Rehabilitative needs and treatment of Indigenous offenders in ...

training and support in rehabilitation programs. A further study by Callan andGardner (2007) examines the links between offender participation inQueensland correctional Vocational Education and Training (VET) programsand the likelihood of re-admission into custody. After controlling for education,sentence length, and type of offence, participation in VET was found to have apositive impact on reducing recidivism. For instance, they find 32 per cent ofoffenders who did not participate in VET before their initial release returned tocustody within two years, compared with 23 per cent of VET participants whoreturned to custody during the same period.In other Australian studies, Graffam and Hardcastle (2007) find that criticalfactors to achieving employment outcomes for offenders post-release includeparticipation in VET combined with employment assistance and employerwillingness to employ ex-offenders. A qualitative study by Giles et. al. (2007)examines factors affecting Western Australian offenders’ decision to choosebetween education, training and work in prisons. Their study finds thatoffenders who participate in VET courses are more optimistic about theiremployment prospects compared with those undertaking non-vocationaleducation courses or prison work alone.Research demonstrates that strong ties to work can help offenders avoidoffending (Ryan and Woodard 1987). Furthermore, informal social controlassociated with work has been found to be more effective than formalsanctions in desisting from offending. 4 It is clear that offender education andtraining are important components of offender rehabilitation.Targeting Gender DifferencesCriminological studies of female offenders, mainly in the US and the UnitedKingdom, have found that female inmates have distinct needs from maleoffenders (Carlen & Worrall 2004). For instance, female offenders are morelikely to be the main care giver for their children prior to imprisonment.Consequently, being in custody has a significant impact on children’s livesand their relationship with their mothers. For female offenders with infantchildren in custody, correctional facilities are not usually designed toaccommodate the caring roles of inmates, such as a room for breast-feedingand child friendly visiting areas. Other issues faced by many female inmatesare the care arrangements for children while they are in custody and themaintaining of a relationship with their children over an extended period ofseparation.Research also demonstrates that female offenders are more likely than maleoffenders to have an offending pathway involving substance misuse. Femaleoffenders also tend to have had experienced higher rates of victimisation,such as intimate and sexual violence prior to imprisonment than maleoffenders (Johnson 2004). Reliving the experience of victimisation can be4 Informal work controls can include regulated work hours, employer conditions, performanceexpectations and professional conduct. Formal criminal justice sanctions to deter criminaloffending include fines, orders and custody.21