Remediation of PAH-Contaminated Soils and Sediments: A ...

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dredged material into hazardous and non-hazardous waste. Furthermore, the transition of dredge material from slurried sediments to soils in upland settings is not fully regulated under the CWA. The CWA only applies to dredge material management while in-water or dewatering, and not to the soils resulting from upland placement (Childs et al., 2002). In general, water quality guidelines apply to the first phase of dredge sediment dewatering, and cleanup/solid waste program regulations apply during the second phase where the dredge material is considered a soil (Figure 12). Physical Characteristics Project Tasks Regulations Dredging Phase I Phase II SEDIMENT (WATER) SOIL (LAND) Federal: CWA Dredged Material Placed in Upland Containment State: Water quality standards Material Dewatering Dewatering Complete ???????? Beneficial Reuse Federal: RCRA State: soil cleanup and solid waste Figure 12. Sediment and soil phases for dredged material. Grey area indicates the overlap between water and soil quality regulations and confusion. Adapted from Childs et al. (2002). Under the umbrella of federal regulations and EPA guidelines are state regulatory agencies such as the Virginia Department of Environmental Quality (or other state entity). Each state agency creates state-specific water and soil quality regulations and guidelines for handling, utilization and acceptable contaminant limits of dredge material. These guidelines can vary immensely among states in degree of specificity, stringency and perspectives on beneficial uses of dredge sediments. Most states, such as Illinois (IEPA, 2007) Minnesota (MPCA, 1999), and Oregon (Childs et al., 2002) regulate dredge sediments based on preexisting site remediation standards (water quality standards and solid or hazardous waste guidelines or biosolid application guidelines). New Jersey (NJDEP, 1997), in attempt to deal with the overlap and confusion, developed regulations specific to dredge sediments, that are not regulated by either water or soil regulations already in place. This has eliminated the 66
transition phase between slurried sediments and soils, as well as set more realistic guidelines for cleanup. Beyond the previously described differences, state regulations and standards vary based on the intended beneficial use (beach nourishment, compost/topsoil, final cover at a landfill or superfund site, residential or industrial uses, or aggregate/fill) of a given dredge sediment. In the states of the Great Lakes Commission (Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin), there is also a regional framework of guidelines and standards to aide in the proper management and beneficial use of dredged sediments (GLC, 2004). Currently, dredge sediments are considered a waste product rather than a resource (GLC, 2004). One of the goals of the Great Lakes Commission (GLC) is to combine knowledge from existing case studies, policy, guidance, and regulations to utilize dredge sediments as a resource, especially in upland placement settings. Risk Assessment Contaminants, including PAHs, are assessed for risk based on their toxicity and exposure. Low molecular weight PAHs are considered directly toxic (Sims and Overcash, 1983) and HMW PAH compounds are considered genotoxic, or capable of causing damage to DNA (Lijinsky, 1991). Toxicity is mainly the result of PAH metabolic transformations in the human body into a complex mix of quinones, quinines, cis- and trans-dihydrodiols, phenols, epoxides and other oxidized metabolites depending on the hydrocarbon and the metabolic route (Harvey, 1997; Dabestani and Ivanov, 1999; Volkering and Breure, 2003). Some of these reactive metabolic intermediates can covalently bind to nucleic acids to induce strand breaks and DNA damage, leading to mutation and tumor initiation (Harvey, 1997). The carcinogenic and mutagenic potential of PAHs depends on their metabolites. Humans can be exposed to both directly toxic and genotoxic compounds through ingestion, inhalation, and dermal exposure (i.e. drinking contaminated water, consumption of plants or animals that have come in contact with the contaminant, breathing PAH particulates, or holding PAH contaminated soil in your hand). Once humans come in contact with the PAH compound, it is distributed, metabolized, stored in the human body or excreted. Once in the human body, the PAHs can impact the respiratory, reproductive, and neurological systems, cause birth defects, and cancer (Figure 13). 67
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Remediation of PAH-Contaminated Soi
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Abstract Polycyclic aromatic hydroc
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soil is the primary environmental r
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Solubility Solubility of PAH compou
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Figure 1. Structures of US EPA’s
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� If you were to add 2 benzene ri
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and their mutagenic and carcinogeni
Page 15 and 16: PAH in humans The carcinogenicity o
Page 17 and 18: persist in the soil (Alexander, 199
Page 19 and 20: Figure 3. Relative PAH concentratio
Page 21 and 22: the gas phase was attributed to tem
Page 23 and 24: increasing rainfall intensity or wi
Page 25 and 26: in contaminated soils than uncontam
Page 27 and 28: Ideal biodegradation of PAHs, where
Page 29 and 30: Figure 5. Aerobic degradation of PA
Page 31 and 32: Cometabolism is explained by three
Page 33 and 34: donate electrons. The redox potenti
Page 35 and 36: 1. Fenton’s reagent - formation o
Page 37 and 38: Figure 7. Schematic of integrated e
Page 39 and 40: Figure 8. Possible mechanism for di
Page 41 and 42: Freundlich adsorption equation: x/m
Page 43 and 44: Diffusion: Weber et al. (1992), Web
Page 45 and 46: Biological Techniques for Enhancing
Page 47 and 48: oot extract resulted in continuous
Page 49 and 50: Composting Composting is a form of
Page 51 and 52: The addition of inorganic nutrients
Page 53 and 54: � Yu et al. (2006) found no effec
Page 55 and 56: Carrot Daucus carota Wild and Jones
Page 57 and 58: Surfactants Mass transfer of PAH co
Page 59 and 60: � Straube et al. (2003) showed th
Page 61 and 62: encountered with biodegradation, an
Page 63 and 64: volatilization of some compounds, s
Page 65: Regulatory Framework Dredged materi
Page 69 and 70: In addition to equation manipulatio
Page 71 and 72: Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA)
Page 73 and 74: EPA Region V NA http://www.epa.gov/
Page 75 and 76: Indiana Department of Environmental
Page 77 and 78: New York State Department of Enviro
Page 79 and 80: Analytical Methods The following is
Page 81 and 82: Sample Cleanup After extraction, cl
Page 83 and 84: Table 13. Detection limits for cert
Page 85 and 86: Citations Accardi-Dey, A., and P.M.
Page 87 and 88: Cerniglia, C.E., and D.T. Gibson. 1
Page 89 and 90: EPA. 2008. Integrated Risk Informat
Page 91 and 92: Harmsen, J. 2007. Measuring bioavai
Page 93 and 94: Kelsey, J.W., B.D. Kottler, and M.
Page 95 and 96: Mackay, D., and D. Callcott. 1998.
Page 97 and 98: O’Mahony, M., A. Dobson, J. Barne
Page 99 and 100: Saison, C., C. Perrin-Ganier, M. Sc
Page 101 and 102: Vessigaud, S., C Perrin-Ganier, L.
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Remediation of PAH-Contaminated Soils and Sediments: A ...

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