On the real effects of private equity investment: evidence from new ...

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Eastern Europe. The database contains detailed …rm-level accounting data for a numberof …nancial ratios, activities, and ownership. While initially received from over 50 di¤erentvendors across Europe, the data is then transformed into a single format enabling comparisonacross countries. The focus of the Amadeus database is on …nancial information, like…rm pro…t, revenue, assets, debt, and value added. In addition to that, Amadeus provides…rm-level information on year of incorporation and employment. We use the former to calculatethe age of the …rm, hence the share of "new" …rms in each industry-country-year. Thevariable we create is referred to as Entry ij , and it denotes the share of …rms less than 2-yearsold in country i in industry j, calculated separately for 1998-1999 in the main regressions,and for 2006-2007 in the robustness tests. We only count the …rms that are at least 1 fullyear of age to reduce measurement error.Finally, Amadeus uses the 3-digit NACE industry classi…cation standard, which we aggregateat the 2-digit level in order to have a su¢ cient number of …rms in each industry foreach country. Columns 2 and 4 of Table 2 summarize our main Amadeus data, aggregatedat the country level, for the two time periods of interest.One main concern is that the years 1998-1999 chosen for the main empirical exercisesmay not be "steady state" in terms of new business incorporation as they were too closeto the peak of the dot-com bubble. Similar concerns apply to the period 2006-2007 whichcoincided with the peak of another business cycle. For that reason, we calculated averageentry rates over the 1995-2007 period, using data on entry rates from Eurostat, and thencompared the long-term averages to data for 1998-1999 and 2006-2007, again from Eurostat.Columns 3 and 5 of Table 2 presents the deviation of the latter from the long-term averagesin percentage terms, for 1998-1999 and 2006-2007, respectively. The average deviation forthe 1998-1999 sample is 5.9%, and only in three of the countries in the sample is it higherthan 7%. This gives us con…dence that the years 1998-1999 are pretty much "steady state"in terms of new business creation. The same applies to the second period chosen. 22 The little overall variation in entry rates is signi…ed by the fact that even the years 2000 and 2001, whichcoincided with the peak of the internet bubble, show an average deviation of only 8.4% from the samplelong-term average.ECBWorking Paper Series No 1078August 200913
2.3 US industry-level entry dataAs a benchmark for new business incorporation into an industry, we use data on …rm entryin the respective NACE rev. 1.1 2-digit industry in the US, from the Dun and Bradstreetdatabase of over 7 million corporations over the period 1998-1999.The methodology ofusing US industry characteristics as a benchmark in cross-country cross-industry studieswas …rst introduced by Rajan and Zingales (1998), who argued that the composition ofUS industries in terms of external …nance usage can be viewed as the industries’"natural"or "technological" composition, because US …nancial markets are relatively friction-free,compared with other …nancial markets around the world, including most industrial countries.The methodology has been used, among others, by Beck et al.(2008) to calculate the"natural" share of small …rms in an industry, by Claessens and Laeven (2003) to calculatethe industry’s "natural" usage of intangibles, and most recently by Klapper et al. (2006) tocalculate the "natural" rate of business incorporation, which we use in this paper.It needs to be pointed out that proxying the "natural" rate of industry entry by entryin the respective industry in the US is somewhat arbitrary. It relies on the assumption thatbureaucratic barriers to entry are lower there than in any country in Europe, and that thecost of …nancial intermediation and start-up …nancing is su¢ ciently lower in the US than inEurope as a whole. This technique does not argue that industries in the US have achievedthe …rst best in terms of entry, but that the …nancial and regulatory environment is relativelymore conducive to entry than the countries in our sample. For example, while entry costs inthe US are around 0.5% of per capita GNP, in our sample of European countries they areon average around 20%; and while venture capital investment in the US in 1998-1999 wasabout 0.2% of GDP, it stood at 0.1% of GDP in the UK, 0.05% of GDP in France and 0.02%of GDP in Germany, with these three countries receiving the lion share of the private equityinvestment in Europe. Certainly, the entry costs in the US are non-zero, and it is impossibleto know if the optimal amount of venture capital investment is not much larger than 0.2%of GDP, but what matters is that these characteristics of the US business environment aresuperior than in the countries in our sample.For robustness purposes, however, similar14 ECBWorking Paper Series No 1078August 2009
Page 1 and 2: Working Paper SeriesNo 1078 / augus
Page 3 and 4: © European Central Bank, 2009Addre
Page 5 and 6: AbstractUsing a comprehensive datab
Page 7 and 8: environment leaves the main results
Page 9 and 10: development and restructuring on sm
Page 11 and 12: to industries which are more R&D in
Page 13: of destination.We …rst recalculat
Page 17 and 18: tend to be heavily regulated and/or
Page 19 and 20: speci…c e¤ects. Critically, we a
Page 21 and 22: …rms only (less than 10 employees
Page 23 and 24: higher for industries with higher e
Page 25 and 26: percentage of the adult population
Page 27 and 28: cost of …nancing to venture capit
Page 29 and 30: 4.6 RobustnessWe conduct an extensi
Page 31 and 32: is the same as the gap between priv
Page 33 and 34: This paper is, to our knowledge, th
Page 35 and 36: [12] Cetorelli, N., and P.E. Straha
Page 37 and 38: [35] Petersen, M., and R. Rajan, 19
Page 39 and 40: Table 2Summary statistics on entry,
Page 41 and 42: Table 42-digit NACE rev. 1.1 indust
Page 43 and 44: Table 6Private equity timing and fi
Page 45 and 46: Table 8Private equity and alternati
Page 47 and 48: Appendix 1. Variables: definitions
Page 49 and 50: Share shadow economyShare of the in
Page 51: 1068 “Asset price misalignments a

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