western Ghats of the South Indian states of Tamil 

Nadu and Kerala. The word Anamalai is the 

combination of two Tamil words - Anai and Malai. In 

Tamil language Anai means ‘elephant’ and Malai means 

‘hill’, so it is also called as an Elephant hill. Anamalai 

Hills lie (Lat. 10 0 32’ E, Long. 76 0 43, N) at an elevation 

ranging between 1000-1500 masl supporting typical 

evergreen forests with an admixture of both tropical as 

well as temperate elements. It is also ecologically 

interesting since evergreen shola forest and grassland 

co-exist in juxtaposition having constant competition. 

South Indian montane plant community popularly 

known as “shola forest” is of great phyto-socio – 

geographical significance apart from montane 

grasslands covering two – third of the plateau of Nilgiri, 

Palni and Anamalai Hills and evergreen forests in 

sheltered sites such as hollows, valleys and depressions 

in these Hills (Fig 1). In the Anamalai Hills, less than 

ten percent of forests remained, highly fragmented yet 

surrounded by protected parklands and forests in the 

heart of the highest mountains in the Western Ghats. 

Two issues were prominent in this landscape belong to 

wildlife-people conflicts and forest fragmentation. Both 

were related to one another. Hitherto, a few records of 

palaeovegetation and palaoeclimatic data through pollen 

analysis have been carried out earlier from Nilgiri, Palni 

Hills and adjoining areas (Menon, 1968; Gupta 1973; 

Gupta and Prasad 1985; Vasanthy, 1988; Bera et.al, 

1997, 1992; Meher-Homji, 1975, 1965).Their 

geological formation is of metamorphic gneiss, veined 

with feldspar and quartz, interspersed with reddish 

porphyrite. Twelve major forest types are found in the 

area which is now fragmented by many coffee and tea 

plantations on the lower slopes and teak plantation 

higher up. Monsoon rains are heavy where the annual 

rainfall varies from 2,000 mm to 5,000 mm in most of 

the area. The Anamalai (Indira Gandhi National Park) is 

known for its unique wildlife and rich phytodiversity. 

Top slip is the focal point of this wildlife reserve. The 

park is rich in mixed deciduous forest elements with fair 

population of rosewood and teak as valuable woods. 

Several woods like Hopea parviflora, Mesua ferrea, 

Calophyllum tomentosum, Vateria indica and Cullenia 

excelsae are used for making sleepers for railways. 

Softwoods including Machilus, Macrantha, Alstonia 

scholaris, Evodia meliaefolia and Ailanthus are also 

available for domestic furnitures. Wood for making pulp 

is procured from Eucalyptus hybrid and Eucalyptus 

grandis. Minor forest flora produces products collected 

#02050640 Copyright ©2012 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved.

1772 S. K. BERA, KANUPRIYA GUPTA, A. RAJANIKANTH and B. SEKAR 

from bamboos, reeds, canes, gums, lemon grass, wild 

cardamom, honey and amla. In addition to the 

economically useful plants listed, some rare orchids are 

also found in the sanctuary. The fernland is chiefly 

formed of impenetrable thickets of Pteris aquilina that 

reaches the height of a man. Rubus ellipticus also found 

scattered. The vegetation is of ecologically interesting 

since evergreen shola forests and grasslands co – exist 

under constant competition, depending upon the 

elevation and the local precipitation at places. 

Material and Methods: 

The investigated cores for the present study are from the 

localities namely Schichalli, Kalikamthi and Karian 

Shola provided with three 14 C dates viz., Schichalli : 

220 ± 80 years BP; Kalikamthi : 1500 ± 180 years BP ; 

Karian Shola : 710 ± 170 years BP. The sedimentation 

rate is also determined by the conventional method (Fig 

2). Since the substratum was rocky between 1 m to 2 m 

depth in Anamalai Hills, deeper penetration for the 

profile beyond 2 m could not be achieved for the study. 

Profile from Karian Shola was collected from the 

cleaned sides or a dug out test trench through hand 

corer. The profile from Arumparai could not be dated 

owing to insufficient carbon content in the sediment. 

Lithologically the profiles are consisted either organic 

mud or silty clay with higher pH. For extraction of 

palynodebris from both surface and sediment, the usual 

technique was followed through the phases of KOH, HF 

and acetolysis respectively (Erdtman, 1943). The 

construction of pollen diagrams from Arumparai and 

Karian Shola was not possible due to paucity of pollen 

and spore counts in the sediment. Even during the non– 

rainy season, the soil was found damp to the extent that 

on taking out the borer instead of getting sedimentary 

material, water got collected in the boreholes when 

drilled to over 1 meter depth. It could be either due to 

saturated or existing impeded drainage in the land. Such 

water saturated argillaceous and silty mud is composed 

of partially decomposed plant material and this kind of 

humus is not favourable for the colonization by 

mesophytic shola elements which need good soil 

drainage and proper substratum for root penetration to a 

depth of at least one to two meters. 

Modern Pollen/ Vegetation Relationship: 

Surface samples and soil profiles for palynological 

investigation were procured from forested as well as 

deforested areas within a range of about 4 km in 

Anamalai Hill regions. The following areas namely 

Kadamarai, Karain Shola, Schichalli, Kalikamthi and 

Arumparai are separately described. 

Schichalli: It is situated about 15-16 Km south of 

Anamalai Topslip, devoid of any natural lakes, but 

having deep georges within the forest. Only one surface 

sample numbering 26 was collected from the muddy 

swamp besides a one – meter deep soil profile from this 

region. The scattered shola shrubs like Oldenlandia 

stylosa, Pavetta breviflora and Strobilanthes foliosus are 

the major elements found in the study area. 

Karian Shola: This shola belt near the top Slip extends 

to the height of 1700 meter, covering several kilometers 

in Kerala State. These forests are found dense at patches 

but ground vegetation is poor. Ten surface samples 

covering a part of forest and open land were procured 

for investigation. Samples numbering 16-18 are 

procured from the forest thickets, 19-21 from the forest 

periphery and 22-25 from the open land within 3 km 

distance from the edge of the forest. Sample number 25 

was collected from the spot near a cultivated land. One 

2 meter deep sedimentary profile is procured from this 

area. The major core shola trees like Euonymus 

crenulatus, Celastrum paniculata, Macranga indica and 

Sideroxylon tomentosum are scatterly found near the 

swamp side. Important shola climbers like Passiflora 

leschenaultiana, Gardneria ovata, and Xanthophyllum 

are also occurred in the study area. 

Kalikamthi: It is situated about 43 km south of Pollachi 

at an elevation of 1000 masl. Fifteen investigated 

surface samples cover a part of forest as well as open 

land of this region. Samples numbering 1-5 are procured 

from within the thickest of the forest, 6-10 from forest 

periphery and 11-15 are from open land. There is no soil 

profile from this region owing to rocky substratum. 

Among the common shola plants which occur in the 

southern part of swamp are Glochidion neilgherense, 

Syzygium arnottianum, Meliosma wightii and 

Symplocos foliosa. However, few thickets of Lonicera, 

Ranunculus and Berberis tinctoria are also frequently 

found. Leucas lamifolia, Achyranthes, Dipsacus, and 

Peperomia forms ephemeral taxa near of the studied 

swamps. 

Arumparai: It is situated about 2 km south of 

Kalikamthi with swamps surrounded by degraded or 

remnants of very old tea plantation. Solitary surface 

sample from the margin of swamp along with 1.3 meter 

deep soil profile were collected from this region. The 

vast open land comprises some shola herbs namely 

Ranunculus muricatus, Impatiens orchioides, Leucas 

lamifolia and Senecio walkeri are the major element 

found sporadic. 

Pollen Rain: 

The study of modern pollen rain as generated from 

forests reveals the existence of extant forest 

composition faithfully to some extent. The arboreals are 

composed of Elaeocarpus, Euonymus, Symplocos, 

Trema, Osbeckia, Ilex, Glochidion and Myrtaceae. 

However, shola shrubs belong to Ligustrum, 

International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering 

ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 05, No. 06 (01), December 2012, pp. 1771-1778



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Heracleum, Strobilanthes, Impatiens and Rubiaceae 

remain moderate. Senecio and Heracleum which are 

consistently present in all the samples in good values. 

Grasses as well as ferns are well represented in the 

pollen assemblage. 

Relative reduction in arboreal pollen is seen in the 

pollen spectra from forest outskirt sample. However 

Senecio and grasses do exhibit comparatively higher 

frequency. Ferns maintain stable values. 

Analysis of surface samples collected away from forests 

show dominance of nonarboreal pollen over arboreals. 

The pollen data from surface sample clearly 

demonstrate that the frequency of arboreal taxa is 

directly proportional to the distance from forest stand. 

In case of samples collected far away from the forest, it 

was seen that tree pollen are either absent or sporadic. 

Pollen Diagram and its Composition (Fig 3): 

Pollen diagrams from four regions of Anamalai Hill 

have been constructed. Three soil profiles, namely from 

Schichalli, Kalikamthi and Karian shola have been 

radiometrically dated but Arumparai region owing to 

insufficient carbon content. Of the investigated four 

profiles, only two have generated palynological data 

from Schichalli and Kalikamthi. However, remaining 

two profiles were found palynologically barren. 

Schichalli: 

A 1.3 meter deep sedimentary profile from this region 

has revealed the litho column comprising largely the 

decomposed or humified upper zone of compressed 

organic mud deposits with abundant plant debris, 

indicating lacustrine conditions and from 30 cm down to 

the bottom of the zone with clay and pebbles depicting 

fluvial environment. However, four distinct vegetational 

phases of development are recognized on the basis of 

constructed palynostraigraphical data (fig 2). 

Zone I (130 cm -100 cm): 

This zone is totally devoid of pollen excepting a few 

grass pollen. Hence, palaeovegetation during this phase 

could not be reconstructed. 

Zone II (100 cm – 50 cm): 

This zone is characterized by the predominance of 

herbaceous taxa, namely Poaceae (50-55%), Senecio 

(10-15%), Heracleum (8-10%), Cheno/Ams. (6-10%), 

Strobilanthes (4-8%), Leucus (3-5%), Malvaceae, 

Euphorbiaceae and Rubiaceae (2-5% each).However, 

Impatiens and Peperomia the two chief shola associated 

ephimerals are recorded in low values. Among ferns 

trilete spores (10-30%) are recorded in good values as 

compared to monolete (5-15%). 

Zone III (50 cm - 30cm): 

Another barren zone with untraced vegetational scenario 

is documented in this zone. 

Zone IV (30 cm – 0 cm): 

This bottom zone is characterized by the higher 

frequency of grass pollen (60%). Other herbaceous taxa 

recorded rank wise are Senecio (18%), Heracleum 

(10%), Malvaceae, Strobilanthes, Cheno/Ams and 

Rubiaceae (5% each). However, Impatiens an indicator 

of heavy rain is totally absent in this zone. Among ferns, 

trilete spores (10%) are recorded moderately as 

compared to monoletes (5%). 

Kalikamthi: 

Solitary one-meter deep profile has been investigated 

palynologically. The soil profile column is largely 

composed of humified and compressed organic mud 

with little plant debris, presumably laid down under 

lacustrine condition. However, three vegetational stages 

are recognized on the basis of recovered pollen and 

spores. 

Zone I (100 cm-50 cm): 

This phase is recognized by the dominance of 

herbaceous elements along with stray occurrence of tree 

taxa, indicating the existence of vast grassland. The 

characteristic herbaceous elements are Poaceae (50%) 

and Senecio (20%), whereas, Strobilanthes, Heracleum, 

Caryophyllaceae, Rubiaceae and Cheno/Ams attains 

within 2-9 %. However, Euphorbiaceae, Lamiaceae, 

Impatiens and Peperomia are recorded in low value. 

Elaeocarpus, Osbeckia, and Myrtaceae are the only 

shola arboreal elements recorded sporadically. Liliaceae 

is the sole moisture-loving element encountered in the 

vegetation. Among ferns, trilete spores (25%) are 

recorded in high value as compared to monoletes (15%). 

Zone II (50 cm – 20 cm): 

The striking scarcity of pollen grains characterizes this 

phase as a palynologically barren zone. 

Zone III (20 cm - 0 cm): 

In this phase, the vegetation chiefly consists herbaceous 

elements. Tree taxa are totally absent. The major 

nonarboreal taxa are Poaceae (55%), Senecio (25%), 

Strobilanthes, Caryophyllaceae and Cheno/Ams (10% 

each) in good value. However, the pollen of Malvaceae, 

Lamiaceae, Apiaceae and Rubiaceae are encountered in 

low profile. Peperomia, Impatiens and Euphorbiaceae 

are sporadic. Liliaceae disappeared from the scenario. 

Among frens, trilete spores (15%) are recorded in 

moderate value as compared to monolete spores (7%). 

Degraded pollen and fungal remains provide clues for 

microbial degradation in sediment. 




Concluding Remarks: 

Pollen analytical investigation of surface samples from 

the forests and its outskirts have demonstrated the 

existence of shola forest constituents faithfully but their 

frequency proportionately declines in the samples 

collected away from the forest. Pollen diagram indicates 

that the landscape during 1500 years BP was almost 

treeless. However, some of the nonarboreal taxa and 

close associates of shola forest such as, Strobilanthes 

urceolaris, Senecio lawsonii, Heracleum, Ranunculus 

reniformis, Impatiens modesta and Peperomia reflexa 

encountered in almost all samples are the positive 

indicators of the existence of the shola woods. Although 

the presence of abundant fungal remains belonging to 

the members of Deuteromycetes and Ascomycetes in 

the sediment perhaps could be one of the vital reasons 

for degradation of certain pollen taxa as evidenced by 

the occurrence of some degraded pollen and spores 

found infested with microorganisms (Fig 6). 

The modern distribution of shola components in patches 

between folds of the mountains is the ultimate result of 

ruthless felling by man, thus giving pace to vast 

stretches of grasslands to thrive and expand. This nature 

seems to have evolved largely due to long 

anthropogenic activities in these Hills. The reduction in 

precipitation and present high speed winds are probably 

two important factors responsible for the non 

regeneration of the vital shola elements, since the forest 

exposed soil after the forest clearance is eroded and gets 

washed away by rains and wind causing extermination 

of pristine shola elements from south Indian 

montane.(Fig 5). Interestingly it is documented that the 

overgrowth of some invasive plants leading to threat to 

most of the shola community of south Indian 

montane(Jose, 2012). The overall palynological studies 

in South Indian Montanes signify the degeneration of 

shola forest as evidenced by striking scarcity of tree 

pollen in sediments. Moreover, palynology has been 

instrumental in unfolding the facts that shola species are 

not regenerating under adverse condition and, therefore, 

a phenomenal reduction in their aerial extent is 

witnessed. Keeping in view of wide spread herb land, 

the future of shola ecology as to how shola woods 

spread into herbland and overcome Acacias, Eucalyptii 

and Pines could be determined. 

The continued exotic plantation and fast expanding 

grasslands will allow further shola destruction around 

the lake swamp areas. Therefore, for the restoration of 

shola ecology and proper management of montane 

environment, various ways and means have to be traced 

in order to regenerate shola species in South Indian 

montane today. It could be a worth mention that almost 

all suitable land in the Anamalai Hills today has been 

converted to plantation zone, with forest fragments 

remaining in steep or wet areas unsuitable for tea or 

coffee production. Parks and reserves, though seemingly 

abundant, are located in the steeper mountains and are 

dotted with hydroelectric projects, eucalyptus and other 

plantations and grazing pasture. However, well strategic 

forest management is required to protect the primitive 

environment in south Indian montane for which a 

beginning is made. 

Acknowledgement: 

We are thankful to Dr. N.C. Mehrotra, Director, Birbal 

Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, Lucknow to undertake 

this study and for providing the necessary facilities and 

permission to publish the paper. 

References: 

[1] Bera, S.K., Gupta, H.P. and Farooqui, (1997). 

Berijam Lake 20,000 years sequence of 

palaeofloristics and palaeoenvironment in Palni 

Hills, South India. Geophytology, v.26, pp.99-104. 

[2] Bera, S.K. and Gupta, H.P., (1992). Correlation 

between pollen spectra and modern vegetation of 

Anamalai Hills, Tamilnadu. In : B.S. Venkatachala, 

K.P. Jain & N. Awasthi (eds) - Proc. Birbal Sahni 

Birth Centenary Palaeobotanical Conf. 

Geophytology, v.22, pp. 239-245. 

[3] Vasanthy, G., (1988). Pollen analysis of late 

Quaternary sediments: evolution of upland savanna 

in Sandy nallah (Nilgiris, South India). Rev. 

Palaeobot. Palynol. V.55 (1-3), pp. 175-192. 

[4] Gupta, H.P. and Prasad, K., (1985). The 

vegetational development during 30,000 yrs. B.P. at 

Colgrain, Ootacamund, Nilgiris, South India. J. 

Palynol. V.21, pp. 174-187. 

[5] Meher-Homji, V. M., (1975). On the montane 

species of Kodaikanal, south India. 

Phytocoenologia v.2 (1-2), pp. 28-39. 

[6] Gupta, H.P., (1973), Quaternary Vegetation history 

of Ootacamund, Nilgiris, South India 1. Kakathope 

and Rees Corner: Palaeobotanist, v.20 (1), pp. 74- 

90. 

[7] Vishnu- Mittre and Gupta, H.P., (1970), The origin 

of Shola forest in the Nilgiris, South India. 

Palaeobotanist v.19, pp. 110-114. 

[8] Menon, V.K., (1968), Pollen analysis of late glacial 

deposits from Pykara, Ootacamund, India.J.Palynol. 

v.2-3,pp. 1-10. 

[9] Meher-Homji, V.M., (1965), Phytogeography of 

South Indian hill station. Bull. Torey bot.Club., 

v.94(4), pp. 230-242. 

[10] Erdtman, G., (1943), An introduction to Pollen 

analysis. Waltham, Mass., U.S.A. 

[11] F.C. Jose, (2012). The ‘living fossil’ shola plant 

community is under threat in upper Nilgiris. 

Current Science, v.102, pp. 1091-1092. 





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Figure 1: Location Map Showing Sites of Sampling 

Figure 2: Plot of Radiocarbon Dates Versus Depth, Anamalai Hills 




Figure 3: Percentage Pollen Diagram, Anamalai Hill (Selected Plant Groups under Different pH). 





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Figure 4: Typical Shola Woods and Open Grassland at Higher Reaches 

Figure 5: Succession of Shola Vegetation, End Result. 




Figure 6: Palynoassemblage Recovered from Sediment, Anamalai Hills. 

1. Symplocos, 2. Elaeocarpus, 3. Trema, 4. Syzygium, 5. Acacia, 6. Fabaceae, 7. Combretaceae, 8. Glochidion, 

9. Ilex, 10. Amaranthaceae, 11. Blepharis, 12. Tubuliflorae, 13. Malvaceae, 14. Artemisia, 15. Strobilanthes, 

16. Acanthaceae, 17. Heracleum, 18. Cerealia (Poaceae), 19. Cypreaceae, 20. Impatiens, 21. Alnus, 22. Corylus, 

23. Pteris, 24. Monolete fern, 25. Degraded pollen (Onagraceae), 26. Degraded pollen, 27. Degraded Betula, 

28. Degraded monolete fern, 29. Glomus, 30. Alternaria, 31. Cookeina, 32. Stem peeling with circular pits, 

33. Microthyriaceae.

A Case Study from Anamalai Hills since 1500 years BP - Cafet Innova

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