atw - International Journal for Nuclear Power | 08/09.2019

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atw Vol. 64 (2019) | Issue 8/9 ı August/September DECOMMISSIONING AND WASTE MANAGEMENT 420 African Nuclear Energy Corporation (Necsa) 26 was established under the terms of the provisions of the Atomic Energy Act. The South African Constitution declares the right of the individual to “have the environment protected, for the benefit of present and future generations.” 27 Nuclear related activities in South Africa are currently administered by the Nuclear Energy Act, 1999 (Act No. 46 of 1999) (NEA), which among other matters, “provides for the establishment of the South African Nuclear Energy Corporation Limited… defin[ing] the Corporation’s functions and powers and its financial and operational accountability,” and “to prescribe measures regarding the discarding of radioactive waste and the storage of irradiated nuclear fuel.” 28 The National Radioactive Waste Disposal Institute Act, 2008 (No. 53 of 2008) provides for “the establishment of a National Radioactive Waste Disposal Institute in order to manage radioactive waste disposal on a national basis.” 29 Other acts 30 applicable to waste management in South Africa are the National Nuclear Regulatory Act, 1999 (Act No. 47 of 1999) (NNRA), 31 and the Hazardous Substances Act, 1973 (Act No. 15 of 1973) (HSA), related to Group III and Group IV hazardous substances [140]. 6.3.3 Nuclear Waste Management South Africa’s policy for waste management follows the principle that no undue burden should be placed on the shoulders of future generations. The National Radioactive Waste Disposal Institute (NRWDI) currently considers various options for the safe management of radioactive wastes and used fuel: (1) Long-term above ground storage in an off-site facility licensed for its purpose; (2) the reprocessing, conditioning and recycling of used fuel; and, (3) final disposal in a deep geological repository having been specifically licensed for its purpose. Presently, that are two disposal options implemented in South Africa: (1) above ground disposal in engineered facilities for the bulk of mining waste, and (2) near surface disposal of low-level and intermediate-level waste (LILW) at the Vaalputs National Radioactive Waste Disposal Facility 32 in the Northern Cape Province [140]. The low-level waste is prepared for storage by sealing such waste inside drums with distinct markings. This waste may contain contaminants of minuscule proportions of radioactive material. This low-level waste usually consists of such ordinary items as clothing, plastics, insulation material, paper, and coveralls. These low-level waste storage containers are first stored at the reactor site until shipped to the Vaalputs facility. KNPS general ships ~ 475 steel drums and 158 concrete drums for final disposal at the Vaalputs facility on a yearly basis. Intermediate-level waste 33 “is mixed with concrete and sealed into appropriately marked concrete drums”, and then also shipped to the Vaalputs facility for final storage [141]. 6.3.3.1 Permanent Disposal In South Africa, nuclear fuel irradiated in the nuclear reactor is referred to as “used fuel” instead of “spent fuel.” This is an important distinction, as South Africa is continuing with investigating the possibility of reprocessing, and therefore does not classify the used fuel as radioactive waste. Rather than being in its final form for disposal, used fuel is considered to still contain useful material. Used fuel is currently stored at authorized facilities at the generator’s site. There are two mechanisms available for the storage of used fuel, namely dry and wet storage. The longterm management strategy for used fuel and other high-level waste is proposed to include: “(1) Long-term above-ground storage in an off-site facility licensed for its purpose; (2) reprocessing, conditioning and recycling; (3) deep geological disposal; and, (4) transmutation” [140]. KNPS currently stores its used fuel on site. It only handles and stores used fuel generated from its reactor units. The used fuel assemblies and control rods are stored in specially selected racks in the used fuel storage pool. The racks consist of high- and low-density storage racks “for standard and cropped fuel assemblies, the control rod rack for burned control rods, and the high-density racks, which are lined with boron carbide” [140]. The boron concentration in the spent fuel pool is maintained between 2,440 and 2,700 mg B/kg). The storage pools at KNPS have been fitted with new racks in two separate regions. Region I provide for a possible 210 positions in three racks allowing for the storage of the reactors most reactive fuel. In Region I, the fuel assemblies are given additional spacing, so that it will not be feasible to reach a critical state. These racks are produced using stainless steel with plates of borated steel attached to the outside surface of each stainless- steel storage channel, containing 1.7 % boron. The majority of the fuel at the reactor site will be stored within Region II. In Region 2, the fuel the assemblies will be placed in a closer proximity given that this fuel has enjoyed a greater time period in the reactor. The racks in this region are constructed of the same materials as those in region one [142]. As a result of delays in the reracking project at KNPS, interim measures were decided upon using dry cask storage. Four casks, bought in 1996, will each temporarily store 28 spent fuel assemblies. The casks weigh 97,740 kg and are made of Ductile Cast Iron, with the walls being 358 mm thick. Additionally, a layer of poly ethylene rods is built into the inside wall of the cask to provide a shield against the neutrons emitted by the fuel. The cask is designed to allow for the remaining thermal heat in the 26 Formerly, the Atomic Energy Board (AEB). 27 See: §24 (b), https://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/images/a108-96.pdf, viewed April 21, 2018. 28 See: Nuclear Energy Act Preamble at http://www.nnr.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/RSA-Nuclear-Energy-Act-46-of-1999.pdf, viewed April 21, 2018. 29 National Radioactive Waste Disposal Institute Act, 2008 (No. 53 of 2008), http://www.nnr.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/ NatRadioActWaste- Disposal-Inst-Act-53-of-2008.pdf, viewed April 21, 2018. 30 Additional acts of important to the nuclear power program and nuclear waste disposal in the country are: the Hazardous Substances Act; the Non-Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction Act; the Patent Act; the National Strategic Intelligence Act; the National Key Points Act; the Protection of Constitutional Democracy Against Terrorist and Related Activities Act; the Mine Health and Safety Act; the Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act; the National Environmental Management Act; the National Water Act; and, the Dumping at Sea Control Act. 31 Supersedes the previous Nuclear Energy Act 1993 (Act No. 131 of 1993); The Nuclear Regulator Act may be viewed at: http://www.nnr.co.za/ wp-content/uploads/2015/02/National-Nuclear-Regulator-Act-No-47-of-1999.pdf, viewed April 21, 2018. 32 See: https://www.nrwdi.org.za/vaalputs.html, viewed April 21, 2018. 33 Generally consists of purification sludges, spent resins, filter cartridges, and irradiated scrap metal. Decommissioning and Waste Management Part 4 ı Mark Callis Sanders and Charlotta E. Sanders
atw Vol. 64 (2019) | Issue 8/9 ı August/September fuel assemblies to dissipate naturally. Finally, used fuel from the SAFARI-1 Research Reactor, at the Necsa Pelindaba site, is first stored in the reactor pool for at least two years prior to its being transferred to the Thabana Pipe Store, which is an authorized dry storage facility on the Pelindaba site [140]. 7 Discussion and Conclusions Decisions regarding a nation state’s nuclear waste management program are a dichotomy of politics and science, with politics usually the dominating factor. However, though these political processes bring risk of instability in the decision-making process for the final disposal of radioactive waste, these decisions should be decided upon now, or in the near term (if not already done so). Of course, policymaking comes with risk, as one picks ‘winners’ and ‘losers,’ leaving some groups happy and others disappointed. This is the moral dimension incumbent upon any policymaker. Indeed, no matter how well planned a nuclear waste management program is, or how great the design of a final geological disposal facility, a burden of sorts is thrust onto future generations to manage. Japan and South Korea demonstrate that political perils exist when engaging in a nuclear power program, given societal concerns surrounding the management of high-level wastes involving a significant time frame into the future. Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa, as the BRICS family of nations, have other similar challenges and opportunities including planned and/or expanding nuclear power programs, growing economies, but large domestic inequalities and high levels of poverty. One cause of concern is the quantity of pervasive government corruption occurring in these particular nation states, though empirical evidence to date does not demonstrate that corruption is having a direct effect on the legitimacy of these nations’ nuclear power and waste management programs. However, one should be mindful that corruption in one area of government could theoretically result in a lack of legitimacy across the board – or, “one rotten apple can spoil the whole barrel.” Each nation state only has certain space for allowed change within a nuclear power and waste management program once it begins to evolve through its various milestones. The manner in which a nation state is able to successfully process legitimate change between and within each milestone, determines the ability to carry the aura of legitimacy from the inception of a nuclear power program through to the closure of long-term high-level waste geologic disposal facility. References [103] Encyclopedia Britannica - Argentina, https://www. britannica.com/place/Argentina, viewed July 25, 2018. 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[115] Flannery, N. 2018, Is Argentina Finally Cracking Down On Corruption?, https://www.forbes.com/sites/ nathanielparishflannery/2018/03/27/is-argentina-finallygetting-serious-about-cracking-down-oncorruption/#7ce852ec2b7c, viewed April 17, 2018. [116] Manzetti, L 2014, ‘ACCOUNTABILITY AND CORRUPTION IN ARGENTINA DURING THE KIRCHNERS’ ERA’, Latin American Research Review, 49, 2, pp. 173-195, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 16 April 2018. [117] República Argentina, JOINT CONVENTION ON THE SAFETY OF SPENT FUEL MANAGEMENT AND ON THE SAFETY OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT FIFTH NATIONAL REPORT 2014, http://www.arn.gov.ar/images/stories/ informes_y_documentos/informe_nacional_de_s eguridad/5_National_Report_Joint_Convention_2014.pdf, viewed April 18, 2018. [118] Country of Brazil, https://www.britannica.com/place/Brazil, viewed April 18, 2018. [119] ‘Brazil’ 2016, 53, pp. 105-109, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 18 April 2018. [120] Garcia, D 2014, ‘Not yet a democracy: establishing civilian authority over the security sector in Brazil – lessons for other countries in transition’, Third World Quarterly, 35, 3, pp. 487-504, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 18 April 2018. [121] Angra-3 PWR Nuclear Reactor Project, Brazil, https:// www.power-technology.com/projects/angranuclear/, viewed April 18, 2018. [122] Nuclear Power in Brazil, World Nuclear Association, http:// www.world-nuclear.org/info/Country-Profiles/Countries- A-F/Brazil/, viewed April 21, 2018. [123] Herrmann, JD 2014, ‘REFLECTIONS ON REGIME CHANGE AND DEMOCRACY IN BAHIA, BRAZIL’, Latin American Research Review, 49, 3, pp. 23-44, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 18 April 2018. [124] Winter, B 2017, ‘Brazil’s Never-Ending Corruption Crisis’, Foreign Affairs, 96, 3, pp. 87-94, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 18 April 2018. 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[130] Msimang, S 2018, ‘All Is Not Forgiven: South Africa and the Scars of Apartheid’, Foreign Affairs, 97, 1, pp. 28-34, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 20 April 2018. [131] Apartheid, History.com Staff, History.com, 2010, http:// www.history.com/topics/apartheid, viewed April 20, 2018. [132] Koeberg Power Station, http://www.eskom.co.za/ Whatweredoing/ElectricityGeneration/ KoebergNuclearPowerStation/Pages/Koeberg_ Power_Station.aspx, viewed April 20, 2018. [133] The Koeberg Experience, http://www.eskom.co.za/ Whatweredoing/ElectricityGeneration/ KoebergNuclearPowerStation/TheKoebergExperience/ Pages/The_Koeberg_Experience.aspx, viewed April 20, 2018. [134] Chirwa, T, & Odhiambo, N 2015, ‘Growth Dynamics in South Africa: Key Macroeconomic Drivers and Policy Challenges’, Journal Of Global Analysis, 5, 1/2, pp. 9-31, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 20 April 2018. [135] van Wyk, J 2015, ‘Atoms, apartheid, and the agency: South Africa’s relations with the IAEA, 1957–1995’, Cold War History, 15, 3, pp. 395-416, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 20 April 2018. [136] PREVENTION AND COMBATING OF CORRUPT ACTIVITIES ACT 12 OF 2004, http://www.justice.gov.za/legislation/ acts/2004-012.pdf, viewed April 20, 2018. [137] Soma Pillay, (2004) “Corruption – the challenge to good governance: a South African perspective”, International Journal of Public Sector Management, Vol. 17 Issue: 7, pp.586-605, https://doi.org/10.1108/09513550410562266. [138] Uneke, O 2010, ‘Corruption in Africa South of the Sahara: Bureaucratic Facilitator or Handicap to Development?’, Journal Of Pan African Studies, 3, 6, pp. 111-128, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 20 April 2018. [139] Hyslop, J 2005, ‘Political Corruption: Before and After Apartheid’, Journal Of Southern African Studies, 31, 4, pp. 773-789, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 20 April 2018. [140] SOUTH AFRICAN NATIONAL REPORT ON THE COMPLIANCE TO OBLIGATIONS UNDER THE JOINT CONVENTION ON SAFETY OF SPENT FUEL MANAGEMENT AND ON THE SAFETY OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT, Third Report September 2014, http://www.nnr.co.za/wpcontent/uploads/2015/02/NNR%20Joint%20Report_2014. pdf, viewed April 20, 2018. [141] Waste at Koeberg, http://www.eskom.co.za/ Whatweredoing/ElectricityGeneration/ KoebergNuclearPowerStation/Pages/Waste_ Reracking.aspx, viewed April 21, 2018. [142] Re-racking Koeberg, http://www.eskom.co.za/ Whatweredoing/ElectricityGeneration/ KoebergNuclearPowerStation/Pages/Waste_ Reracking.aspx, viewed April 21, 2018. Authors Mark Callis Sanders Sanders Engineering 1350 E. Flamingo Road Ste. 13B #290 Las Vegas NV 89119 USA Charlotta E. Sanders Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Nevada Las Vegas (UNLV) 4505 S. Maryland Pwky Las Vegas, NV 89154 USA DECOMMISSIONING AND WASTE MANAGEMENT 421 Decommissioning and Waste Management Part 4 ı Mark Callis Sanders and Charlotta E. Sanders
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