J. Duhok Univ., Vol.14, No.1 (Pure and Eng. Sciences), 2011 

CONTENTS 

- Governing The Territory In A Phase Of Globalization:The Issue Of The 

Territorial Planning And The Local Development 

Majed Ali Kareem………………………..……………………………………………....……………..1 

- On Cp-Open Sets And Two Classes Of Functions 

Alias B. Khalaf and Shilan A. Mohammad ...…..……………………………………….……………..9 

- Genetic Diversity Assessment And Variety Identification Of Peach (Prunus 

persica) From Kurdistan Region-Iraq Using Aflp Markers 

Shaymaa H. Ali ..…………………………………………………………………….….……………..17 

- Existence And Uniqueness Solution For Nonlinear Volterra Integral Equation 

Raad. N. Butris and Ava Sh. Rafeeq………………………………………….….………….………..25 

- Protective Effects Of Melatonin, Vitamin E, Vitamin C And Their 

Combinations On Chronic Lead –Induced Hypertensive Rats 

Ismail Mustafa Maulood………………………………………….….……………………….………..30 

- Engineering Classification And Index Properties Of The Rocks At Derbandi 

Gomasbpan – Suggested Dam Site 

Mohamed Tahir A. Brifcani………………………..………………………….….………….………..39 

- Spectophotometric Determination Of Paracetamole Via Oxidative Coupling 

With Phenylephrine Ydrochloride 

In Pharmaceutical Preparations 

Firas Muhsen Al-Esawati and Raeed Megeed Qadir…………………..…………………….………..52 

- Certain Species Of Mallophaga (Bird Lice) Occuring On Domestic Pigeons 

(Columba Livia Domestica Gmelin, 1789) In Erbil City-Iraq 

Rezan Kamal Ahmed…………………..………………………………………….………….………..58 

- Incidence Of Blood Stream Infection In Neonate Care Unit In Sulaimani 

Pediatric Teaching Hospital 

Sahand K. Arif and Golzar F. Abdulrahman …………………..………………………..….………..63 

- Bioaccumulation Of Some Heavy Metals In The Tissues Of Two Fish Species 

(Barbus luteus And Cyprinion macrostomum) In Greater Zab River- Iraq 

Nashmeel Sa’id Khdhir, Lana S. Al-Alem and Shamall M.A. Abdullah ……....………..….………..71 

- Eccentricity Of The Horizontal Axial Restraint Force For Straight And 

Cambered Beams 

Kanaan Sliwo Youkhanna Athuraia and. Riyadh Shafiq Al-Rawi ……………....………..….………..78 

- Three Dimensional Representation Of A Remote Structure Using Reflectorless 

Total Station Instrument 

Raad Awad Kattan and Sami Mamlook Gilyana…………………….………....………..….………..87 

- On Generalizations Of Regular Rings 

Abdullah M. Abdul-Jabbar………………………………………….………....………..….………..100


- The Existence And Uniqueness Solution For Nonlinear System Of Fractional 

Integro-Differential Equations 

Hussein J. Zekry……………………………….…………………….………....………..….………..106 

- Spectrophotometric Determination Of Phenylephrine Hydrochloride In 

Pharmaceutical Preparations 

Firas Muhsen Al-Esawati…………………………………………….………....………..….………..112 

- Use Of Water Quality Index And Dissolved Oxygen Saturation As Indicators Of 

Water Pollution Of Erbil Wastewater Channel And Greater Zab River. 

Yahya A. Shekha and Jamal K. Al-Abaychi …………………………………....………..….……....119 

- Flexural Analysis Of Fibrous Concrete Ground Square Slab 

Azad A. Mohammed………………………………………………..…………....………..….……....127 

- Tests On Axially Restrained Ferrocement Slab Strips 

Azad Abdulkadr Mohammed and Yaman Sami Shareef …………………………….…..………....138 

- Some New Separation Axioms 

Zanyar A. Ameen And Ramadhan A. Muhammed……………………………...……….…..……....156 

- Some New Separation Axioms 

Zanyar A. Ameen and Baravan A. Asaad……………………..………………...……….…..……....160 

- Gamma – Ray And Annealing Effects On The Energy Gap Of Galss 

AHMAD KHALAF MEHEEMEED and SULAIMAN HUSSEIN AL-SADOON ……..……...……...……......165 

- Effect Of Long-Term Administration Of Melatonin, Vitamin E, Vitamin C And 

Their Combinations On Some Lipid Profiles And Renal Function Tests In Rats 

Exposed To Lead Toxicity 

Almas M.R. Mahmud……………………..………………………...…………...……….…..……....177 

- Hyalomma aegyptium As A Dominant Tick On Certain Tortoises Of The Testudo 

graeca In Erbil Province-Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

Qaraman Mamakhidr Koyee………………..……………..………...…………...……….…..……....186 

- On Detectionof Feedback In The Time Series 

Sameera Abdulsalam Othman………………..……………..……....…………...……….…..……....191 

- The Singularity Of M-Connected Graph 

Payman A.Rashed………………..……………..……....…………...……….…..……………….......207 

- A Study Of Naupliar Stages Of Mesocyclops edax Forbes, 1891(Copepoda: 

Cyclopoida) 

Luay A. Ali and Kazhal H. H. Rahim………………..……………..…..…....………….......……....217 

- Effect Of Salicylic Acid On Some Biomass And Biochemical Changes Of 

Drought- Stressed Wheat (Triticum aestivum L. var. Cham 6) Seedlings 

Fakhriya M. Karim and Mohammed Q. Khursheed……………..……................……….…..……....223 

- Bacteriological Study And Antibacterial Activity Of Honey Against Some 

Pathogenic Bacteria Isolated From Burn Infections 

Suhaila N. Darogha and Ahmed A.Q.A.S. Al-Naqshbandi…………………...……….…….……....232


- Ann-Based Static Slip Power Recovery Control Of Wrim Drive 

Ali A. Rasool and Hilmi F. Ameen……………..……................……….…..……...........................242 

- Lower Bound Of T-Blocking Sets In Pg(2, q ) And Existence Of Minimal 

Blocking Sets Of Size 16 And 17 In Pg(2,9) 

Abdul Khalik L.Yassen and Chinar A.Ahamed ……………..……................……….…..……….253 

- A Multiple Classifier System For Supervised Classification Of Remotely Sensed 

Data 

Ahmed AK. Tahir……………..……................……….…..……........................................................260 

- Experimental Determination Of Paschen Curve And First Townsend Coefficient 

Of Nitrogen Plasma Discharge 

Sabah Ibrahim Wais……………..……................……….…..…….....................................................274 

- Numerical Solution Of Gray-Scott Model By A.D.M. And F.D.M. 

Saad A. Manaa And Chully M. R. ……………..…….............….…..…….........................................281 

- Anatomical Comparison Between Cissus Repens, Cayratia Japonica (Vitaceae) 

And Leea Aequata (Leeaceae) 

Chnar Najmaddin, Khatija Hussin, And Haja Maideen……………..……................……….…......290 

- Effects Of Acetamiprid And Glyphosate Pesticides On Testis And Serum 

Testosterone Level In Male Mice 

Mahmoud Ahmed Chawsheen……………..……................……….…..……......................................299 

- Minimal Blocking Sets In Pg(2,7) And Lower Bounds Of The Sixth And Seventh 

Blocking Sets. 

Chinar A. Kareem……………..……................……….…..…….......................................................207

J. Duhok Univ., Vol. 14, No.1 (Pure and Eng. Sciences), Pp 1-8, 2011 

GOVERNING THE TERRITORY IN A PHASE OF GLOBALIZATION: 

THE ISSUE OF THE TERRITORIAL PLANNING 

AND THE LOCAL DEVELOPMENT 

MAJED ALI KAREEM 

Urban & Regional Planning, University of Venice-Italy 

(Received: January 22, 2009; Accepted for publication: November 28, 2010) 

ABSTRACT 

One of the consequences of the present of the financial, communicative and decisional nets globalization is to make 

ineffective the traditional instruments for the direct control of the territory by the public authorities. The territories 

are nowadays structured in over-regional and over-national nets and fluxes which tend to establish direct relations 

with the single local systems (i.e., towns, districts, regions, tourist resorts, etc). 

In this complex situation, the territorial planning shall thus and in first place propose itself as governance, that is 

to say as governing negotial process for the cooperative and conflictual interactions between subjects which are 

capable, for various reasons, to act on the territory and transform it. 

The scope of this research is to investigate on the role of the territorial planning in relation with two relational 

aspects: global and local. The target is that to locate a methodological approach able to have an “open” view to the 

territorial phenomenon in a globalized context; to define the territorial planning’s role, procedures and instruments. 

T 

PROBLEM DEFINITION 

he territory becomes ever more 

fragmented in parts, each one of which 

tends to become a “junction” of over-local 

networks and, therefore, to follow different 

development routes according to the long 

distance relation system to which it belongs. At 

the same time each one of these subjects 

depends ever less from those relations of 

physical proximity with the contiguous 

territories, which were the territorial planning’s 

existence and operative justification. The 

proximity relations continue, anyway, to be 

important also and above all in order to optimize 

the long distance local relations; but just for this 

reason they risk to be subordinate to an 

exogenous rationality which tend to impose 

itself as the territorial organization’s principle 

also at a local level. 

In order to plan rationally a territory it should 

be necessary to check this nets body which 

however, for its trans-national nature, today is 

not directly controllable by any public authority. 

On the other end neither these “long nets” nor 

the organizations which operates them can 

directly control the territories which they use as 

“anchorages” for their junctions and as physical 

paths of their fluxes. They interact with the 

territories and try to obtain “competitive 

advantages” through a series of negotiations 

with those private and public subjects who, for 

various reasons, operate or have competences on 

a local level. 

WHAT ROLE FOR THE 

TERRITORIAL PLAN? 

The role of the “Territorial Plan” 1 today and 

in the next future, must be placed in the local 

development context 2 . It has to take into 

account, above all, the growing role of the 

municipalities-being the base level of the 

territory governance – and of the pluralities of 

the institutions involved by the growing 

environmental problems’s expansion and 

complexity, but also by the ever major difficulty 

to govern the local effects (Perulli, P., 2000), of 

decisions taken elsewhere and which are taken 

basing on pure sectorial rationalities. Its role 

seems to be usefully subdivisible in three main 

directions: knowledge and evaluation, strategic 

orientation and netting, in being conflicts’ 

adjustment. 

a) A first function concerns the cognitive and 

evaluation support which the territorial plan can 

supply to all the subjects, capable, for various 

reasons, to affect the territorial and urban 

conditions and dynamics (Mazza L., 1997). 

This function is important locally, not only the 

local authonomies couldn’t be efficaciously 

excercised unless on the base of an adequate 

knowledge of the reality into which they are 

asked to weigh heavily (and often such a 

knowledge is precluded to the Municipalities for 

territorial dimensions and technical, professional 

and administrative resources). In general, there 

could be not an effective dialogue between the 

various interested subjects unless it would be on 

the base of data and objective ties’ common 

1


knowledge, of the values and the stakes at play, 

reasons of conflict and effects associable with 

the different alternatives corresponding to the 

different interests which legitimately confront 

each other. 

b) A second function concerns the actions 

strategic orientation, exercised by different 

subjects in different sectors, susceptible to affect 

the conditions and the dynamic of a district’s 

territory. Such a function, traditionally entrusted 

to the territorial planning, assumes today 

particular importance above all in relation to 

emerging exigencies. As already noted, the local 

systems exploitation requires, the netting of 

resources, opportunities, projects and initiatives 

which, themselves alone, couldn’t allow the 

insertion of endogenous and self propulsive 

developments (Rullani E., 1997). It means, in 

other terms, to favour, on a wide territorial area, 

synergic interactions, complementarity relations, 

and proximity and cohesion ties able to create a 

cooperative sphere propitious to the local 

systems’ durable development and to the 

strengthening of their own competitive capacity. 

The development processes rooting in the 

specific structural conditions of a specific 

territory in all its natural, historical and cultural 

aspects, requires the construction of images, 

visions and long term strategies able to foresee 

and, if possible, to anticipate the cumulative and 

indirect effects of the in being dynamics and the 

programmable actions to control same. 

These exigencies emphasize the usefulness 

of the referring scenarios, continuously and 

flexibly adapted to the changes of the economic, 

territorial and environmental conditions, and the 

opportunity to direct the interest of the various 

actors and economical and institutional available 

resources towards some integrated projects of 

strategic prominence. 

c) A third function, more properly and directly 

ruler, concerns the protection of the over-local 

interests which are of specific competence of the 

district. Such competence, to be precise, through 

the legislative reforms, both national and 

regional (Castells M., 1997), concerns certainly 

some typical contents which cannot be 

adequately treated only within local scale (i.e., 

the municipal area), like those which concern the 

whole territory organization, the intermediate 

scale infrastructural systems, the soil protection 

and the hydraulic, hydrogeological and 

hydroforestal arrangement, as well as the 

institution of parks and natural reservoirs. 

2 

Beside, such competence must be better defined 

for at least two aspects. 

From one side it is necessary to consider the 

role that a wide area’s (a whole region) planning 

is requested to develop and to ensure the respect 

and the exploitation of the territorial structural 

characters. Certainly also those relevant to the 

landscape and historical-cultural characteristics 

and the territory ecological infrastructure. 

From the other it occurs that not necessarily 

the territorial planning ruling action expresses 

itself with immediately binding and prevailing 

regulations on the possible different rules of the 

local or other sectorial plans. The legislative 

systems of the territorial plans show that the 

ruling efficacy can be entrusted more frequently 

to guidelines or to negotiated regulations which 

responsibilize the local power, especially when 

the subject to be protected is consisting in 

properties or resources whose precise 

determination requires probing or specifications 

which can be more profitably carried out on a 

local area. It concerns two related aspects: as a 

matter of fact the conspicuous widening of the 

contents and of the territorial plan’s application 

field couldn’t be proposable and juridically 

sustainable should such contents translate into 

tight and immediately binding rules. 

On this matter it can be affirmed that the 

territorial plan’s specificity comes from its 

capacity to treat certain territorial subjects 

(Magnaghi A. 2005) which assume a thematic , 

problematic, projectual, managerial and ruling 

specificity due to the fact of being 

conceptualized to district level (for instance: 

ecological nets, “green parks”, housing 

nets, short range tourist circuits, local work 

markets etc). 

PRELIMINARY CONDITIONS 

The procedures for the territorial plan 

drawing represent the mean to reach the creation 

of new, shared rules for the territory 

management and its changes, of new “statutes” 

for the use of the available environmental 

resources which can be made own by the 

citizens who live there and by the organizations 

which represent them. The wide area territorial 

planning (i.e., be it a region or a district) remains 

one of the few “points of view” from which the 

problem to manage the change in a socially and 

environmentally sustainable way can be seized 

and treated at certain conditions:


1. to re-anounce the technocratic attitude for 

defining the optimum in favour of the 

construction of various open alternatives on 

which to confront with all the interested 

subjects. 

2. that the method of comparison between the 

alternatives and their consequences at a system 

level be actually done also by the sectorial 

policies promoted by the municipal or districtual 

authorities, utilizing for such purposes the most 

common cognitive resources and the specific 

instruments of the planning itself. 

3. That new representation and communication 

forms be experimented for the territorial 

consequences of what agreed between social, 

economical and institutional actors. 

4. that there must be full consciousness by all the 

participants that the planning is a continuous, 

fatiguing and complex process; the plan is a 

contract which the actors, present on a certain 

territory, undertake for its transformation; once 

concluded it is indispensable to start to think and 

to build the future forms of new contracts which 

will rule what not foreseen or not foreseeable up 

to that moment, that will improve the 

representation of the interests which are 

considered excluded; which will include new 

knowledge. 

The planning process is certainly more 

important than the plan, but the existence of a 

plan changes the process, because it requires a 

firm and clear political projectuality, its potential 

contribute to the setting up for a better agenda of 

the regional policies (i.e., well as of their 

comprehensive coherent direction) is very 

important. 

The form that the territorial plan assumes in 

taking into account the exigencies and the 

perspectives up to now recalled is the following: 

A strategic reference scenario for the whole 

territory denotes the local identities 3 and it 

indicates the desirable development lines. 

To the indication of a series of strategic projects 

in actuation of the plan, with the concourse of 

the other bodies, is assigned the task of 

deepening the possible solutions and the 

feasibility conditions for what it concerns 

“emergency” problems. 

A ruling system which introduces innovative 

agreements procedures, limits the rules, recalls 

the directives, foresees the municipalities’ 

involvement in the management of protected 

areas as well as in other matters of over-local 

interest. 

The general target that the plan assumes is 

the reaching of an environmental and social 

sustainability 4 for the whole territory, that is to 

say forms of development which are able to 

safeguard and increase the natural and social 

resources and the area’s specific identities and 

by the thrust of a cooperative 5 approach. 

From control to self-control: the choice is that 

to promote, in lieu of the control and of the tie, 

new agreements instruments such as forms of 

self-control between local subjects in the 

decision moment (Magnani, A. 2000). It is what 

today goes under the name of “governance”: the 

government of the cooperative and conflictual 

interactions between the actors who act in the 

territory and who transform it, instead of the 

direct government of the territory’s small single 

pieces. 

The effort is that to define the reciprocal 

autonomies (amongst the various authorities), 

adapted into a normative system which strongly 

limits the rules; as a support to projectuality 

forms on general matters, also with the scope to 

build projects capable to acquire external 

resources. 

THE PLAN APPROACH TO THE 

TERRITORIAL PROBLEMS 

Within the negotial procedure the strategic 

and ruling functions explicate territorial effects 

(transformation, explotation, conservation, 

protection etc), not directly but through 

collective local subjects. In order that this 

happens it is necessary that such subjects might 

act as collective actors on territorial basis, i.e. as 

territorial local systems 6 . With this expression 

are intended public and private subject's local 

aggregations (or “nets”) able to organize them 

and to organize their own territory to interact 

with external subjects and thus realizing 

common shared projects. 

The negotial process with the local collective 

subjects must therefore be seen both as an 

operational and latent identities “hearing” phase 

and as operational identities construction 

moments (Porter M., 1987), around over-local 

scale territorial projects. In such a way the plan’s 

promotion and planning role is explicated. It 

goes into effect through “knot” (“set up” of the 

local systems) and net policies (connection of 

more local systems around over-local projects). 

Under this point of view the local systems (and 

therefore also the local identities with the above 

3


mentioned meaning) implies inter-municipal 

relations as well as with local sectorial bodies. 

In order to talk of “local territorial system” it 

is necessary that certain public and private 

subjects selfrepresent themselves in a projectual 

perspective, as “local subjects’ nets” with 

interface functions between the local milieu 

resources and over-local subjects’ nets. It is 

necessary therefore that the horizontal ties, 

which ensure the territorial system’s internal 

cohesion, derive, at least in part, from the 

relations that the subjects who compose it have 

with the local, specific milieu, meaning a natural 

and historic-cultural conditions’ stable and 

localized whole, seen as possible development 

projects and local territorial re-qualification 

possible “intakes”. 

Under this perspective the plan places itself 

towards the “local systems”, as claimed by 

Castells (1977), its directions and rules must 

translate into local projects and actions (of 

“knot”, of “net”) by the actors who constitute it 

in order to obtain the desired territorial effects. 

The teritory’s useful knowledge for the plan 

is of political-operational type rather than 

technical-operational. The political-operational 

territorial knowledge concerns the identification 

of the local systems and of the actors (and more 

in general the subjects) who composes them; 

their relations with the territory; the specific 

rationalities which rule such relations and thus 

the local organizative principles of said 

territories. 

Starting from these considerations, such 

knowledge can start from objective analysises 

and above all from a reasoned inventory of the 

projects promoted at sub-district level by the 

various public and private subjects, but if forms 

itself, above all, through the negotial interaction 

with the local systems and it builds itself in the 

territorial plan’s fullfilment. However this 

doesn’t prevent to define a map of these 

differents, possible aggregations which is also a 

map of the local identities and the basis for the 

identities and the “statutes of the places” 

definition. 

The local identity, in a plan’s perspective, 

cannot base itself only on a “passive sense of 

belonging”, founded on the territory’s 

aesthetical-symbolic characters, but a resource to 

be exploited. 

This resource derives from the local subjects’ 

capacity to connect between them, to selforganize 

themselves in order to evidence their 

territory’s resources in the interaction with 

4 

external subjects (Dematteis, 1997). Without a 

common project of such a type there is not an 

active, operative local identity. In this sense it 

can be said that the territorial Plan not only 

utilizes the collective, local identities as a 

passive resource, but also operates to build them, 

to let them pass from a latent and potential state 

to a real and operational one. 

PLAN ORGANIZATION THROUGH 

ACTIONS AND PROJECTS 

This plan form emphasizes its procedural 

aspects in a double direction, activating through 

the projects, the local institutions, and in 

proposing the indication of a series of real 

projects of priority importance. In this way the 

plan “concludes” itself with the start of a 

complex actions procedure which, for each 

project, activates a system of local and overlocal 

pertinent actors. 

The Plan, therefore, starts actually with its 

formal conclusion, supplying, beside the 

strategic scenario of reference and the 

accomplishment rules, the indication of a series 

of specific projects prominent for its 

achievement, comprehsensive of the local actors 

and the extra-local institutional and financial 

contributions which are needed for their 

realization. 

In this way the plan obtains a procedural 

continuity which allows to verify the strategic 

scenario during the course of the projects’ 

fullfilment and if the case to correct it. Each 

project has an ideal reference area (variable 

geometry) and an internal and external actors’ 

system. 

The strategic value project is generally a 

project with multidisciplinary and multisectorial 

integrated character (Haley P. 1997), in which 

great relevance is given to the virtuous synergies 

between sectorial actions; this implies the 

overcoming of the sector planning and a great 

will to cooperate by the assessorships (at 

regional level, but also at districtual and 

municipal one) to create ad-hoc inter-assessorial 

coordinations for each project’s formulation and 

management. 

In order to make easier the verification 

procedure for the single, new actions, but also to 

help the construction of a dynamic stragetic 

scenario and sustainable in its widest meaning, it 

is fundamental the use and the improvement of a 

“polyvalent evaluation model”, a kind of


“metaproject” amongst the proposed strategic 

projects. 

The construction and the use of a polyvalent 

evaluation model go towards the direction to 

conceive the strategic planning process as an 

intelligent guide of sectorial and precise actions 

being already operational, be them policies or 

works: evidencing and exploiting the positive 

energies existing in the territory. In any case it is 

thus necessary a cognitive apparatus (a record of 

the projects and of the actions being carried out 

in the project’s area, be it institutional or not) 

which could allow the evaluation and, case by 

case, exploitation, correction, integration 

(Piroddi E., 1999). 

The target is that of selecting projects and 

policies which might contribute to the increase 

of the territorial and environmental quality. If 

the development sustainability depends from the 

equilibrium and the synergies between 

economical, territorial, environmental and social 

transformations, to increase the territorial 

patrimony, it is just on the inter-sectorial 

relations that the single actions’ coherence must 

be searched. The construction of a polyvalent 

evaluation model of policies, plans and projects 

referred to each strategic project area constitutes 

a prominent element of the proposed planning 

methodology. In this picture the evaluation 

which means to attribute to a project or to a plan 

quality or criticity characteritsics becomes 

intrisecally tied to the decision and projectual 

action, making explicit and verifiable the 

projectual choices towards the local territorial 

impact optimization criteria. 

THE PROSPECT OF THE PLAN IN 

LOCAL DEVELOPMENT 

It is typically a planning activity of integrated 

type, in the sense that it points to exploit the 

effects that derive from putting in a net different 

sector's policies and interventions demand 

crucial (Mazza L., 1977). It is a creative process, 

in which each involved subject, bearer of a 

specific definition of the problems, of the 

priority and the development necessity, 

contributes to elaborate the basic orientation and 

the missions of the community. In this sense it 

intends to activate – and this constitutes perhaps 

its most important result – an actors’ selfreflection 

process (Forester J. 1989, Porter 

M.1987) about the future of a territory. 

The plan has therefore, as aim, the 

construction of a document which can 

individuate the problems, the opportunities, a 

territory’s development targets 7 and scenarios. 

Certainly the plan takes the territory as its’ 

application field (Mazza L., 1997), but it looks 

towards the town as the possible policies’ space 

and therefore from time to time its reference 

changes. It can be a specific dimension because 

it is recognized by the local actors as worth of 

particular attention (requalification of the 

historical town) or in a wider sphere, referred to 

the different development geographies (the role 

of the town in a territorial context). 

The plan reference territory therefore is not a 

data but a sequence (construction), it depends 

from the places toward which the actors’ 

attention is drawn and from the level at which 

the questions that they put can be treated. 

In order to respond to the challenges that the 

future delineates it is necessary to take into 

consideration some principles. 

1.The first principle refers to the assumption of a 

pragmatic approach, which doesn’t wait the 

completion of a comprehesive project to be able 

to operate, but which starts to work in the sense 

of the anticipation of that general project. 

Between comprehensive project and details 

choices it is necessary to establish a co-evolution 

connection, in the sense that the second 

contribute to define the first but that from this 

they are also conditioned. 

Let’s take the case of the historical town. It 

deals with a town’s area that seems to require the 

activation of a regeneration complex policy (that 

is to say made of different interventions and 

integrated between them) which can’t wait the 

conclusion of the general variant’s iter 

to be started, but that, instead, can supply to 

the General Town Plan interesting test elements 

and, more in general, useful indications to the 

urban policies on how to plan multidimensional 

interventions. The strategic plan intends to 

consider the pragmatic approach as its own 

orientation principle, indicating those actions 

which can be immediately started or that it is 

necessary to discuss for their relevance. 

2. The second principle is that of subsidiarity, as 

the modality to define the relations between the 

institutional subjects and, more in general, 

between the public policies’ actors. The 

subsidiarity concerns the appointment of 

competences towards those subjects who are the 

nearest to the treatment of the problems (be 

these public or private) and therefore an 

assumption of responsibility by them. 

5


It deals with a principle already acquired, 

both in the administration’s theory and in the 

real practices. It implies the substitution of the 

hierarchic principle tending to cooperation. It 

consists in an approach which has to permeate 

the activity of the whole public administration, 

but in which it is possible to indicate the 

testing’s priority fields, those policies or those 

interventions on which to start working in this 

sense. 

Again the governing of the wide area 

relations seems one of the more pertinent, as 

well as the policies for the development’s 

promotion and the same cultural policies. In fact 

it deals with work situations which put at play 

actors’ pluralities, of different nature and placed 

at different decisional levels, in which it is 

crucial, the capacity to govern complex 

decisional organizations, both vertical and 

horizontal. 

3. The third principle – tied to the preceeding 

one – is the “public role requalification” that 

today must be able above all to develop a 

coordinating function, of projectuality 

promotion, of local resources’ activation. In fact 

the subsidiarity horizon doesn’t imply the public 

subject withdrawal, but a deep change of its 

action’s characters. What the “public role 

requalification” principle suggests is to certainly 

walk a step behind towards the “direct intake” 

relation with the society and its problems, but 

also being potentially able to overcome the 

reductive administrative logics and to invest the 

own resources efficicaciously. 

4. The fourth principle doesn’t refer on how to 

do things but rather to what to do. It is the 

principle of the research of the “urbanity” meant 

as town’s character to preserve and to 

consolidate. As “urbanity” we mean the 

compresence of different uses and functions in 

the town (starting from the historic town), the 

accessibility to all the services which are offered 

by the territory, the strenghtening of the ties 

between the parts as guarantee of the territory’s 

general good operation. 

6 

CONCLUSION 

The proposed approach to the planning 

process, of which the plan’s design constitutes 

and intermediate and temporary phase, intends to 

contribute to the debate addressed to the 

planning role and to its working instruments in 

the local development. In this debate, also under 

the perspective of the federalism’s reform in a 

local context, a whole of widely shared 

principles is compared: 

1. The principle of development sustainability 

must be intended in its widest meaning of 

political, social and cultural sustainability, of 

economical self-sustainability and territorial 

exploitation. 

2. The principle of subsidiarity and of 

responsibilization which implies not only an 

actual strengthening of the local powers and a 

direct involvement of the local actors in the 

choices which may concern them, but also a 

more coherent and transparent distribution of the 

government and management responsibilities, on 

all levels and on all sectors. 

3. The principle of solidarity, of cohesion and of 

inclusion which obliges to a continuous 

comparison between specific or local issues and 

general interests, between competitive reasons 

and cooperative exigencies. 

Such principles push, jointly, towards a deep 

renewal of the methods, of the approaches and of 

the same planning conceptions, putting into 

growing evidence the exigency of the dialogue 

and of the cooperation between the various 

insititutional subjects and the social actors 

involved in the territorial changes. 

In this research worker, the base of the 

analytic approach is constituted by the 

individualization of the following “innovation 

points”: 

a. new forms of the plan: that is to say the 

elaboration of new town planning instruments 

(new plans, contents and targets construction 

modalities, new structures of the rules’ system); 

definition and utilization of the concepts of 

equalization, compensation, sustainable 

development, dimensioning, compensative 

acquisition, from whose correct development 

depends the possible solutions of town 

planning’s historical knots. 

b. programmatic instruments for the socialecomomic 

development: the predisposition of 

plans and strategic documents for the local 

development; 

c. complex programs: the testing of the 

procedures of the “urban project” and of the 

“integrated programs” as overcoming of the 

traditional forms of the town planning 

instrument’s actuation; the relation with the new 

form of the town planning instruments and with 

the programmatic means for the socio-ecomomic 

development. 

The necessity of a cooperative approach to 

the territory’s management and planning is


particularly emphasized, in our case, by the 

actual situation of a territory involved in 

considerable globalization processes. In this 

perspective the planning process cannot exhaust 

itself in the attempt to coordinate the 

municipalities institutional action, since an 

authentic cooperation must base itself on the 

self-government of the local realities and thus on 

the social actors’ permanent agreeement. 

This implies the attempt to let grow the 

territorial sujectivity in view of the exploitation 

of the local systems and of the territorial 

identity. 

For this aim it is necessary that the 

affirmation of the collective subjectivities, which 

has somehow already expressed itself with the 

adhesion of a pluraility of actors, institutional or 

not, might turn into a shared projectual 

engagement which can express its selforganizing 

capacity with actions proposal which 

have to respond to the local expectations and 

interests. 

The indication to articulate the plan process 

strenghtening the local decision systems goes 

towards the direction in which the local 

initiatives have the aim to strenghten the 

autonomous capacity of a specific area to look 

for its own development system. In specific, the 

plan indications identified as follows: 

a- It supplies specific knowlegde because it 

thematizes and visualizes facts and problems at 

systemic aggregation level which often slips 

away from the attention of the aforesaid 

interlocutors; 

b- It suggests to their problems possible 

alternative solutions, solutions which just derive 

from the capacity to see and to think the territory 

on a different scale and in any case more 

complex, to point out the problems in terms not 

purely quantitative, to seize the possible 

synergies with other subjects’ action, etc etc. 

In such a way it is built an environment 

favourable to the development starting from 

each territory’s peculiarities and wealths, in the 

global competition age are evidenced the 

advantages of territorial guideline which, 

engaging the typical resources aims at the 

quality and difference of the offer of products 

and services. 

Notes 

1. The territorial plan, meant as scientific 

definition moment, neutral, ofan ideal territory 

organization within a clear and firm context for 

the distribution of the administrative, financial 

and political resources amongst the various 

government’s levels, formulates ideal 

hypotheses from the point of view of the whole 

rationality of the territory’s use. Therefore “no” 

to the homologation, but research and promotion 

of integration chances based on the exploitation 

of a territory’s differences. 

2. It must be rather thought in local systems net 

terms (Magnani A. 2000, Ratti R. 1997) which, 

coordinating and netting by themselves, create 

synergies, that is to say they increase the whole 

wealth, not only economical but also social and 

cultural, at disposal of an area that is subject to 

this insitutional competence of the Region. 

According to Dematteis (1995,46) the local 

development is always the combination of 

something which is fixed with something which 

is mobile: the potential specific resources of a 

territory with the overlocal nets. 

This gives space, anyway, on the territory, to 

various development relations, that is to say to 

different types of combinations between global 

nets, local nets and territory’s resources. There 

are architectures which have a major 

endogenous component, thus a more or less 

strong local identity is noticed (identity meant as 

selforganizing capacity, that is to say as specific 

principles of local organization). Ther are those 

which, instead, strongly depend from 

organizations, from overlocal nets. 

3. The local identity is meant as a resource, from 

the economic point of view, as the territory’s 

competitive advantage, from the social and 

political point of view (that is to say the 

autonomy of the “local”) and from the cultural 

point of view, as cultural variety, of a specific 

territory (Poli D. 1998, Magnaghi A. 2005 . 

4. In a globalization and growing competition 

age to promote the sustainability means before 

all to strenghten local identities and peculiarities 

(Rullani E.1994), indispensable values to be able 

to place oneself on the market offering products 

improbably subject to world competition. To 

build “local systems” is indispensable to 

compete with continuity against the economic 

trends’s changes. 

5. The necessity of a cooperative approach to the 

territory’s managemnent and planning is 

particularly emphasized by the actual situation 

of a territory involved in important globalization 

processes (Dematteis G. 1995) . 

6. Quoted in Dematteis (1997), these are public 

and private local subjects’ self-governing forms. 

These local self-governing forms are those who 

allows the mobilization od endogenous 

7


resources, proper of these territories, which 

otherwise couldn’t be utilized and that feed a 

circular accumulation process of new resources 

on the territory through positive competitions, 

that is to say competitions through which new 

resources and new externalities are created. 

7. They represents the local specificity meant as 

a resource (Castells, M. 1997) which can be 

exploited for its greatest part, only through the 

negotiation of the local actors who start that 

cumulative, circular process which is the local 

development and which allows, on the economic 

ground, to transform these potential resources in 

values which can be exported, to attract external 

human and cognitive resources; capitals and 

ivestments for these resources’ exploitation. 

REFERENCES 

- Becattini G., Rullani E. (1994), “Sistema locale e mercato 

globale”, in Becattini G., Vaccà S., Prospettive 

degli studi di economia e politica industriale in 

Italia, Franco Angeli - Milano. 

- Bramanti A., Maggioni M.A. (1997), La dinamica dei 

sistemi produttivi territoriali: teorie, tecniche, 

politiche, Franco Angeli - Milano. 

- Bramanti A., Senn L.( 1997),“ Cambiamento strutturale, 

connessioni locali e governance nei sistemi 

produttivi territoriali”, La dinamica dei sistemi 

produttivi territoriali: teorie, tecniche, politiche, 

Franco Angeli - Milano. 

- Castells, M., (1997),The Power of Identità, Oxford, 

Blackwell, publishers Ltd. 

- Castells M., (1997),The Rise of the Network Society, 

Oxford, Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 

- Dematteis G., (1997), "Le città come nodi di reti: la 

transizione urbana in una prospettiva spaziale", in 

G. Dematteis e P. Bonavero, Il sistema urbano 

italiano nello spazio unificato europeo, Bologna, Il 

Mulino, pp. 15-35. 

- Dematteis G., (1995), "Sistemi locali e reti globali: il 

problema del radicamento territoriale", Archivio di 

studi urbani e regionali, v.24, n.53, pp.39-52. 

- Forester J., (1989), Planning in the Face of Power , The 

Regents of the University of California. 

Grandinetti R., Rullani E.( 1996), Impresa transnazionale 

ed economia globale, La Nuova Italia Scientifica - 

Roma. 

- Haley P., (1997), Collaborative Planning, London Mac 

Millan . 

- Harvey D., (1997), The condition of 

Postmodernity,Basil,1990 Magnani A.( 2000), Il 

progetto locale, Torino, Bollati Boringieri. 

- Magnaghi A. (2005), La rappresentazione identitaria del 

territorio: atlanti, codici, figure, paradigmi per il 

progetto locale, Alinea, Firenze Maskell P. , 

Malberg A.( 1997),“Apprendimento localizzato e 

competitività industriale”, La dinamica dei sistemi 

8 

produttivi territoriali: teorie, tecniche, politiche, 

Franco Angeli - Milano. 

- Mazza L., (1997), Trasformazione del piano, Franco 

Angeli, Milano 

- Perulli P., (2000), La città delle reti, Torino, Bollati 

Boringhieri. 

- Piroddi E., (1999), Le forme del piano urbanistico, 

Milano, Franco Angeli. 

- Poli D., (1998), Il territorio fra identità e 

rappresentazione. Progetto del luogo come 

biografia territoriale, Tesi di Dottorato in 

Progettazione urbana, territoriale e ambientale, 

Università di Firenze, IX ciclo, 

- Porter M., (1980), Competitive Strategy, New York. 

- Porter M.( 1985), Competitive Advantage - New York. 

- Porter M.( 1987), Competizione globale, ISEDI - Torino. 

- Porter M.( 1987), The competitive Advantage of Nations - 

New York. 

- Prisco M.R., Silvani A.(1997), La misurazione del 

capitale umano nelle politiche tecnologiche: 

l'esperienza delle aree meno favorite, in Bramanti 

A. , Maggioni 

- Rabellotti R.( 1997), External Economies and 

Cooperation in Industrial Districts,Mac Millan 

press ltd, Houndmills, 

- Ratti R.( 1997),“Lo spazio attivo: una risposta 

paradigmatica al dibattito locale-globale”, La 

dinamica dei sistemi produttivi territoriali: teorie, 

tecniche, politiche, Franco Angeli - Milano. 

- Rullani E.( 1994), “Sistema locale e mercato globale: una 

risposta”, in Becattini G., Vaccà S., Prospettive 

degli studi di economia e politica industriale in 

Italia, Franco Angeli - Milano. 

- Rullani E.( 1997), “Più locale e più globale: verso 

un’economia postfordista del territorio”, La 

dinamica dei sistemi produttivi territoriali: teorie, 

tecniche, politiche, Franco Angeli - Milano.

J. Duhok Univ., Vol.14, No.1 (Pure and Eng. Sciences), Pp 9-16, 2011 

ON CP-OPEN SETS AND TWO CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS 

ALIAS B. KHALAF * and SHILAN A. MOHAMMAD ** 

* Dept. of Math., Faculty of Science, University of Duhok, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

** Dept. of Math., Faculty of Science, University of Zakho, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

(Received: October 1, 2009; Accepted for publication: November 3, 2010) 

ABSTRACT 

In this paper we introduce the concept of cp-open set and study some of its properties. Further we introduce the 

cp-continuous and cp-open functions and investigate the basic propertied. Necessary and sufficient condition of P1 - 

closed graph and cp-continuous function were found. 

KEYWORDS: c-open set, cp-open set, cp-continuous and cp-open functions, P1 -closed graph. 

T 

1. INTRODUCTION AND 

PRELIMINARIES 

hroughout the present paper, X and Y 

denote topological spaces in which no 

separation axiom is assumed. Let A be a subset 

of X, we denote the interior and the closure of a 

set A by int(A) and cl(A) respectively. A subset 

A is said to be preopen [10] (resp. semi open[7]) 

set if A � intcl(A)( resp. A � clint(A)). The 

complement of a preopen set is called preclosed. 

The intersection of all preclosed sets containing 

A is called the preclosure of A and is denoted by 

pcl(A). The preinterior of A is defined as the 

union of all preopen sets contained in A and is 

denoted by pint(A). The family of all preopen 

sets of X is denoted by PO(X) and the set of all 

preopen set containing x�X is denoted by 

PO(X, x). The union of any family of preopen 

sets is preopen. A subset N of X is 

preneighbourhood[12] of a point x of X if there 

exists a preopen set U containing x with U � N 

and it is denoted by N p (x). 

As stated by Mashhour et al.[10], Katetov 

made some comments on the paper [9] to find 

conditions under which the intersection of any 

two preopen sets is preopen. 

Mashhour together with others offered an 

answer to this remark in the form of a 

theorem[10, Theorem 2.3]. 

Definition 1.1[16]. A space (X, � ) will be said 

to have the property P if the closure is preserved 

under finite intersection or equivalently, if the 

closure of intersection of any two subsets equals 

the intersection of their closures. 

Lemma 1.2[16]. From the above definition it 

readily follows that if a space X has the property 

P, then the intersection of any two preopen sets 

is preopen. As a consequence of this PO(X) is a 

topology for X and it is finer than � . 

Lemma 1.3[4]. Let A and X 0 be subsets of a 

space X. If A�PO(X) and X 0 is semi open in X, 

then A � X 0 �PO(X 0 ), 

Lemma 1.4[2]. If A � Y � X and Y is a preopen 

set in X, then A�PO(X) if and only if 

A�PO(Y). 

Definition 1.5. A function f : X �Y is called: 

1- preirresolute[15] if f 

� 1 

(V)�PO(X) for each 

preopen set V of Y. 

2- M-preopen[16] if the image of every preopen 

set in X is a preopen set in Y, 

3- M-preclosd[13] if the image of every 

preclosed set in X is a preclosed set in Y. 

Definition 1.6[1]. Let f :X � Y be any 

function, the graph of the function f is denoted 

by G( f ) and is said to be P1 -closed if for each 

(x, y)�G( f ), there exist U�PO(X,x) and 

V�PO(Y,y) with (U� V) � G( f )= � . 

We proved if the graph of f is P1 -closed 

and X has the property P, then the inverse image 

of a strongly compact subset in Y is preclosed 

set in X. 

Definition 1.7[4]. A space X is said to be 

submaximal if every dense subset of X is open. 

Lemma 1.8[4]. A space X is submaximal if and 

only if every preopen set is open. 

Definition 1.9. A space X is: 

1- pre- T 1 [11] if for every distinct points x, y of 

X, there exists U�PO(X, x) not containing y 

and V� PO(X, y) not containing x, 

2- T 2 [17](resp. pre- T 2 [11]) if for every distinct 

points x, y of X, there exist two disjoint 

open(resp. preopen) sets each containing one of 

them, 

9


3- prenormal[13] if each pair of disjoint 

preclosed sets of X there exist disjoint preopen 

sets each containing one of them, 

4- p-regular[15] if for each closed set F and each 

point x�F, there exist disjoint preopen sets U 

and V such that x�U and F � V, 

5- strongly compact[5] if every preopen cover 

has a finite subcover, 

6- Locally p-compact[8] if for every element of 

X, there exists an open set containing them 

which is strongly compact of X. 

Lemma 1.10[5]. Every preclosed subset of a 

strongly compact space is strongly compact. The 

following definition appeared in [3] and [6]. 

Definition 1.11. A subset A of a space X is said 

to be a c-open set if A is an open set and X\A is 

compact. 

10 

2. SOME PROPERTIES OF 

CP-OPEN SETS 

Definition 2.1. A subset A of a space X is said to be a 

cp-open set if A is a preopen set and X\A is 

strongly compact. The complement of a cp-open 

set is said to be a cp-closed set. The family of 

all cp-open (resp. cp-closed) sets is denoted by 

CPO(X)(resp. CPC(X)) . 

The class of c-open and cp-open sets is not 

comparable as shown in the following two 

examples: 

Example 2.2. Let X={a, b, c} with � ={ � , X, 

{a}}, then {a, b} is a cp-open set, but it is not a 

c-open set. 

Example 2.3. (- � , 0) � (1, � ) is a c-open set, 

but it is not a cp-open set. 

Theorem 2.4. If a space X is submaximal, then 

the family of c-open and cp-open sets are 

equivalent. 

Proof. It is obvious from Lemma 1.8. 

Lemma 2.5. The union of any family of cp-open 

sets is a cp-open set. 

Proof. Let { U � : � �� 

} be any family of cpopen 

set, since � U � is a preopen set and 

X\ � U � = � X\ U � for each � �� 

, by Lemma 

1.10, it is strongly compact. Hence { U � : � �� 

} 

is cp-open set. 

The intersection of two cp-open sets need not 

be cp-open as seen by the following example: 

Example 2.6. Let X={a, b, c} with topology 

� ={ � , X, {a, b}}, then {a, c} and {b, c} are two 

cp-open sets in X , but {a, c} � {b, c}={c} is not 

cp-open set. 

From the above example we notice that the 

family of all cp-open sets need not be a topology 

on X. 

Theorem 2.7. If a space X has the property P, 

then cp-open sets is a topology on X. 

Proof. Since X has the property P, then by 

Lemma 1.2, the intersection of any two preopen 

sets is preopen and union two strongly compact 

is strongly compact. Therefore, the intersection 

of any two cp-open sets is cp-open. It follows 

that cp-open sets is a topology on X. 

It is clear that if a space X is finite, then the 

family of cp-open sets and preopen sets are 

coincident. 

Definition 2.8. A subset N of a space X is cpneighborhood 

of a point x, if N contains a cpopen 

set which is containing x and it is denoted 

by N cp (x). 

Theorem 2.9. Let (X, � ) be any topological 

space, and A is any subset of X. A is cp-open set 

if and only if for every x in X there exists a cp- 

G � A. 

open set x 

G such that x� x 

Prood. Let a subset A of X be a cp-open set 

containing x, then x�A � A. 

Conversely. Let A be any subset of X and 

assume that there exists a cp-open set G x 

containing x such that x� G x � A. Hence 

A= � { x 

G : x�A}, so by Lemma 2.5, A is cpopen 

set. 

Corollary 2.10. Let A be a subset of a space X. 

A is cp-open set if and only if it is cpneighborhood 

of each of its points. 

Definition 2.11. A point x�X is said to be a cpinterior 

point of A if there exists a cp-open set U 

containing x such that U � A. The set of all cpinterior 

points of A is said to be cp-interior of A 

and denoted by cp-int(A). 

Here we give some properties of cp-interior 

operator on a set 

Proposition 2.12. For any subset A and B of a 

topological space X. The following statements 

are true: 

1.The cp-interior of A is the union of all cp-open 

sets which are contained in A, 

2.cp-int(A) is cp-open set contained in A, 

3.cp-int(A) is the largest cp-open set contained 

in A, 

4.A is cp-open set if and only if cp-int(A)=A, it 

follows that cp-int(cp-int(A))=cp-int(A), 

5.cp-int(A) � A, 

6.If A � B, then cp-int(A) � cp-int(B), 

7.cp-int(A) � cp-int(B) � cp-int(A � B), 

8.cp-int(A � B) � cp-int(A) � cp-int(B).


We only prove part(3), the proof of the other 

parts is obvious. 

Proof.(3). Let G be any cp-open set in X 

containing x, by Corollary 2.10,A is a cpneighborhood 

of x, this shows that x is a cpinterior 

of A. Hence x�cp-int(A), so x�G � cpint(A) 

� A. We get cp-int(A) contains all cpopen 

subset of A and it is therefore, the largest 

cp-open subset of A. 

In general cp-int(A) � cp-int(B) � cpint(A 

� B), and cp-int(A � B) � cp-int (A) � cpint(B) 

as shown by the following two examples: 

Example 2.13. Let X={a, b, c, d} with topology 

� ={ � , X, {c}, {a, d}, {a, c, d}} Take A={a, d} 

and B={b, c}. cp-int(A � B)=X cp-int(A)={a, 

d}and cp-int(B)={c}, so cp-int(A) � cpint(B) 

� cp-int(A � B) 

Example 2.14. Let X={a, b, c, d} and � = { � , 

X,{a, b}, {a, b, c}}. Take A={b, c} and B={a, c, 

d}, then A � B={c}, cp-int(A � B)= � but cpint(A)={b, 

c} and cp-int(B)={a, c, d}. So cpint(A) 

� cp-int(B)={b} and hence cp-int(A � B) 

� cp-int(A) � cp-int(B) . 

It follows that, cp-int (A)=cp-int(B) does not 

imply that A=B. This is shown by Example 4.9 

in [12]. 

Definition 2.15. Let A be a subset of a 

topological space(X, � ). A point x�X is said to 

be a cp-limit point of A if every cp-open set 

containing x contains a point of A different from 

x. The set of all cp-limit points of A is called cpderived 

set and denoted by cp-d(A). 

Lemma 2.16. Let A be a subset of a topological 

space (X, � ). A is cp-closed if and only if A 

contains all of its cp-limit points. 

Proof. Assume that A is cp-closed set and let p 

is a cp-limit point of A which belongs to X\A. 

Then X\A is a cp-open set containing the cplimit 

point of A. Therefore, we get X\A contains 

an element of A which is contradiction. 

Conversely. Assume that A contains all of its 

cp-limit points. For each x�X\A there exists a 

cp-open set U containing x such that U � A= � , 

that is, x�U � X\A, by Theorem 2.9, X\A is a 

cp-open set. Hence A is a cp-closed set. 

Some properties of cp-derived set are 

mentioned in the following results: 

Proposition 2.17. For any subsets A and B of a 

topological space X, then we have the following 

properties. 

1. If A � B, then cp-d(A) � cp-d(B), 

2. x�cp-d(A) implies x�cp-d(X\A), 

3.cp-d(A) � cp-d(B) � cp-d(A � B), 

4.cp-d(A � B) � cp-d(A) � cp-d(B). 

Proof. (3) and (4) follow from (1). 

The equality does not hold in (3) and (4) as 

shown by Examples 4.12 and 4.13 in [12]. 

Definition 2.18. The intersection of all cp-closed 

sets containing A is called the cp-closure of A 

and it is denoted by cp-cl(A). 

Here we give some properties of cp-closure 

of the set. 

Proposition 2.19. For any subset E and F of a 


are true. 

1. E� cp-cl(E), 

2. cp-cl(E) is cp-closed set in X containing E, 

3. cp-cl(E) is the smallest cp-closed set 

containing E, 

4. E is cp-closed if and only if cp-cl(E)=E, then 

cp- cl(cp-cl(E)) =cp-cl(E), 

5.If E� F, then cp-cl(E) � cp-cl(F), 

6.cp-cl(A) � cp-cl(B) � cp-cl(A � B), 

7.cp-cl(A � B) � cp-cl(A) � cp-cl(B). 

Generally, equality in (6) and (7) does not 

holds as shown by Examples 4.22 and 4.23 in 

[12]. 

Icp-cl(A)=cp-cl(B) does not imply A=B this is 

shown in Example 4.18 in [12]. 

Theorem 2.20. Let X be a space and A be any 

subset of X, then A � cp-d(A) is cp-closed. 

Proof. Let x�A � cp-d(A). This implies that 

x�A and x�cp-d(A). Since x�cp-d(A) there 

exists a cp-open set G x of x which contains no 

point of A other than x but x�A. So G x 

contains no point of A, which implies 

G is a cp-open set of each 

G x � X\A. Again x 

of its points. But G x does not contain any point 

of A, no point of G x can be a cp-limit point of 

A. Then no point of G x can belong to cp-d(A), 

so G x � X\cp-d(A) implies 

x� x 

G � X\A � X\cp-d(A) = X\(A � cp-d(A)), 

by Theorem 2.9, X\(A � cp-d(A)) is a cp-open 

set, so A � cp-d(A) is a cp-closed set. 

Corollary 2.21. For any subset A of a 

topological space X. we have cp-cl(A) =A � cpd(A). 

Proof. Since by Theorem 2.20, A � cp-d(A) is 

cp-closed containing A and cp-cl(A) is the 

smallest cp-closed containing A implies that cpcl(A) 

� A � cp-d(A). Hence cp-cl(A) =A � cpd(A). 

11


Corollary 2.22. Let E be a set in a space X. A 

point x�X is in the cp-closure of E if and only if 

E � U � � , for every cp-open set U containing x. 

Proof. Let x�cp-cl(A), so by Corollary 2.21, 

either x�A or x�cp-d(A) and in both case 

E � U � � , for every cp-open set U containing 

x. 

Conversely. Suppose that U is any cp-open set 

containing x such that E � U � � this implies 

that x�E, then x�cp-cl(E). 

Theorem 2.23. For any subset A of a 


are true: 

1. cp-cl(A) = X\cp-int(X\A), 

2. X\cp-cl(A) = cp-int(X\A), 

3. cp-int(A) = X\cp-cl(X\A), 

4. X\cp-int(A) = cp-cl(X\A). 

We only prove part (i) and the other parts are 

similar. 

Proof. For any x�X, x�cp-cl(A) and by 

Corollary 2.22 � A � U= � for each cp-open 

set U contains x � x�U � X\A � x�cpint(X\A) 

� x�X\cp-int(X\A). 

Definition 2.24. The set of all points neither in 

the cp-interior of A nor in the cp-interior of X\A 

is called cp-boundary of A and denoted by cpb(A). 

Some properties of cp-boundary are 

mentioned in the following results: 

Theorem 2.25. For any subset A of a 

topological space X. cp-b(A) =cp-cl(A)\cpint(A). 

Proof. since cp-b(A)=X\(cp-int(A) � cpint(X\A))=X\ 

cp-int(A) � X\cp-int(X\A)=cpcl(A) 

� X\cp-int(A)=cp- cl(A) \cp-int(A) . 

Corollary 2.26. For any subset A of a 

topological space X, the following are true: 

1. If A is cp-closed, then cp-b(A)= A\cp-int(A), 

2. If A is cp-open, then cp-b(A)= cp-cl(A)\A, 

3. If A is both cp-open and cp-closed, then cp- 

b(A)= � , 

4. A is cp-open if and only if cp-b(A) � A= � . 

That is cp-b(A) � cp-int(A) = � , 

5. A is cp-closed if and only if cp-b(A) � A, 

6. If A is cp-closed and cp-int(A)= � , then cp- 

b(A)=A, 

7. cp-cl(A)=cp-int(A) � cp-b(A). 

We only prove parts(4), (5) and (7), the proof of 

other parts are obvious. 

Proof.(4). Let A be a cp-open set. Then cpb(A)=cp-cl(A)\A 

� X\A implies that cpb(A) 

� A= � . 

12 

Conversely. If cp-b(A) � A= � . So A � cp- 

cl(A) � X\cp-int(A) = � implies A � X\cp-int(A) 

= � . Thus A � X\X\cp-int(A)=cp-int(A) but on 

other hand cp-int(A) � A. It follows that A is cpopen 

set. 

(5). Let A be a cp-closed. Then cp-b(A)=A\cpint(A) 

� A. 

Conversely. If cp-b(A) � A, then cpb(A) 

� X\A= � implies that cp-cl(A) � X\cp- 

int(A) � X\A= � and hence cp-cl(A) � cpint(X\A) 

� X\A= � , then cp-cl(A) � X\A= � . 

Therefore, cp-cl(A) � A but on other hand A � 

cp-cl(A). It follows that A is cp-cdosed. 

(7).cp-int(A) � cp-b(A)=cp-int(A) � cp-cl(A)\cpint(A)= 

cp-cl(A). 

Proposition 2.27. For any subset A of a 

topological space X, the following are true. 

1. cp-b(A) is cp-closed, 

2. cp-b(A)=cp-b(X\A), 

3. cp-b(cp-b(A)) � cp-b(A), 

4. cp-b(cp-int(A)) � cp-b(A), 

5. cp-b(cp-cl(A)) � cp-b(A). 

Proof.(1).cp-cl(cp-b(A))=cp-cl(cp-cl(A) � cpcl(X\A)) 

� cp-cl(cp-cl(A)) � cp-cl(cp-cl(X\A))= 

cp-b(A). Therefore A is cp-closed. 

(2).cp-b(A)=X\(cp-int(A) � cp-int(X\A))=X\(cpint(X\A) 

� cp-int(A))=cp-b(X\A). 

(3).cp-b(cp-b(A))=cp-cl(cp-b(A)) � cp-cl(X\cpb(A)) 

� cp-cl(cp-b(A))=cp-b(A). 

(4).cp-b(cp-int(A))=cp-cl(cp-int(A))\cp-int(cpint(A))=cp-cl(cp-int(A))\cp-int(A) 

� cp-cl(A) 

\cp-int(A) = cp-b(A). 

(5).cp-b(cp-cl(A))=cp-cl(cp-cl(A))\cp-int(cpcl(A))=cp-cl(A))\cp-int(cp-cl(A)) 

� cp-cl(A)\cpint(A)=cp-b(A). 

3. CP-CONTINUOUS AND CP-OPEN 

FUNCTIONS 

In this section, we introduce the concept of 

cp-continuous and cp-open functions by using 

cp-open sets also we give some properties and 

characterizations of such functions. 

Definition 3.1. The function f : X � Y is cpcontinuous 

at a point x�X if for each x�X and 

each cp-open set V of Y containing f (x), there 

exists a preopen set U of X containing x such 

that f (U) � V. If f is cp-continuous at every 

point of X, then it is called cp-continuous.


Theorem 3.2. Let f :X �Y be any function. If 

f is a preirresolute function, then it is cpcontinuous 

function. 

Proof. For each x�X and each cp-open set V of 

Y containing f (x). Then V is preopen set 

containing f (x). Since f is preirresolute 

function, there exists a preopen set U of X 

containing x such that f (U) � V. Hence f is 

cp-continuous. 

The converse of Theorem 3.2 is not true 

as it is shown in the following example: 

Example 3.3. Let f from R with usual 

topology onto R with co-finite topology be the 

identity function. Then f is cp-continuous but 

it is not preirresolute because (0, 1] is preopen 

set in R with co-finite topology and inverse 

image (0, 1] is (0, 1] which is not preopen set in 

R with usual topology. 

Theorem 3.4.If the co-domain of cp-continuous 

function f :X �Y is strongly compact, then it is 

preirresolute. 

Proof. For each x�X and each preopen set V of 

Y containing f (x), so Y\V is preclosed and Y\V 

is a subset of strongly compact Y, then by 

Lemma 1.10, Y\V is strongly compact. Since f 

is cp-continuous there exists a preopen set U of 

X containing x such that f (U) � V it follows 

that f is preirresolute. 

Theorem 3.5. For a function f : X �Y, the 

following statements are equivalent: 

1. f is cp-continuous, 

2. f 

cp-open set V in Y, 

3. f 

� 1 

(V) is preopen set in X, for each 

� 1 

(E) is preclosed set in X, for each 

cp-closed set E in Y, 

4. f (pcl(A)) � cp-cl( f (A)), for each 

subset A of X, 

� 1 

(B)) � f 

� 1 

(cp-cl(B)), for 

5. pcl( f 

each subset B of Y, 

6. f 

� 1 

(cp-int(B)) � pint( f 

� 1 

(B)), for 


7. cp-int( f (A)) � f (pint(A)) , for each 

subset A of X. 

Proof. (1) �(2). Let V be any cp-open set in Y. 

We have to show that f 

X. Let x� f 

� 1 

(V) is preopen set in 

� 1 

(V), then f (x)�V. By (i), there 

exists a preopen set U of X containing x such 

that f (U) � V which implies that 

x�U � f 

� 1 

(V) then f 

� 1 

(V) } is preopen set in X. 

� 1 

(V) = � { U : 

x� f 

(2)�(3). Let E be any cp-closed set in Y, then 

Y\E is a cp-open set of Y. By(ii), 

f 

� 1 

(Y\E)=X\ f 

� 1 

(E) is preopen set in X and 

� 1 

(E) is preclosed set in X. 

hence f 

(3)�(4). Let A be any subset of X, then 

� 1 

(cp- 

f (A) � cp-cl( f (A)) and A � f 

cl( f (A))). Since cp-cl( f (A)) is cp-closed set 

in Y. By(iii), we have f 

� 1 

(cp-cl( f (A)) is 

preclosed set in X. So pcl(A) � f 

� 1 

(cp- 

cl( f (A))) 

cl( f (A)). 

and hence f (pcl(A)) � cp- 

(4)�(5). Let B be any subset of Y, then 

f 

� 1 

(B) is a subset of X. By (iv), we have 

f (pcl( f 

� 1 

(B))) � cp-cl( f ( f 

� 1 

(B)))= cp- 

� 1 

cl(B). It follows that pcl( f (B)) � f 

cl(B)). 

� 1 

(cp- 

(5) � (6). Let B be any subset of Y, then apply 

(v)to Y\B, then pcl( f 

cl(Y\B)) � pcl(X\ f 

� 1 

(Y\B)) � f 

� 1 

(B)) � f 

int(B)) � X\pint((B)) � X\ f 

� 1 

(cp-intB) � pint f 

� 1 

(B)). 

� 1 

(cp- 

� 1 

(Y\cp- 

� 1 

(cp- 

int(B)) � f 

(6)�(7). Let A be any subset of X, then f (A) 

is a subset of Y. By (vi), f 

� 1 

(cp-int( f (A)) � 

� 1 

( f (A)))=pint(A). It follows that cp- 

pint( f 

int( f (A)) � f ( pint(A)). 

(7)�(1). Let x�X and lef V be any cp-open set 

of Y containing f (x), then x� f 

and f 

( f ( f 

� 1 

(V) 

� 1 

(V) is a subset of X. By(vii), cp-int 

� 1 

(V))) � f ( pint( f 

int(V) � f ( pint( f 

open set. Then V � f ( pint f 

that f 

f 

� 1 

(V) � pint( f 

� 1 

(V))). So cp- 

� 1 

(V))), since V is a cp- 

� 1 

(V))) implies 

� 1 

(V)) and hence 

� 1 

(V) is preopen set in X which contains x 

and clearly f ( f 

� 1 

(V)) � V. 

Definition 3.6. A function f : X � Y is said to 

be a cp-open function if for each x�X and for 

each preopen set U containing x, there exists a 

cp-open set V containing f (x) such that 

V � f (U). 

13


Theorem 3.7. For a function f : X � Y, the 


1. f is a cp-open function, 

2. The image of every preopen set in X is 

cp-open in Y, 

3. f (pint(A)) � cp-int( f (A)) for each 

subset A of X, 

4. pint( f 


5. f 

14 

� 1 

(B)) � f 

� 1 

(cp-cl(B)) � pcl( f 

� 1 

(cp-int(B)) for 

� 1 

(B)) for each 

subset B of Y, 

6. cp-cl( f (A)) � f (pcl(A)) for each 

subset A of X. 

Proof.(1) �(2). Let U be any preopen set in X, 

we show that f (U) is cp-open set in Y. Let 

f (x)� f (U) implies x�U. since f is cpopen 

function, there exists cp-open set V in Y 

such that f (x) �V � f (U). It follows that 

f (U)= � {V : f (x) � f (U) }, by Lemma 2.5, 

f (U) is cp-open set in Y. 

(2) �(3). Let A be any subset of X. Since 

pint(A) � A and pint(A) is a preopen set in X. 

by (ii), f (pint(A)) is a cp-open set in Y. So 

f (pint(A)) � cp-int f (A). 

(3) �(4). Let B be any subset of Y, then 

f 

� 1 

(B) is a subset of X. By(iii), 

f (pint( f 

� 1 

(B))) � cp-int f ( f 

int(B). It follows that pint( f 

� 1 

(B))=cp- 

� 1 

(B)) � f 

� 1 

(cp- 

int(B)). 

(4) �(5). Let B be any subset of Y, so Y\B is a 

subset of Y. By(iv), 

pint( f 

� 1 

(Y\B)) � f 

implies that pint(X\ f 

cl(B)), then X\pcl( f 

� 1 

(cp-int(Y\B)) which 

� 1 

(B)) � f 

� 1 

(B)) � X\ f 

cl(B)). This shows that f 

� 1 

(B)). 

� 1 

(Y\cp- 

� 1 

(cp- 

� 1 

(cp-cl(B)) 

� pcl( f 

(5) �(6). Let A be any subset of X, then f (A) 

is a subset of Y. By(v), we obtain f 

cl( f (A))) � pcl( f 

� 1 

(cp- 

� 1 

( f (A)))=pcl(A). Hence 

cp-cl( f (A)) � f (pcl(A)). 

(6) �(1). For each x�X. Let U be any preopen 

set in X containing x, then X\U is a subset of X. 

By(vi), cp-cl( f (X\U)) � f (pcl(X\U))= 

f (X\U) and hence f (X\U)=Y\ f (U) is cpclosed. 

Therefore, f (U) is cp-open set 

containing f (x) and f (U) � f (U). Hence f 

is a cp-open function. 

Theorem 3.8. If f : X � Y is a cp-open 

function, then it is M-preopen, and the converse 

is also true if the space Y is strongly compact. 

Proof. Let U be any preopen set in X. Since f 

is cp-open, by Theorem 3.7(ii), f (U) is cpopen 

set in Y which is also preopen set in Y. 

Hence f is M-preopen function. 

Conversely. Let Y be a strongly compact and let 

U be any preopen set in X. Since f is Mpreopen, 

then f (U) is preopen set in Y and by 

Lemma 1.10, Y\ f (U) is strongly compact. So 

by Theorem 3.7(ii), f is cp-open. 

In general the converse of above 

theorem is not true as it is shown in the 

following example: 

Example 3.9. Let f from R with usual 

topology onto R with co-finite topology be the 

identity function. Then f is M-preopen, but it is 

not cp-open because (0, 1) is preopen set in R 

with usual topology and image of (0, 1) is (0, 1) 

which is not cp-open set in R with co-finite 

topology. 

Theorem 3.10. Let f be a M-preopen(resp. Mpreclosed) 

function from X onto Yand let 

g :Y �Z be any function such that g � f : X 

� Z is cp-continuous. Then g is cpcontinuous. 

Proof. Let V be cp-open (resp. preclosed 

strongly compact) subset of Z. Since g � f is 

cp-continuous, then ( g � f ) 1 � (V) is preopen( 

resp. preclosed) subset of X. Since f is a M- 

preopen(resp. M-preclosed) implies that 

f (( g � f ) 1 � � 1 � 1 

� 1 

(V))= f ( f ( g (V)))= g ( 

V) is a preopen(resp. preclosed) set in Y. Hence 

g is cp-continuous. 

Theorem 3.11. Let f : X �Y be a function. 

Then the following statements are true: 

1. If f is cp-continuous and A is a semi 

open subset of X, then so is f \A: A � Y, 

2. If {U � : � in A} is a preopen set of X 

and if for each � , f � = f \U � is cp-continuous, 

then so is f . 

Proof (1). Let V be a cp-open set of Y. Since f 

is cp-continuous, then f 

and so ( f \A) 1 � = f 

� 1 

(V) is a preopen set 

� 1 

(V) � A, by Lemma 1.3,


is a preopen subset of A. Hence f \A is cpcontinuous. 

(2). Let V be a cp-open set of Y. Then 

� 1 

�1 

f (V)=� { f � (V) : � in A} and since 

each f � is cp-continuous, it follows that 

�1 

each f (V) is a preopen set in U � and by 

� 

Lemma 1.4, 

�1 

� 

� 1 

(V) is a preopen set on X. 

f (V) is a preopen set in X. So 

f 

Theorem 3.12. If f : X �Y is preirresolute 

function and g :Y � Z is cp-continuous, then 

g � f : X � Z is cp-continuous. 

Proof. Let V be any cp-open set in Z. Since g is 

cp-continuous, so g 1 � (V) is preopen set in Y. 

Since f is preirresolute, then we obtain 

f 

� 1 � 1 

� 1 

( g (V))= ( g � f ) (V) is a preopen set 

in X. Hence g � f is cp-continuous. 

Theorem 3.13. Let f : X � Y be M-preopen 

and g : Y � Z be a cp-open function, then 

g � f is cp-open function. 

Proof. Let U be any preopen set in X. Since f 

is M-preopen, then f (U) is preopen set in Y. 

since g is cp-open function, so g ( f (U))= 

( g � f )(U) is cp-open set in Z. By Theorem 

3.7(ii), g � f is a cp-open function. 

Theorem 3.14. Let f : X � Y and g : Y � Z 

be any two function, then. 

1. If g � f is cp-open function and f is 

preirresolute, then g is a cp-open function, 

2. If g � f is preirresolute and f is Mpreopen 

surjective, then g is cp-continuous 

function, 

3. If g � f is cp-open function and g is 

cp-continuous injective, then f is a M-preopen 

function, 

4. If g � f is cp-continuous function 

and g is cp-open injective, then f is 

preirresolute function. 

Proof. (1). Let V be any preopen set in Y. Since 

� 1 

(V) is preopen set 

f is preirresolute, then f 

in X. Since g � f is cp-open function, so 

( g � f )( f 

� 1 

(V))= g ( f ( f 

� 1 

(V)))= g (V) 

is cp-open set in Z. By Theorem 3.7(ii), g is a 

cp-open function. 

(2). Let V be any cp-open set in Z, thus it is also 

preopen set. Since g � f is preirresolute, then 

( g � f ) 1 � (V) is preopen set in X. Since f is 

M-preopen surjective, implies that 

f (( g � f ) 1 � (V))= f ( f 

� 1 � 1 

( g (V))) 

= g 1 � (V) is preopen set in Y. By Theorem 

3.5(ii), g is cp-continuous function, 

(3). Let U be any preopen set in X, g � f is cpopen 

function, then by Theorem 3.7(ii), 

( g � f )(U) is a cp-open set in Z. Since g is 

cp-continuous injective, so g 1 � (( g � f )(U)))= 

g 1 � ( g ( f (U)))= f (U) is a preopen set in Y. 

Hence f is M-preopen function. 

(4). Let V be any preopen set in Y. Since g is 

cp-open function, so g (V) is a cp-open set in Z. 

Since g � f is cp-continuous and g is 

injective function, then ( g � f ) 1 � ( g (V))= 

f 

� 1 � 1 

( g ( g (V)))= f 

� 1 

(V) is a preopen set in 

X. Hence f is a preirresolute function. 

Theorem 3.15. Let f : X �Y be a cpcontinuous, 

M-preclosed function from a 

prenormal space X on to a space Y. If either X 

or Y is pre-T 1 , then Y is pre-T 2 . 

Proof (i). Y is pre-T 1 . Let y 1 , y 2 �Y and 

y 1 � y 2 . So {y 1 }, {y 2 } are preclosed strongly 

compact subset of Y, by Theorem 3.5(iii), we 

� 1 

have f ( y 1 ) and f 

� 1 

( y 2 ) are preclosed 

subset of a prenormal space X, then there exist 

two disjoint preopen sets U 1 and U 2 in X 

containing them. Since a function f is M- 

preclosed, the set V 1 =Y\ f (X\U 1 ) and 

V 2 =Y\ f (X\U 2 ) are preopen set in Y . Also are 

disjoint and containing y 1 and y 2 respectively, 

so Y is pre-T 2 . 

(ii). X is pre-T 1 , Let f (x) be a point of Y. {x} 

is preclosed in X. Since f is M-preclosed, then 

{ f (x)} is a preclosed set of Y. Hence Y is pre- 

T 1 and the proof is complete by part(i). 

Theorem 3.16. Let f : X � Y be any function 

with P1 -closed graph, X has the property P and 

Y is strongly compact, then f is cpcontinuous. 

Proof. For each x�X and each cp-open set V of 

Y containing f (x), then V is preopen set 

containing f (x). Hence Y\V is preclosed and 

Y\V is a subset of strongly compact Y, so Y\V is 

strongly compact. Since f has a P1 -closed 

15


graph, then 

16 

�1 

f (Y\V) is preclosed and by 

Theorem 3.5(iii), we get f is a cp-continuous 

function. 

Theorem 3.17. If a function f : X �Y is cpcontinuous 

and Y is locally p-compact, pregular, 

T 2 space, then f has P1 -closed graph. 

Proof. Let (x, y)�G( f ), then f (x) � y. Since Y 

is a T 2 space, then there exists an open set V 1 

containing y and f (x)�cl(V 1 ). Since Y is 

locally p-compact, p-regular space, there exists a 

preopen set V in Y such that 

y�V � pcl(V) � V 1 and V 1 is strongly compact, 

by Lemma 1.10, pcl(V) is strongly compact. 

Therefore, Y\pcl(V) is cp-open set in Y 

containing f (x). Since f is cp-continuous, 

there exists a preopen set U containing x such 

that f (U) � Y\pcl(V) which implies 

f (U) � pcl(V)= � and hence we obtain 

f (U) � V= � . It follows that f has P1 -closed 

graph. 

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اسةوةي . ىركرايد ةهتاي َىمَوك َىظ وَيتةمخاس كةدهي و ينساين اد 

رةف وَيجرةم 

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لاودلا ةفاضلااب اهصاوخ ضعب انسنسردو ) cp 

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cp 

cp 

ةتخوث 

َىروج ذ ىركةظ وَيموك ةم اد َىهيلوكةظ َىظ د 

َىروج ذ 

. تنيد ةيتاي ماوةدرةب وَيشخةنو P1 

( 

ىركةظ وَيشخةنو ماوةدرةب وَيشخةن ةم 

َىروج ذ ىترط فارط وَيشخةن وَيي ىظدَيثو 

ةصلاخلا 

طمنلا نم ةحوتفملا ةعومجملا موهفم انمدق ثحبلا اذه يف 

ةلادلل ايفاكو ايرورض اطرش اندجو . ةيساسلاا ههصاوخ انثحبو ) cp 

( 

طمنلا نم ةحوتفملاو 

. 

ةرمتسملا ةلادلاو P1 

ةرمتسملا 

طمنلا نم

J. Duhok Univ., Vol.14, No.1 (Pure and Eng. Scienes), Pp 17-24, 2011 

GENETIC DIVERSITY ASSESSMENT AND VARIETY IDENTIFICATION 

OF PEACH (Prunus persica) FROM KURDISTAN 

REGION-IRAQ USING AFLP MARKERS 

SHAYMAA H. ALI 

Scientific Research Center, University of Duhok. Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

(Received: January 25, 2010; Accepted for publication: February 27, 2011) 

ABSTRACT 

The peach (Prunus persica) is an important member of the Rosaceae family, which contains many fruit, nut, and 

ornamental species. It has a basic chromosome number of 8. Amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLP) 

markers were used to determine the level of genetic diversity, genetic relationships, and fingerprinting of peach 

varieties cultivated in Kurdistan- Iraq. A total of 21 samples have been collected from different districts of Kurdistan 

including Duhok, Erbil and Sulaymani. The samples were analyzed by using AFLP markers. Two primer 

combinations generated a total of 124 bands and among them 109 (87.9%) were polymorphic. Using UPGMA 

clustering analysis method based on the similarity coefficient, varieties were separated into three major genetic 

clusters. The first genetic cluster mostly includes (Korneet asfer, Floredasin, Motaem bkornet mobaker (ahmer), 

Sprink time, Nectar 4, Nectar 6, Ahmer myse, Badree, Mskee, Tenee, Esmailly, Migrant, Abo-zalma, Silverking). The 

second genetic cluster includes (Read heaven, Sharly shapor). While the third genetic cluster contains (Zard, Elberta, 

Zaefaran, Dixired, j. h. hale). Genetic distance among 21 peach varieties were ranged from 0.0073 to 0.8572. The 

lowest genetic distance (0.0073) was found between varieties (Tenee) and (Esmailly) which were collected from Erbil, 

whereas the highest genetic distance (0.8572) was found between varieties num (Badree) and (Elberta) collected from 

Duhok and Sulaymani respectively. The results obtained in this study may assist peach cultivation and peach breeding 

programs in the region. 

KEYWORDS: - Peach (Prunus persica), Genetic Diversity, AFLP-Markers. 

T 

INTRODUCTION 

he peach (Prunus persica) is one of the 

species of genus, Prunus, native to 

China that bears an edible juicy fruit. It is a 

deciduous tree growing to 5-10m tall, and it is an 

important member of the Rosaceae family, 

which contains many fruit, nut, and ornamental 

species having a basic chromosome number of 8 

(Wang et al. 2002). The scientific name persica, 

along with the word "peach" itself and its 

cognates in many European languages, derives 

from an early European belief that peaches were 

native to Persia. The modern botanical 

consensus is that they originate in China, and 

were introduced to Persia and the Mediterranean 

region along the Silk Road before Christian 

times (Huxley 1992). 

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based 

methods for genetic diversity analyses have been 

developed, such as random amplified 

polymorphic DNA (RAPD), amplified fragment 

length polymorphism (AFLP), and inter simple 

sequence repeat (ISSR/SSR). Each technique is 

not only differed in principal, but also in the type 

and amount of polymorphism detected. AFLP 

technique is based on the selective PCR 

amplification of restriction fragments from a 

total digest of genomic DNA. The technique 

involves three basic steps: (1) restriction of the 

DNA and ligation of oligonucleotide adapters, 

(2) selective amplification of sets of restriction 

fragments, and (3) gel analysis of the amplified 

fragments (Vos et al. 1995). 

Recently, the use of Amplified fragment 

length polymorphisms (AFLP) in genetic marker 

technologies has become the main tool due to its 

capability to disclose a high number of 

polymorphic markers by single reaction, high 

throughput, and cost effective (Jones et al. 

1997). AFLP have been widely utilized markers 

for constructing genetic linkage maps and 

genetic diversity analysis. It is a useful 

technique for breeders to accelerate plant 

improvement for a variety of criteria, by using 

molecular genetic maps to undertake markerassisted 

selection and positional cloning for 

special characters. Molecular markers are more 

reliable for genetic studies than morphological 

characteristics because the environment does not 

affect them (Vos et al. 1995). 

AFLP markers have successfully been used 

for analyzing genetic diversity in some other 

plant species. It has been proven the most 

efficient technique estimating diversity in barley 

(Russel et al. 1997), provides detailed estimates 

of the genetic variation of papaya (Kim et al. 

2002), and have been used to analyze the genetic 

17


diversity of various plants such as tea (Lai et al. 

2001), eggplant (Mace et al. 1999), peach 

(Manubens et al. 1999), apple (Guolao et al. 

2001), rapeseed (Lombard et al. 1999), wild 

radish (Man and Ohnishi 2002), Musa sp. (Wong 

et al. 2001; Ude et al. 2002), peanut (Herselman, 

2003), soybean (Ude et al. 2003), and maize 

(Lübberstedt et al. 2000). A little work has been 

done on peach using AFLP molecular techniques 

for evaluating genetic diversity in relatedness 

with geographical origin. 

The objectives of this study are to use AFLP 

markers for varietal identification and to 

estimate genetic relationships among the peach 

varieties from Kurdistan region of Iraq. 

MATERIALS AND METHODS 

Sample Collection 

Leaf samples of the local peach varieties 

were collected from different districts in 

Kurdistan region and analyzed for AFLP. These 

samples were obtained from Duhok, Erbil and 

Sulaymani. The varieties of peach selected for 

this study were: Korneet asfer, Floredasin, 

Motaem bkornet mobaker (Ahmer), Sprink time, 

Nectar 4, Nectar 6, Ahmer myse, Badree, 

Mskee, Tenee, Esmailly, Migrant, Abo-zalma, 

Silverking, Read heaven, Sharly shapor, Zard, 

Elberta, Zaefaran, Dixired, and J. H. Hale. 

DNA Extraction 

From each variety, approximately 3g of 

young leaf tissue was collected and grounded to 

a fine powder using liquid nitrogen. DNA was 

extracted as reported by Weigand et al., (1993). 

This method was based on the use of 10ml of 

pre-heated (60 o c) 2x CTAB extraction buffer 

(2x CTAB, 5M NaCl, 1M Tris-HCl, 0.5 M 

EDTA), mixed well, and incubated at 60 ° c in 

shaking water bath. After 30 min of incubation, 

the mixture was extracted with an equal volume 

of choloroform/isoamyl alcohol (24:1, v/v). The 

mixture was then centrifuged (at 4000 rpm for 

30min). The aqueous phase was transferred into 

another tube and precipitated with 0.66 volume 

of isopropanol, and then TE- buffer was added to 

dissolve the nucleic acids. 

The samples of DNA obtained were loaded 

on to a 0.8% agarose gel, and DNA 

concentration was estimated by comparing the 

florescence with �DNA standard. 

PCR Amplification of AFLP- primers 

The AFLP analysis was performed according 

to Vos et al. (1995) method with minor 

modifications. Initially, genomic DNA (500ng of 

each sample) were digested with 5U each of two 

restriction enzymes, Tru91 (recognition site 

5’T↓TAA3’) and PstI (recognition site 

5’CTGCA↓G3’) in 30µl a final volume of 

18 

reaction mix containing, 1x one phor-all buffer 

(pharmacia Bioteh, Uppsala, Sweden) incubating 

three hours at 37 o C. The DNA fragments were 

then ligated with PstI and Tru91 adapter. This 

was achieved by adding 50 pmol of Tru91adapter, 

5 pmol of PstI-adapter,in a reaction 

containing1U of T4-DNA ligase, 1mM rATP in 

1x one phore-all buffer and incubating for 3 

hours at 37 o C. After ligation, the reaction 

mixture was diluted to 1:5 using sterile distilled 

water. Pre-selective PCR amplification was 

performed in a reaction volume of 20µl 

containing 50ng of each of the oligonucleotid 

primers (P00, M43) corresponding to the Tru91 

and PstI adapters (P00 primer corresponding for 

Pst1 adapter and M43 primer corresponding for 

Mse1(Tru91) adapter), 2µl of template- DNA, 

1U Taq DNA polymerase, 1x PCR buffer and 

5mM dNTPs, in a final volume 20µl. 

The PCR reaction was performed in a thermal 

cycler using following temperature: 30 cycles of 

30sec at 94 ºC, 6 at 60ºC, 1min at 72ºC. After 

that, the pre-amplification product was diluted to 

1:5 and 2µl used as template for selective 

amplification. Selective amplification was 

conducted using Tru91 and Pst1 primers 

combinations. The Pre-amplification and 

selective amplification primer combinations that 

used in this study are (P101+M181, 

P101+M184). Amplification was performed in 

thermo cycler programmed for 36 cycles with 

the following cycle profile: a 30sec DNA 

denaturation step at 94ºC, 30 sec annealing step 

(see below) and a 1min extension step at 72ºC. 

The annealing temperature was varied in the first 

few cycle it was 65ºC; in each subsequent cycle 

for the next 12 cycle it was reduced by 0.7ºC 

(touchdown PCR), and for the remaining 23 

cycles, it was 56ºC. The selective amplification 

products were loaded onto 6% denaturating 

polyacrylamid gels, and DNA fragments were 

visualized by silver staining kit (Promega, 

Madison, Wis) as described by the supplier, 

silver-stained gels were scaned to capture digital 

images of the gels after air dryin. 

Data analysis 

Total bands were scored visually and 

polymorphic bands were recorded for presence 

(1) or absence (0). The polymorphic adapt was 

used to estimate Jaccard coefficient of 

dissimilarity (Rohlf, 1993). The similarity 

coefficient was used for construction of 

dendrogram base on Unweighted Pair-Group 

Method Arithmetic (UPGMA). The dissimilarity 

coefficient estimation and dedrogram 

construction were performed using NTSYS-pc 

ver. 1.8 software (Rohlf, 1993).


RESULTS & DISCUSSION 

Figure 1 shows a typical AFLP gel image for 

the 21 varieties studied with the primer 

combinations (P101/M181) and (P101/M184). In 

this study genetic fingerprinting, phylogenetic 

diversity and genetic distance of peach varieties 

from Kurdistan region was evaluated by using 

AFLP markers. There were some studies had 

been done to estimate diversity of peach 

cultivars in Lebanon using microsattalite primer, 

(Chalak et al., 2006), AFLP markers also used to 

evaluate genetic diversity of ornamental peaches, 

(Donglin et al., 2005). Table 4 summarize the 

values of genetic distance of 21 peach varieties 

from different sources and locations. 

The genetic distance values ranged from 

(0.0073 to 0.8572). It was clear that the lowest 

genetic distance (0.0073) was found between 

varieties (Tenee) and (Esmailly) which were 

collected from Erbil, whereas the highest genetic 

distance (0.8572) was found between varieties 

Badree) and (Elberta) were collected from 

Duhok and Sulaymani respectively means that 

the similarity between them is very low. 

The dendrogram based on UPGMA produced 

three major clusters as shown in (Figure 2). The 

first genetic cluster mostly consisted of (Korneet 

Asfer, Floredasin, Motaem Bkornet Mobaker 

(Ahmer), Sprink Time, Nectar 4, Nectar 6, 

Ahmer Myse, Badree, Mskee, Tenee, Esmailly, 

Migrant, Abo-zalma, Silverking). The second 

genetic cluster consist of (Read Heaven, Sharly 

Shapor). While the third genetic cluster consists 

of (Zard, Elberta, Zaefaran, Dixired, J. H. Hale). 

The total number of amplified DNA fragments 

may make these varieties comes in separated 

groups. Studying the morphology of these 

varieties, it is noted that they have some 

characters that are close to each other, for 

example, the shape and color of fruits. Subclusters 

separated the varieties and form distinct 

genetic diversity among clusters. 

The genetic relationship among the cultivars 

based on molecular marker analysis will be 

useful for varietal identification and in further 

genetic improvement. It will also provide 

support for selection of parents for crossing in 

order to broaden the genetic base of the breeding 

programs (Thorman and Osborn, 1992). 

Estimation of genetic relationships will help to 

prevent genetic erosion within varieties by 

selecting a large number of different clones of 

each variety (Rühl, et al., 2000). Results of this 

study will provide guidance for future 

germplasm collection, conservation and breeding 

of peach. 

Table (1): Primer name and their sequences used for AFLP analysis 

No. Pre selective primer (‘5------3’) Selective primer (‘5-----3’) 

1 POO GACTGCGTACATGCAG P101 GACTGCGTACATGCAGAACG 

2 M43 GATGAGTCCTGAGTAAATA M181 GATGAGTCCTGAGTAACCCC 

3 M184 GATGAGTCCTGAGTAACCGA 

Table (2): Name and sampling region of the peach varieties used 

No. Name of Varieties Location Number of 

1. Korneet Asfer, Floredasin, Motaem Bkornet mobaker (ahmer), Sprink time, 

Nectar 4, Nectar 6, Ahmer myse, Badree 

Varieties 

Duhok 8 

2. Mskee, tenee, Esmailly, Migrant, Abo-zalma, Silverking Erbil 6 

3. Read heaven, Sharly shapor, Zard, Elberta, Zaefaran, Dixired, J. H. hale Sulaymani 7 

Total 21 

Table (3): Total number of bands, number of polymorphic bands and their 

percentage as amplified by the two primer combinations. 

AFLP primer Combination Number of Amplified 

Bands 

Number of 

Polymorphic Bands 

Percentage of Polymorphic 

Bands 

P101/M181 57 49 85.9% 

P101/M184 67 60 89.5% 

Total 124 109 87.9% 

19


A B 

Fig. (1): AFLP Gel image of 21 peach varieties produced by primer combination (P101/M181) and 

(P101/M184). ((1.Korneet asfer 2. Floredasin 3. Motaem bkornet mobaker (ahmer) 4. Sprink time 5. Nectar 4 6. 

Nectar 6 7. Ahmer myse 8. Badree 9. Mskee 10. Tenee 11. Esmailly 12. Migrant 13. Abo-zalma 14. Silverking 

15. Read heaven 16. Sharly shapor 17. Zard 18. Elberta 19. Zaefaran 20. Dixired 21. j. h. hale). 

20


Table (4): Genetic distance (Jaccard coefficient) between the peach varieties 

Fig. (2): The genetic relationship between peach varieties as estimated by AFLP markers analysis. 

21


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ىووب شةبادةوامؤب ىندشليسايد ؤب AFLP ىليهكةت ةدسةطةذهيص 

قاشَيع-ىاتطدسوك 

ةه خؤخ 

ىناكةسؤج ىةوةهيطان و 

ةتــخوـث 

وضَيوط وةويم ىكةووِس ةه سؤص ىكةيةسامر ةك ةناكةساذَهوط ةكةووِس ىناضَيخ ىطنشط ىليماذنةئ خؤخ ىكةووس 

مةه 

. ةيةي ىايمؤطؤمؤشك تشةي ىتشط ىكةيةوَيشةب ةك تَيشطةدؤخةه ةوةنذناصاس ىكةووس و مةداب و قةتظف 

ىذنةويةث و ىيةوامؤب ىنووبشةباد ىتطائ ىندشليسايد ؤب ةواشهَيي ساكةب 

ةه خؤخ ىةنونم سؤج نةي و تظيب ىتشط ىؤك 

AFLP 

ىليهكةت ةدسةطةذهيص ادةيةوةهيزَيوت 

. اذناتطدسوكةه خؤخ ىناكةسؤج ىيةوامؤب ىسؤمةنجةث و ىيةوامؤب 

وةوةهيزَيوت 

وةوةناشكؤك ىنامَيوط وشَيهوةي و نؤيد ىناكاطضَيساث ةه نةي سةيةه ىاتطدسوك ىناكةصاواج ةضوان 

و ىاتطدسوك ةه ةساج مةكةي ؤب ةك 

AFLP 

ىليهكةت ةدسةطةذهيص ىناهَييساكةب ةب اسد مانجةئ ؤب ىاييةوامؤب ىندشلَهةتيش 

ةذناب ىتشط ىؤك سةلَيجتطةد ىثوشط وود ىناهَييساكةب ةب ادةيةوةهيزَيوت مةه 

و ىووبةوَيشةشف وصاوايج 

ىدشلَهةتيشةب تةبيات 

) %89( 

ىايذناب ) 406( 

UPGMA 

ةك , ذناب ) 421( 

ةه 

ىووب ىتيشب 

ىسةتويجمؤك ىةمانسةب يناهَييساكةب ةب 

DNA 

. ىووب ةوَيشواي 

. تَيشهَييةدساكةب ادةكةضوان 

ىكةوان ىششت ىناكةواشكسؤص 

) % 4224( 

ىايذناب 

خؤخ 

ىةكةسؤج نةي و تظيب تشط ةيةوةهيزيوت مةئ ىناكةمانجةئ 

ةب تنطةب تشث ةب و ىيةوامؤب ىسامائ ىةوةناذلَيهو 

ةه ووب ىتيشب مةكةي ىثوشطةوامؤب . ىكةسةط ىثوشطةوامؤب َىط ؤب ىاشــلهَيهؤث ةوةماشطؤِشث و ميهكةت مةئ ىةطَيِس ةه 

Korneet asfer, Floredasin, Motaem bkornet mobaker (ahmer), Sprink time, Nectar 4, Nectar 6, Ahmer 

ووب ىتيشب مةوود ىثوشطةوامؤب و ) myse, Badree, Mskee, Tenee, Esmailly, Migrant, Abo-zalma, Silverking 

Zard, Elberta, Zaefaran, Dixired, 

ىيةوامؤب ىسوود ويترمةك . ووب 

025242 

( ةه ووب ىتيشب مةي َيط ىثوشطةوامؤب ةو 

ؤب 

) Read heaven, Sharly shapor( 

) 42( 

020040 ىاوَين ةه خؤخ ىناكةسؤج ىاوَين ىيةوامؤب ىسوود .) j. h. hale 

و ) 5( 

ةسامر ىاوَينةه ىيةوامؤب ىسوود ويشتسؤص اذلَيتاكةه , شَيهوةي ىاطضَيساث ةه ووب ) 44( 

و ) 40( 

ؤب وشاب ىلَيسةذيتةمساي و شخةبدوط ةنامانجةئ مةئ 

23 

( 

ةه 

ةسامر ىسؤج ىاوَينةه 

. نةي ىاودةه نةي ىنامَيوط و نؤيد ىاطضَيساث ةه ووب 

ةي ةه خؤخ ىناكةشاب ةسؤج ىنذناض و ىدشكسؤص و ىاذطَيهو 

ىدسازبَهةي ىتطةبةمةب خؤخ ىناساكةدسةوسةث 

و ىاسايتوج 

) 45( 

. 

اذقاشَيع 

ىناتطدسوك 

ىمَيس


24 

قارعلا ناتسدروك ميلقأ يف خوخلا ةهكافل فانص لأا زيمتو يثارولا عونتلا يف AFLPلا 

تارشؤم مادختسا 

ةهكاف لثم وكاوفلا نم ديدعلا نمضتت يتلا ةيدرولا ةلئاعلا يف ةمهملا ةهكافلا دحأ 

داجيلا ةساردلا هذى يف تمدختسا 

AFLP 

لا اندلا تارشؤم 

. 5 

) Prunus persica( 


خوخلا ربتعي 

يموسوموركلا ددعلا تاوذ ةيرىزلا ةهكافلاو لقنلا 

قارعلا يف ىلولأا ةساردلا هذى ربتعتو 

, قارعلا ناتسدروك يف ةعورزملا خوخلا فانصأ نيب ةيثارولا ةقلاعلاو يثارولا عونتلا 

نم ةفلتخم قطانم نم ةنيع 24 عمج مت ذا. 

ةيضفنلا ةهكافلا ىلع AFLP اندلا تارشؤم مدختست يتلا ناتسدروك ميلقأو 

مت 

AFLPلا 

تارشؤم مادختساب ايثارو تانيعلا ليلحت متو 

ذا 

, ليبرأ و ةيناميلسلا 

, كوىد 

تاظفاحم 

تمض ميلقلأا 

مزحلا ددع تناك نيح يف ةنيابتم مزح ) % 54 ( 406 اهنيب نمو ةمزح 421 تجتنأ يتلاو تائدابلا نم 

نيتفيلوت مادختسا 

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42 

ةهباشتملا 

UPGMA 

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, يرذب, 

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, 3 

راتكن 

تحوارت ةسوردملا فانصلأا نيب يثارولا دعبلا حوارت. 

) لوى جا يج ديرتسكيد 

يثارو دعب ىلعأ امنيب 

, ) ليبرأ ةظفاحم نم( 

نأ لمؤملا نم . يلاوتلا ىلع ةيناميلسلاو كوىد نم تعمج يتلا 

و 

, 1 

راتكن 

, ميات كنربس 

, ) رمحأ( 

ركبم 

تمضف ةيناثلا ةيسيئرلا ةيثارولا ةعومجملا 

و. 

) كنيكرفليس 

, ةينارفعز 

, اتريبلا 

, درز( 

ةثلاثلا ةيسيئرلا 

يليعامساو 

ينيت نيفنصلا نيب ناك يثارو دعب لقأ ناو 025242-020040نيب 

اتربلأ و رفصأ تينروك نيفنصلا نيب تدجو ) 025242( 

يف 

ةيبرتلا تلااجم يف خوخلا يبرم كلذكو خوخلا ةعارز ريوطت يف ةساردلا هذى نم اهيلع انلصح يتلا جئاتنلا دعاسي 

. 

قارعلا ناتسدروك ميلقأ


EXISTENCE AND UNIQUENESS SOLUTION FOR NONLINEAR 

VOLTERRA INTEGRAL EQUATION 

RAAD. N. BUTRIS * and AVA SH. RAFEEQ ** 

* Dept. of Mathematics, Faculty of Education, University of Zakho ,Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

** Dept. of Mathematics, Faculty of Science, University of Duhok ,Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

(Received: February 14, 2010; Accepted for publication: November 28, 2010) 

ABSTRACT 

In this paper, we study the existence and uniqueness solution for nonlinear Volterra integral equation, by using 

both methods ( Picard Approximation ) and (Banach Fixed Point Theorem). Also these methods could be developed 

and extended throughout the study. 

KEYWORDS: Existence and Uniqueness Solution; Volterra Integral Equation; Non-linear; Picard Approximation; Banach 

Fixed Point Theorem. 

I 

INTRODUCTION 

ntegral equations are encountered in 

various fields of science and numerous 

applications (oscillation theory, fluid dynamics, 

electrical engineering, etc.). 

Exact (closed-form) solutions of integral 

equations play an important role in the proper 

understanding of qualitative features of many 

phenomena and processes in various areas of 

natural science. Lots of equations of physics, 

chemistry and biology contain functions or 

parameters which are obtained from experiments 

and hence are not strictly fixed. Therefore, it is 

expedient to choose the structure of these 

functions so that it would be easier to analyze 

and solve the equation. As a possible selection 

criterion, one may adopt the requirement that the 

model integral equation admit a solution in a 

closed form. Exact solutions can be used to 

verify the consistency and estimate errors of 

various numerical, asymptotic, and approximate 

methods. Recently, [2,3,6]. 

Pachpztte [5] studied the global existence of 

solutions of some volterra integral and integrodifferential 

equations of the form 

t 

x ( t ) �h( t ) ��k( 

t , s ) g ( s, x ( s )) ds , 

and 

0 

t 

' 

x t f t x t k t s g s x s ds 

( ) � ( , ( ), � ( , ) ( , ( )) ), 

0 

with initial condition x(0) � x . o 

Tidke [7] investigated the existence of global 

solutions to first-order initial-value problems, 

with non-local condition for nonlinear mixed 

Volterra-Fredholm integro differential equations 

in Banach spaces of the form. 

t b 

' 

x () t f ( t , x ( t ), k ( t , s, x ( s)) ds, h( t , s, x ( s)) ds ) 

0 0 

� � � 

with non-local condition 

x (0) �g( x ) � x . o 

Consider the following non linear system of 

Volterra integral equations which has the form : 

t s 

( , ) ( ) ( , ( , ), ( , �) ( �, ( �, )) �, 

o o 

a 

o 

�� 

o 

x t x F t f s x s x G s g x x d 

� �� 

� 

b( s) 

as ( ) 

g ( �, x ( �, x )) d� ) ds, 

o 

(1) 

where x D 

n 

R 

n 

domain subset of Euclidean space R . 

Let the vectors functions 

f ( t , x , y , z ) � ( f ( t , x , y , z ), f ( t , x , y , z ),..., f ( t , x , y , z )) 

� � D is a closed and bounded 

1 2 

g ( t , x ) � ( g1( t , x ), g2( t , x ),..., g n ( t , x )) 

and 

Fo ( t ) � ( Fo1( t ), Fo2( t ),..., Fon ( t )) 

are defined and continuous in the domain 

( t , x , y , z ) �[ a, b] �D �D1 �D 2 � ( ��, � ) �D �D1 �D 

(2) 

2 

where 1 D and D 2 are closed and bounded 

m 

domains subsets of Euclidean space R . 

Suppose that the functions f ( t , x , y , z ) and 

g ( t , x ) satisfy the following inequalities : 

f ( t , x , y , z ) �M, g ( t , x ) � N 

(3) 

f ( t , x , y , z ) �f( t , x , y , z ) �Kx�x�Ly� y 

1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 

�Qz1� z 2 

(4) 

g ( t , x ) �g( t , x ) �Hx� x 

(5) 

1 2 1 2 

for all t �[ a, b] , x , x 1, x 2 �D , y , y 1, y 2 � D1 

, 

z , z 1, z 2 � D2 

. 

where M and N are positive constant vectors 

and K , L , Q and H are positive constant 

matrices. Let G(t , s) is an (n � n) positive 

matrix which is defined and continuous in the 

n 

25


domain [ a, b] � [ a, b] 

satisfying the following 

condition: 

( t s) 

G ( t , s) e , , 0 

� � � 

�� (6) 

where �� a � s � t � b � � 

and also 

h � max t�[ a, b ] b( t ) �a( t ) , . � max t�[ a, b ] . , 

where a(t) and b(t) are continuous functions 

defined on the domain (2). 

We defined the non-empty sets 

Df � D � M ( b �a) � 

� 

�� 

D1f�D1�HM( b �a) � 

� 

� 

D2f�D2 � hHM ( b �a) �� 26 

(7) 

Furthermore, we suppose that the greatest 

eigenvalue � max of the matrix: 

� 

� � ( K � H ( L �Qh ))( b � a) 

, does not exceed 

� 

unity , i.e : �max � 1. 

PICARD APPROXIMATION METHOD 

The study of the existence and uniqueness 

solution of Volterra integral equation (1) will be 

introduced by the theorems : 

Theorem 1. ( Existence Theorem ) 

Let f ( t , x , y , z ) , g ( t , x ) and Fo() t be vector 

functions which are defined and continuous on 

the domain (2), satisfy the inequalities (3),(4) 

and (5) , also G(t,s) is defined and continuous 

in [ a, b] � [ a, b] 

, satisfies the condition (6), then 

the sequence of functions : 

t s 

m 1 ( , ) ( ) ( , ( , ), ( , ) ( , ( , )) , 

o o 

a 

m � � o m � � 

�� 

o 


� � �� 

b( s) 

� g ( �, x ( , )) ) , 

as ( ) 

m � x o d� ds 

(9) 

with x o ( t , x ) �F( ) o o t �xo, m � 1,2,... 

convergent uniformly on the domain : 

( t , x ) �[ a, b] �D f � ( ��, � ) �D 

f 

(10) 

to the limit function x �( 

t , x o ) which is 

satisfying the integral equation: 

t s 

x ( t , x ) �F( t ) �� f ( s, x ( s, x ), G ( s, �) g ( �, x ( �, x )) d� 

, 

o o 

a 

o � �� 

o 

b( s) 

� g ( �, x ( �, x )) ) , 

as ( ) 

o d� ds 

(11) 

with x � ( t , x 0) 

� Fo ( t ) � M ( b � a) 

(12) 

and 

(13) 

m 

�1 

x � ( t , x 0) � x m ( t , x 0) 

� � ( E �� ) M ( b �a) 

. 

Proof: Consider the sequence of functions 

x ( t , x ), x ( t , x ), ... , x ( t , x ) , ... defined by 

1 0 2 0 m 0 

recurrence relation (9) , each function of these 

sequence is continuous in t , x . 

From (9) when m = 0 and using (3), we have 

t 

x 1( t , x 0) 

�Fo( t ) � Fo ( t ) ��f( 

s, x , ( , ) ( , ) , 

a 

o � G s � g � x o d� 

� 

b( s) 

as ( ) 

s 

�� 

g ( �, x ) d�) ds � Fo 

() t 

t 

s b ( s ) 

� �a o �� o � as ( ) 

o 

o 

f ( s, x , G ( s, � ) g ( �, x ) d� , g ( �, x ) d� ) ds 

so that 

x 1( t , x 0) 

� Fo ( t ) �M( b � a) 

(14) 

By using (5) and (14), we get 

t 

y ( t , x ) � y ( t , x ) � G ( t , s) g ( s, x ( s, x )) ds � 

� 

1 0 0 0 

�� 

1 0 

� 

t 

� 

t 

�� 

G ( t , s ) g ( s, x ) ds 

� G ( t , s) g ( s, x (, s x )) �g( 

s, x )) ds 

�� 

� � � 

1 0 0 

t 

��( t�s) e H x 1(, s x 0) x 0) 

ds 

�� 

� 

therefore 

� 

y 1( t , x 0) �y0( t , x 0) 

� HM ( b � a) 

� 

for all xo �D and f 

� 

t 

y (, t x) 

� G ( t , s) g ( s, x ) ds �D 

0 0 

�� 

0 1f 

Again, using (5) and (14), we have 

b ( t ) b ( t ) 

� � 

z ( t , x ) � z ( t , x ) � g ( s, x ( s, x )) ds � g ( s , x )) ds 

1 0 0 0 

a( t ) 

1 0 

a( t ) 

0 

� 

bt () 

� g ( s, x (, s x )) �g( 

s, x )) ds 

at () 

� 

t 

1 0 0 

� H x (, s x ) �x) 

ds 

�� 

1 0 0 

and hence 

z ( t , x ) �z( t , x ) �hHM( b � a) 

1 0 0 0 

for all xo �D and f 

� 

bt () 

z (, t x) 

� g ( s, x ) ds �D 

0 0 

at () 

0 2f 

So that 

x1(, t x0) 

� D where xo � D , f t � [ a, b]. 

Therefore by mathematical induction, we get 

x ( t , x ) � F ( t ) �M( b � a) 

, 

m 0 o 

� 

y m ( t , x 0) �y0( t , x 0) 

� HM ( b � a) 

, 

� 

and 

z ( t , x ) �z( t , x ) �hHM( b � a) 

, 

1 0 0 0 

for all t [ a, b] 

� , xo Df 

z 0 (, t x0) 

� D2f. 

In other words 

x (, t x) 

D y (, t x) 

D 

m 

0 

� , 0 0 1 

0 

. 

. 

y (, t x) 

� D f and 

� , m 0 1 � and z m (, t x0) 

D2 

for all t [ a, b] 

� , xo Df 

z 0 (, t x0) 

� D2f, 

where 

� , 

y (, t x) 

� D f and 

� , 0 0 1


� 

t 

y ( t , x ) � G ( t , s ) g ( s, x ( s, x )) ds, m �0,1,2,... 

m 0 

�� 

m 0 

and 

� 

bt () 

z ( t , x ) � g ( s, x ( s, x )) ds , m �0,1,2,.. 

m 0 

at () 

m 0 

Now, we claim that the sequence of functions 

x (, t x) 

is uniformly convergent on the domain 

m 

0 

[ a, b] � Df 

. 

For m=1 in (9) using (3)-(5), we find that 

t 

x ( t , x ) � x ( t , x ) � � f ( s, x ( s, x ), 

2 0 1 0 

a 

1 0 

s 

�� x 1( s, x 0 

bs ( ) 

� as ( ) 

1 0 

G ( s, � ) g ( �, )) d� , g ( �, x ( �, x )) d� 

) � 

� � 

bs ( ) 

s 

( , , ( , � ) ( � , ) �, g ( �, x ) d�) 

f s x G s g x d ds 

o 

�� 

o 

as ( ) 

t 

( K x 1( s, x ) 

a 

o � x o 

� 

� HL x 1( 

s, x o ) � x o 

� 

� 

�QhHx( s, x ) � x ) ds 

� � 

1 

o o 

t 

� 

� � ( KM ( b �a) � HLM ( b �a) �QhHM 

( b � a)) ds 

a 

� 

� 

2 

� ( K �H( L �Qh)) 

M ( b � a) 

� 

� �M ( b � a) 

. 

Suppose that the following inequality 

k 

x k �1( t , x 0) � x k ( t , x 0) 

� � M ( b � a) 

(14) 

holds for some m=k, then we shall prove that 

the inqualtiy 

k �1 

x ( t , x ) � x ( t , x ) � � M ( b � a) 

k �20k �10 

Is true for all t [ a, b] 

� , xo � Df 

From (9) when m=k+1 and the inequality 

(14), we get 

x ( t , x ) �x( t , x ) � ( K x ( s, x ) �x( 

s, x ) � 

k �20k �10 

t 

� a 

k �1 

0 k 0 

� 

HL x k �1( s, x 0) �xk( s, x 0) �QhH 

x k �1( 

s, x 0) �xk( 

s, x 0) 

) ds 

� 

t 

k � k 

� � ( K � M ( b �a) � HL � M ( b �a) � 

a 

� 

k 

QhH � M ( b �a)) 

ds 

� 

� 

k 

( K � H ( L �Qh )) � M ( b � a) 

� 

k �1 

� M ( b �a) 

� 

By mathematical induction and by (9) and 

(12) the following inequality holds: 

m 

x m�1( t , x 0) � x m( 

t , x 0) 

� � M ( b � a) 

(15) 

� 

where � � ( K � H ( L � Qh))( b � a) 

� 

m � 

for all 0,1,2,... 

From (15) we conclude that for k � 1, 

we 

have the following inequality : 

x ( t , x ) �x( t , x ) � x ( t , x ) �x( 

t , x ) � 

m �k 0 m 0 m �k 0 m �k �1 

0 

2 

o 

x ( t , x ) �x( t , x ) �... � x ( t , x ) �x( 

t , x ) 

m �k �1 0 m �k �2 0 m �1 

0 m 0 

� � ) � � ) �... � 

m �k �1 m �k �2 

x 1( t , x 0 �x0x1( t , x 0 �x0 

m 

� x (, t x ) � x 

1 0 0 

m 2 k �2k�1 � � ( E � � � � �... � � � � ) x 1(, t x 0) � x 0 

therefore 

m 

�1 

x m �k ( t , x 0) � x m ( t , x 0) 

� � ( E � �) M ( b � a) 

(16) 

where E is identity matrix, t � [ a, b] 

and xo � D . f 

By using the condition (8) and the inequality 

(16), we find that 

m 

lim � � 0 

(17) 

m �� 

The relations (16) and (17) prove the uniform 

convergence of the sequence of function (9) in 

the domain (10) as m ��. 

Let 

lim x ( t , x ) � x ( t , x ) 

(18) 

m �� 

m 

0 � 0 

Since the sequence of functions x m (, t x 0) 

are 

defined and continuous in the domain (10), then 

the limiting function x � (, t x 0) 

is also defined and 

continuous in the domain (10). 

Theorem 2. (Uniqueness Theorem) 

With the hypotheses and all conditions of the 

theorem 1 , the solution of Volterra integral 

equation (1) is unique. 

* 

Proof. Let x (, t x 0) 

be another solution of the 

Volterra integral equation (1), i.e. 

t s 

* * * 

( , ) ( ) ( , ( , ), ( , �) ( �, ( �, )) �, 

o o 

a 

o 

�� 

o 


� �� 

� 

b( s) 

as ( ) 

and then we have 

g x d ds 

* 

( �, x ( �, o )) � ) , 

( , 0 

* 

( , 0 

t 

a 

0 

s 

�� x( , x0 

bs ( ) 

� as ( ) 

0 

x t x ) � x t x ) � � f ( s, x ( s, x ), 

G ( s, � ) g ( �, � )) d� , g ( �, x ( �, x )) d� 

) � 

� � 

* 

s 

* 

b ( s ) 

* 

0 

�� 

0 

a( s) 

0 

f ( s, x ( s, x ), G ( s, � ) g ( �, x ( �, x )) d� , g ( �, x ( �, x )) d� ) ds 

t 

� � a 

� 

* � 

* 

( K x ( s, x o) � x ( s, x 0) � HL x ( s, x o) 

� x ( s, x 0) 

� 

� 

�QhHxsx� ds 

* 

( , o ) x (, s x 0) 

) 

� 

� 

* 

( K � H ( L �Qh ))( b � a) x ( t , x o ) � x ( t , x 0) 

so that 

x ( t , x ) x ( t , x ) �� x ( t , x ) x ( t , x ) 

* * 

0 � 0 0 � 0 

By iteration we find 

x ( t , x 

* 

) �x( t , x 

m 

) �� x ( t , x 

* 

) �x( 

t , x ) 

0 0 0 0 

But from the condition (8), we get 

m 

� � 0 when m ��, hence we obtain that 

27


28 

* 

0) � 0) 

. Hence 0 

x ( t , x x ( t , x 

solution of (1). 

x (, t x ) is a unique 

Remark 1. The following theorem ensure the 

stability solution of Volterra integral equation of 

non linear system (1) when there is a slight 

change in the point x 0 , accompanied with a 

noticeable change in the function x � x (, t x 0) 

. 

Theorem 3. :Let 

t s 

( , ) ( ) ( , ( , ), ( , �) ( �, ( �, )) �, 

o o 

a 

o 

�� 

o 


� �� 

� 

b( s) 

as ( ) 

g ( �, x ( �, x )) d� ) ds, 

is non linear system of Volterra integral 

equations , then the following inequality: 

x ( t , x ) x ( t , x ) � ( E � � ) F ( t ) F ( t ) 

1 2 �1 

1 2 

o � o o � o 

1 2 

is true for all t �[ a, b], x o , x o � Df 

Proof :From [4], we have 

t s 

o � o ��a o � �� 

o 

k k 

k k 

x ( t , x ) F ( t ) f ( s, x ( s, x ), G ( s, �) g ( �, x ( �, x )) d� 

, 

� 

b( s) 

as ( ) 

o 

k 

g ( �, x ( �, x )) d� ) ds, 

k k k 

with x o ( t , x o ) �Fo� x o , where k=1,2 

then we have 

t 

1 2 1 

1 

( , o ) � ( , o ) o ( ) � ( , ( , ), 

a 

o 

x t x x t x � F t � f s x s x 

s 

b( s) 

1 

1 

� ( , � ) ( �, ( �, )) �, ( �, ( �, )) ) 

o 

as ( ) 

o � 

�� 

� 

G s g x x d g x x d ds � 

�� 

t s 

2 2 2 

o ( ) ( , ( , ), ( , � ) ( �, ( �, )) �, 

a 

o 

�� 

o 

F t f s x s x G s g x x d 

� 

b( s) 

as ( ) 

g x x d ds 

2 

( �, ( �, o )) � ) 

t 

1 2 1 2 

o ( ) � o ( ) � K ( , o � ( , 

a 

o 

� 

� F t F t ( x s x ) x s x ) � 

� 

1 2 1 2 

HL x ( s, x o ) �x( s , x o ) � QhH x ( s , x o ) �x( 

s , x o ) ) ds 

� 

� F ( t ) �F( t ) � 

1 2 

o o 

� 

� 

1 2 

( K �H( L � Qh))( b �a) x ( t , x o) �x( 

t , x o) 

� F t F t x t x ) x t x ) , 

1 2 1 2 

o ( ) � o ( ) � � ( , o � ( , o 

so that 

1 2 �1 

1 2 

x ( t , x ) �x( t , x ) � ( E � � ) x ( t , x ) �x( 

t , x ) 

o o o o 

1 2 

for all t �[ a, b], x o , x o � Df 

By definition of stability [4], 

1 2 

o ( ) � o ( ) � ,assume that � � 

�1 

F t F t � 

get 

x ( t , x ) x ( t , x ) � 

1 2 

o o 

� � , 

o 

� 

( E �� ) 

for all t �[ a, b], 1 2 

x o , x o � Df 

, i.e. 

x (, t x o ) is a stable solution for all t � a. 

, we 

1. Banach fixed point theorem 

The study of the existence and uniqueness 

solution of integral equation (1). 

Lemma 1[1]. Let S be a space of all continuous 

functions on [a,b], for any z �S define z by 

z � max z ( t ) . Then (S, z ) is a Banach space. 

t�[ a, b ] 

Theorem 4[1]. ( Banach fixed point theorem ) 

Let E be a Banach space . If T is a 

contraction mapping on E , then T has one and 

only one fixed point in E . 

Theorem 5.( Existence and uniqueness 

theorem ) 

Let f ( t , x , y , z ) , g ( t , x ) and 0 () F t be vector 

functions which are defined and continuous on 

the domain (2) and satisfying all conditions of 

theorem 1. Then the Volterra integral equation 

(1) has a unique continuous solution z ( t , x o ) on 

the domain (2), provided that 0��o� 1 , where 

� 

�o � ( K � H ( L � Qh))( b � a) 

. 

� 

Proof: From lemma 1 , (S, z ) is a Banach 

space , define a mapping 

� �� 

* 

T on [a,b] as 

* 

T z( t , x ) o F ( t ) o 

t 

f ( s, z ( s, x ), 

a 

o 

s 

G ( s, �) g ( �, z ( �, x )) d� 

, 

�� 

o 

b( s) 

� g ( �, z ( �, x )) ) , 

as ( ) 

o d� ds (19) 

Since g ( t , x ), G ( t , s) and 0 () F t are continuous 

on the domain (2), then 

bt () 

t 

f ( t , z ( t , x ), ( , ) ( , ( , )) , ( , ( , )) ) 

o � G t s g s z s x d� g s z s x o 

o ds 

�� 

� is 

at () 

* 

continuous on the domain (2), thus T z ( t, x ) is o 

continuous on the same domain, hence 

* 

T z( t , x ) : S � S . 

o 

* 

Next we claim that T z( t, x ) is contraction 

o 

mapping on [a,b] , let z , w � [ a, b] 

, then from 

(19) and using (3)-(5), we have 

t 

* * 

t x � t x max F t � f s z s x 

o o o o 

t�[ a, b ] 

a 

T z ( , ) T w ( , ) � ( ) � ( , ( , ), 

s 

b( s) 

�� o � as ( ) 

G ( s, � ) g ( �, z ( �, x )) d� , g ( �, z ( �, x )) d� ) ds � 

�� 

t s 

( ) ( , ( , ), ( , � ) ( �, ( �, )) �, 

o 

a 

o 

�� 

o 

F t f s w s x G s g w x d 

� 

b( s) 

as ( ) 

g ( �, w ( �, x )) d� ) ds 

t�[ a, b ] a 

o 

s 

t 

� max � f ( s, z ( s, x o), � G ( s, � ) g ( �, z ( �, x o)) 

d� 

, 

� 

b( s) 

as ( ) 

g ( �, z ( �, x )) d� ) ds �f 

( s, w ( s, x ), 

�� 

o o 

s 

b( s) 

�� o � as ( ) 

G ( s, � ) g ( � , w ( �, x )) d� , g ( �, w ( �, x )) d� ) ds 

max ( ( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , ) 

t 

� 

K z s x �wsx� HL z s x �wsx� 

o o o o 

� 

� � 

t�[ a, b ] a 

o 

o


� 

�QhHz( s, x ) � w ( s , x ) ) ds 

o o 

� 

( K � H ( L �Qh ))( b � a) 

max z ( t , x o) �w 

( t , x o) 

� 

t�[ a, b ] 

so that 

T z ( t , x ) �T w ( t , x ) � � z ( t , x ) � w ( t , x ) 

* * 

o o o o 

Since 0��o� 1, 

we find 

mapping on [a,b], then by theorem 4, 

unique fixed point z ( t , x ) � [ a, b] 

, i.e. 

* 

T z ( t , x ) � z ( t , x ) and 

o o 

o 

* 

T is contraction 

t s 

* 

T z( t , x ) F ( t ) f ( s, z ( s, x ), G ( s, �) g ( �, z ( �, x )) d� 

, 

o o 

a 

o 

�� 

o 

� �� 

� 

b( s) 

as ( ) 

g ( �, z ( �, x )) d� ) ds, 

o 

* 

T has a 

Hence z ( t , x o ) is the unique continuous 

solution for the Volterra integral equation (1) on 

the domain (2). 

Remark 2. The Picard approximation method 

give us a global solution for the Volterra integral 

equation (1), while contraction mapping theorem 

give us a local solution for the Volterra integral 

equation (1). 

REFERENCES 

- Butris, R. N. , Solution for the Volterra Integral 

Equations of Second Kind, Thesis, M.Sc., 

University of Mosul, Iraq,(1984). 

- Gripenberg G., Londen S. O. and Staffens O., Volterra 

Integral and Functional Equations, Cambridge 

University Press, Cambridge, NewYork, (1990). 

- Miller, R. K. , Volterra integral equations in Banach 

space, Funkcialaj Ekvacioj, 18 (1995), 163-194. 

- Mitropolsky, Yu. A. and Martynuk D. I. , Periodic 

Solutions for the Oscillations Systems with 

Retarted Argument , Kiev, Ukraine, 1979 . 

- Pachpztte B. G., Applications of the leray-schauder 

alternative to some Volterra integral and integrodifferential 

equations, Indian J. pure appl. 

Math.,26(12): 1161–1168 (1995) 

- Polyanin A. D. and Manzhiriv A. V., Handbook of 

integral equations, CRC press, NewYork, 1998. 

- Tidke H. L., Existence of global solutions to nonlinear 

mixed Volterra-Fredholm integro-differential 

equations with nonlocal conditions, Elect. J. of diff. 

eq., Vol 2009,no.55,1-7(2009). 

ايةن ايراكواوةت اي ارًَتلىظ اشًَكواي ذ امَيذر انركراكًش اًناكات و ىوىبةي اندناخ ب ةياديرطةظىبخ َىهًلىكةظ َىظ 

مةئ اسةورةي و , ) ىخاناب اي رًَطًَج لااخ اندنالمةس ( و ) ىوىبكيزن ىب دراكًب ( اكَير وود اناهًئراكب ىذوةئ و ،ىلًَي 

ةتخىث 

. ويةكب هةرفرةب و ينخًَب شًَث ىرةس ل اكَير 

وةئ َىندناخ َىظ اكَيرب ىاًش 


مادختساب كلذو ةيطخلالا ةيلماكتلا اريتلوف تلاداعم نم ماظنل لحلا ةينادحوو دوجو ةسارد ثحبلا اذه نمضتي 

ةقيرطلا عيسوتو ريوطت ةساردلا هذه للاخ نم انعطتسا كلذكو .) خاناب ( ل ةتباثلا ةطقنلا ةنهربمو بيرقتلل دراكيب يتقيرط 

. 

هلاعا 

29


03 

PROTECTIVE EFFECTS OF MELATONIN, VITAMIN E, VITAMIN C 

AND THEIR COMBINATIONS ON CHRONIC LEAD –INDUCED 

HYPERTENSIVE RATS 

ISMAIL MUSTAFA MAULOOD 

Dept of Biology, College of Science, University of Salahaddin, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

(Received: February 25, 2010; Accepted for publication: March 9, 2011) 

ABSTRACT 

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of long-term administration of melatonin, vitamin C, 

vitamin E and their combinations, on blood pressure, serum nitric oxide (NO ),calcium ions and electrolytes in leadinduced 

hypertensive rats . Fifty four adult female albino rats were used in this study. The experimental rats were 

divided to nine groups, each of six individuals and the treatments were continued for 10 weeks as the following: 

Group 1: Control rats. Group 2: Sodium acetate (0.1mg/L drinking water). Group 3: Lead acetate (Pb). (0.1mg/L 

drinking water) Group 4: Pb + Melatonin. (60 mg of melatonin/kg diet) Group 5: Pb + Vitamin E. (1000 I.U of 

vitamin E /kg diet) ,(Group 6: Pb +Vitamin C (1mg of vitamin C/L drinking water). Group 7 (Combination ): Pb 

+Melatonin + Vitamin E ,Group 8 (Combination ): Pb + Melatonin +Vitamin C , and Group 9 ( Combination ): Pb 

+Vitamin E+ Vitamin C. A significant rise in systolic blood pressure (SBP) was noted 10 weeks after the onset of lead 

exposure in the Pb group. Administration of melatonin or vitamin c significantly reduced SBP on fourth week of 

treatments , whereas vitamin E caused a reduction in SBP on the sixth of treatments. Interestingly, melatonin in 

combination with vitamin E or C reduced SBP statistically more than vitamin E or C or their combinations. Coadministration 

of melatonin and vitamin E caused a significant decrease in heart rate on the eighth weeks of 

treatments. Reduction of serum NO that were detected in Pb treated rats were improved by melatonin, vitamin C, 

vitamin E and their combinations. Serum calcium was decreased in Pb treated rats , whereas serum sodium and 

potassium did not change. There were no statistical changes in body weight and food intake among the studied 

groups. 

In conclusion, long term lead-treated rats exhibited marked elevation of SBP , heart rate, and a significant 

reduction of serum NO . These abnormalities nearly disappeared with the melatonin in combination with vitamin E or 

C more than vitamin E or C or their combinations. 

KEY WORDS: Lead(Pb) , Hypertension, Nitric oxide Melatonin, Vitamin E, Vitamin C 

C 

INTRODUCTION 

hronic exposure to low levels of lead 

results in arterial hypertension in 

humans and in experimental animals (Sharp et 

al.,1988). Lead exposure increases blood 

pressure (BP) by unknown mechanisms (Badavi 

et al.,2008). Although different considerations 

have been raised to explain the pathogenesis of 

lead-induced hypertension, and several studies 

have suggested the primary involvement of the 

increased production of reactive oxygen species 

(ROS) in lead-exposed animals (Gonick et al., 

19997). Elevated levels of ROS reduce the 

bioavailability of NO. Zhang et al., (2005) 

indicated that expression of eNOS of the Pb 

exposed rats was significantly upregulated. It has 

been reported that chronic exposure to lead 

raises plasma angiotensin-converting enzyme 

and kininase II activities, events that can support 

a rise in BP by elevating plasma angiotensin II 

and depressing plasma bradykinin levels 

(Carmignani et al.,1999). In addition, alter 

prostaglandin production, enhance endothelin 

generation, and increase protein kinase C 

activity have been implicated in the pathogenesis 

of lead-associated hypertension (HTN) (Gonick 

et al.,1998). 

Melatonin, the principal secretory product of 

pineal gland, is produced during the dark phase 

of circadian cycle. It has been shown that 

melatonin involves in the regulation of many 

physiological system including cardiovascular 

system (Vazan et al.,2004).The administration 

of melatonin significantly attenuates BP in NOSinhibited 

hypertensive rats(Deniz et al., 2006). 

Melatonin has roles in the regulation of calcium 

homeostasis and bone metabolism (Suzuki et 

al.,2000). Vitamin E is a potent, naturally 

occurring lipid-soluble antioxidant that 

scavenges ROS and lipid peroxyl radicals 

(Braunlich et al., 1997). Administration of highdose 

vitamin E significantly ameliorates but did 

not completely abrogate lead-induced HTN 

(Nostratola et al.,1999) 

Vitamin C is also an important water-soluble 

antioxidant in biological fluids (Frei et al., 

1990). It readily scavenges reactive oxygen, 

nitrogen, and chlorine species, thereby 

effectively protecting other substrates from


oxidative damage. The reactive species 

scavenged by vitamin C include superoxide, 

aqueous peroxyl radicals, singlet oxygen, ozone, 

peroxynitrite, nitrogen dioxide, and 

hypochlorous acid (Halliwell,1996). Attri et al., 

(2003) concluded that concomitant 

administration of vitamin C ameliorates HTN, 

and normalizes NO levels. Compared with 

control group, blood Pb level was decreased 

significantly after given vitamin C, vitamin E or 

combination of vitamin C and E. The 

concentrations of superoxide dismutase, NO and 

NOS were significantly higher in vitamin C 

and/or E groups than those in control group 

(Li et al., 2008) 

The effects of co-administration of melatonin 

with vitamin C and E on SBP are not examined 

yet. Therefore, the aim of the present study was 

to investigate the effects of long-term 

administration of melatonin, vitamin C, vitamin 

E and in combinations, on BP, serum NO 

,calcium ions ,electrolytes and body weight gain 

or loss in lead-induced hypertensive rats. 


Animals and housing 

Fifty four adult female albino rats (Rattus 

norvegicus) were used in this study. All rats 

were weighing about (240 - 280 gm) and (7-9) 

weeks of age at the time when the experiment 

started. Animals were housed in plastic cages 

bedded with wooden chips. They were housed 

under standard laboratory conditions, 12:12 

light/dark photoperiod at 22 ± 2 ºC. The 

animals were given standard rat pellets and 

tap water ad libitum. 

Experimental Design 

This experiment was planed to study the 

effects of melatonin, vitamin E ,vitamin C and 

their combinations on SBP, heart rate, serum 

NO, sodium, potassium , calcium and body 

weight in rats treated with lead acetate. The 

experimental rats were divided to nine groups, 

each with six individuals and the treatments 

were continued for 10 weeks as the following: 

Group 1: Control. The rats were given standard 

rat chow and tap water ad libitum. 

Group 2: Sodium acetate . The rats were given 

standard rat chow and sodium acetate at dose 

(0.1mg/L drinking water). 

Group 3: Lead acetate (Pb). The rats were given 

standard rat chow and lead acetate at dose 

(0.1mg/L drinking water). 

Group 4: Pb + Melatonin. The rats were 

supplied with standard rat chow with melatonin 

(60 mg/kg diet) and Pb 

Group 5: Pb +Vitamin E. The rats were supplied 

with standard rat chow with vitamin E (1000 

I.U/kg diet) and Pb 

Group 6: Pb +Vitamin C. The rats were given 

standard rat chow with Pb and vitamin C at dose 

(1mg/L drinking water). 

Group 7: Pb + Melatonin + Vitamin E. The rats 

were supplied with standard rat chow with 

melatonin , vitamin E and Pb. 

Group 8: Pb + Melatonin +Vitamin C. The rats 


melatonin , vitamin C and Pb. 

Group 9: Pb +Vitamin E+ Vitamin C. The rats 


vitamin E , vitamin and Pb. 

Collection of blood samples 

At the end of the experiment, the rats were 

anesthetized with ketamine hydrochloride (50 

mg/kg). Blood samples were taken by cardiac 

puncture into chilled tubes and centrifuged at 

3000 rpm for 20 minutes; then sera were stored 

at -85C 0 until assay. 

Blood pressure and heart rate measurements 

Measurements of SBP and heart rate were 

obtained each two weeks by the tail-cuff method 

in all groups using power Lab (AD Instruments, 

power lab 2/25). During the week before 

treatment the rats were trained to become 

accustomed to the blood pressure measurements. 

Rats were placed in a restraining chamber and 

warmed to an ambient temperature of 

approximately 37C o , typically taking about 10- 

15 minute after that occluding cuffs and 

pneumatic pulse transducers were placed on the 

rats' tails. Six readings were taken for each rat, 

the highest, lowest and any associated with 

excess noise or animal movement were 

discarded. The average was taken of the 

remaining readings to generate a value for a 

given rat for that week. 

BIOCHEMICAL DETERMINATION 

Determination of serum sodium, potassium 

and calcium ion concentrations 

Serum Na + and K + ion concentrations were 

determined by using flame photometer 

(Galenkamp Flame Analyzer, Germany). Serum 

calcium was determined by spectrophotometer 

calcium kit Serum total nitric oxide 

measurement Serum total NO was 

determined by NO non –enzymatic assay kit 

(US Biological, USA) 

03


03 

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS 

All data were expressed as means + standard 

error (SE) and statistical analysis was carried out 

using available statistical soft ware (SPSS 

version 15). Data analysis was made using oneway 

analysis of variance (ANOVA). The 

comparisons among groups were done using 

Duncan post hoc analysis. P values


Furthermore, SBP was decreased on the 

second week of melatonin in combination with 

vitamin C treatment, while vitamin C and E 

combination did not change it significantly on 

the same week, however, their combination 

reduced SBP on the fourth weeks. As noted in 

the same table(1), Interestingly, melatonin in 

combination with vitamin E or C reduced SBP 

statistically more than vitamin E, C and their 

combinations. Meanwhile, melatonin, vitamin C 

,vitamin E and their combinations treatments 

caused the same degree of SBP reduction on the 

eighth and tenth weeks. 

Heart rate was elevated only on the last ten 

week of Pb treatment. Co-administration of 

melatonin and vitamin E caused a significant 

decrease in heart rate on the eighth weeks of 

treatments. However, melatonin supplementation 

alone did not change heart rate, but its 

combination with vitamin C and E reduced 

it significantly. 

After 10 weeks of Pb treatment, serum NO 

was markedly reduced (12.971 ±0.835 μmol/L) 

compared to control group (14.991 ±0.461 

μmol/L). On the other hand, a significant 

increase in serum NO concentration was 

recorded when rats treated with melatonin, 

vitamin C, vitamin E and their 

combinations,(Table 3). Serum calcium was 

decreased in Pb treated rats (9.9458 ±0.691 mg/ 

dL) , whereas serum sodium and potassium did 

not change. However, vitamin E increased serum 

calcium (11.1954 ±0.47 mg/dL), and its 

combination with vitamin C reduced and 

restored it to the Pb group (9.5164 ±0.266 

mg/dL)(Table 3). Administration of vitamin E , 

C and their co-administrations caused an 

increase in serum sodium, Furthermore, 

melatonin and its combination with vitamin E 

and C decreased serum potassium significantly 

compared with Pb group. There were no 

statistical changes in body weight and food 

intake among the studied groups, however,coadministration 

of melatonin and vitamin E 

slightly reduced it comparing with Pb group. 

Table( 3):- Effects of melatonin, vitamin E, vitamin C and their combination on serum NO, sodium ,potassium 

and calcium in rats treated with lead acetate. 

Treatments 

Parameters Treatments 

Control 

Na + 

Pb 

Pb + Mel 

Pb + Vit E 

Pb + Vi C 

Pb + Mel + Vit E 

Pb + Me l+ Vit C 

Pb + Vit E + Vit C 

Serum NO 

14.994 ± 0.461 abc 

14.091 ±0.950 ab 

12.971 ±0.835 a 

16.434 ±0.367 c 

15.680 ±0.434 bc 

16.251 ±1.084 bc 

16.76 ±0.379 bc 

15.11 ±0.592bc 

15.400 ±0.770 bc 

Serum Na + 

143.18 ±0.954 ab 

146.96 ±2.430 abc 

139.77 ±2.798 a 

143.05 ±1.387 ab 

154.69 ±2.306 c 

153.61 ±3.372 c 

147.12 ±2.444 abc 

139.67 ±3.351 a 

150.87 ±2.786b c 

Serum K + 

3.7661 ±0.113 de 

3.5879 ±0.079 cd 

3.7921 ±0.244 de 

3.0851 ±0.168 a 

3.6802 ±0.090 cde 

3.2665±0.134 abc 

3.1209 ±0.111 ab 

3.1504 ±0.178 ab 

3.8600 ±0.151 cde 

Serum Ca 2+ 

9.4778 ±0.226 a 

11.3385 ±0.435 b 

9.9458 ±0.691 a 

10.6886 ±0.537 ab 

11.1954 ±0.470 b 

10.1625 ±0.610 ab 

10.0619 ±0.350 ab 

10.8201±0.380 ab 

9.5164 ±0.266 a 

Table (4):- Effects of melatonin, vitamin E, vitamin C and their combinations on body weight in lead treated 

rats during 10 weeks of treatments 

Treatments Body weight (grams) 

1 st week 2 nd week 4 th week 6 th week 

Control 250.1±8.75 a 

261.0 ±18.0 a 

261.3 ±6.4 a 

262.1±6.77 a 

Na + 

261.8±13.9 a 

272.3 ±26.5 a 

267.5±10.7 a 

271.1±9.83 a 

Pb 257.8 ±20.2 a 

270.1 ±40.0 a 

258.8 ±10.8 a 

277.1±14.8 a 

Pb + Mel 

254.1±10.8 a 

259.3 ±26.4 a 

265.3±13.9 a 

279.1±19.7 a 

Pb + Vit E 273.0 ±6.12 a 

274.6 ±19.8 a 

261.0±12.7 a 

261.3±9.75 a 

Pb + Vi C 

268.0 ±7.86 a 

287.8 ±21. a 

284.0±9.41 a 

280.6±9.43 a 

Pb + Mel + Vit E 265.8 ±6.15 a 

267.6 ±19.2 a 

267.3±6.98 a 

267.8±4.96 a 

Pb + Me l+ Vit C 249.00±14.2 a 

264.8 ±28.4 a 

261.3 ±6.4 a 

262.1±6.77 a 

Pb + Vit E + Vit 

C 

266.3 ±18.7 a 

280.8 ±31.9 a 

267.5±10.7 a 

271.1±9.83 a 

Similar letters indicate no significant difference. 

Different letters indicate significant difference at P


a 

Fig.( 2):- Effects of melatonin, vitamin E, vitamin C and their combination on heart rate (H.R)in lead inducedhypertensive 

rats during 10 weeks of treatments 

03 

DISCUSSIONS 

Results in the present study, showed that 

chronic exposure of lead acetate increased SBP 

significantly. The mechanism by which lead 

acetate caused an increase in SBP is not fully 

understood yet. Gonick et al., (1997) suggested 

the primary involvement of the increased 

production of ROS observed in lead-exposed 

animals. Moreover, chronic exposure to lead has 

been reported to raise plasma angiotensinconverting 

enzyme and kininase II activities, 

events that can support a rise in blood pressure 

by elevating plasma angiotensin II and 

depressing plasma bradykinin levels 

(Carmignani et al.,1999). In addition, altered 

prostaglandin-I production, enhanced endothelin 

generation, and increased protein kinase C 

activity have been implicated in the pathogenesis 

of lead-associated HTN (Gonick et al.,1998). 

Heart rate was elevated only on the last tenth 

weeks of Pb treatment. This elevation may be 

due to the effects of Pb on activation of 

adrenergic system or endothelium-derived 

vasoregulatory factors (Ding et al.,2001). These 

findings helped us to choose this model of 

elevated blood pressure in order to find, for the 

first time, a new method trying to reduce this 

elevation using co-administration of melatonin 

with vitamin E or C. 

Administration of melatonin significantly 

reduced SBP on fourth week of treatments. 

Several potential mechanisms of BP reduction 

are considered. Melatonin can act via its 

scavengering and antioxidant nature, improving 

endothelial function with increased availability 

of NO exerting vasodilatory , antioxidative and 

b 

c 

hypotensive effects. Therefore, NO deficiency 

lead to increase accumulation of superoxide 

anion in biological tissues and the development 

of oxidative stress in the body which in turn 

involved in pathophysiology of many forms of 

HTN (Kopkan and Majid, 2005). Melatonin 

seems to interfere with peripheral and central 

autonomic nervous system with subsequent 

decrease in the tone of adrenergic system and an 

increase in cholinergic system (Paulis and 

Simko,2007). Meanwhile, vitamin E caused a 

reduction in SBP on the sixth of treatment. This 

result is confirmed by Nosratola et al.,(1999) 

concluded that administration of high-dose 

vitamin E significantly ameliorated but did not 

completely abrogate lead-induced HTN. 

However, vitamin C significantly reduced 

SBP on the fourth weeks of treatment. SBP was 

decreased on the second weeks of melatonin 

with vitamin C or E combinations. The 

hypotensive effects of vitamin C and E may be 

due to their effects on NO levels as obtained by 

the current results shown in table 3. Attri et al., 

(2003) concluded that concomitant 

administration of vitamin C ameliorated HTN. 

Furthermore, Li et al., (2008) attributed that 

concentrations of superoxide dismutase, NO and 

NO synthase were significantly higher in 

vitamin C and/or E groups than those in control 

group. Interestingly, melatonin in combination 

with vitamin E or C reduced SBP statistically 

more than vitamin E or C or their combinations 

on the sixth week of their treatments. According 

to our knowledge, this is the first study that 

shows how co-administration of melatonin with 

vitamin E or C prevents the increase of HTN.


The mechanisms were by oxidative stress plays a 

role in the pathogenesis of HTN involve in both 

hemodynamic (vasoconstrictive) and structure 

mechanisms (Denu et al.,1998). Vitamin E or C 

which they represent as antioxidants, might be 

strengthen the ability of melatonin to reduce 

further degree of blood pressure. Melatonin can 

significantly lower plasma ET-1(Maulood,2005), 

it can also reduce serum total cholesterol and 

serum triacylglycerol (Nishida et al.,2002). 

Additionally, Sozmen et al., (1998) concluded 

that increased total cholesterol, triacylglycerol, 

low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and decreased 

high-density lipoprotein(HDL) values were 

found in patients with HTN. As mentioned 

previously, melatonin seems to interfere with 

peripheral and central autonomic system with 

subsequent decrease in the tone of adrenergic 

system and an increase in cholinergic system 

(Paulis and Simko,2007). Unlike other 

antioxidant, melatonin also does not undergo 

redox cycling; melatonin once oxidized can not 

be reduced to its former state because it forms 

several stable end products upon reacting with 

free radicals (Pechanova et al., 2006). 

Meanwhile, melatonin, vitamin C ,vitamin E and 

their combinations treatments caused the same 

degree of SBP reduction on the eighth and tenth 

week. One possible hypothesis is that long term 

administrations of these treatments might 

improve the hypertensive effects of lead 

exposure through normalizing NO levels as 

detected in the current results on the last 

week of treatments. 

Current study demonstrated that long-term 

lead administration significantly decreased 

serum calcium, this result may be due to reduces 

in sarcolemmal calcium influx (Vassalo et 

al.,2008). Furthermore, different considerations 

have been raised to explain the pathogenesis of 

lead-induced HTN, such as an increased 

intracellular calcium concentration (Khali- 

Manesh et al., 1993). However, vitamin E 

increased serum calcium , its combination with 

vitamin C reduced and returned it to the Pb 

group. This result is consist with Norazlina et 

al., (2004) presented that vitamin E deficiency 

caused hypocalcaemia during the first month of 

the treatment period, increased the parathyroid 

hormone level in the second month and 

decreased the bone calcium content in the 4th 

lumbar bone at the end of the treatment. 

Interestingly, vitamin C and E in combination 

returned serum calcium to normal values. The 

reason of this result may firmly related with 

vitamin C rather than vitamin E. Boaz et al 

.,(2005) concluded that vitamin C 

supplementation could prevent bone loss caused 

by chitosan through the increment of retained 

Ca +2 followed by suppression of urinary 

Ca +2 excretion. 

Melatonin and its combination with vitamin 

E and C decreased serum potassium significantly 

compared with Pb group. Maulood, (2005) 

found that melatonin decreased ET-1, thereby 

decreasing serum potassium level. However the 

evidence for direct action of melatonin on 

adrenal gland is highly conflicting in nocturnal 

rodents like rats (Reiter et al., 2008). Hurwitz et 

al., (2003) demonstrated that there was a diurnal 

variation of aldosterone and plasma renin 

activity in relation to melatonin, they reported 

that melatonin precedes aldosterone secretion 

independent on plasma renin activity, in turn 

increase the potassium excretion. 

There were no significant changes in body 

weight among the studied groups, however, on 

the last week of treatments, co-administration of 

melatonin and vitamin E slightly reduced body 

weight comparing with Pb group. This finding is 

confirmed by Liu and Huang (1996)who 

showed that, rats fed the vitamin E diet had 

significantly lower body weight gain and food 

intake than rats fed the vitamin E-deficient 

control diet. Additionally, it has been 

documented that melatonin reduced plasma 

leptin (Nishida et al., 2002). Thus, leptin serves 

a primary role as an anti-obesity hormone 

(Ahima and Flier,2000). 

In conclusion, long term lead-treated rats 

exhibited marked elevation of blood pressure 

and heart rate, significant reduction of serum NO 

and calcium levels. These abnormalities nearly 

disappeared with the antioxidants melatonin in 

combination with vitamin E or C more than 

vitamin E, C and their combinations. 

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Physiol. 62:413–37 

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03


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03 

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ةب وَيوخ يشزةب يؤتضةثةلاث ةب ووب شووت يجزوج ةل ىايةلةكَيت ةو C ينماتيظ ، E ينماتيظ , يننؤتلايم ييةصَيزاث لىؤز 

واينةتةب 

C 

ينماتيظ ، 

E 

. ىةياخرَيزد يشموقزوق ينادَيث يؤي 

ينماتيظ و يننؤتلايم ةل كةيزةي ينةياخرَيزد ىزةطيزاك نييهكشث ةيةوةهيرَيوت مةل تضةبةم 

ةل وَيوخ ىوادزةش تييلاؤتركيلةئ و مؤيطلاك و كيتريان ىديطكؤئ و وَيوخ ىؤتضةثةلاثزةضةل 

ىايندسكولاةكَيتةب 

ادةيةوةهيرَيوت مةل ىجض ىةيَيم يجزوج زاوض وانجةث . مشوقزوق ىنادَيث ىؤيةب شزةب ىؤتضةثةلاث ةب واسك شوت يجزوج 

ىةوام ؤب كَيجزوج زةي ؤب ثوسط شةش زةي شاوايج يثوسط 

ؤن ؤب ىاسك شةباد ىاكةوتايزاكةب ةجزوج. 

1.0 

( ) مؤيدؤض يتاتيضةئ( 

مةزاوض يثوسط 

مةوود يثوسط 

, ) ةوةندزاوخ ىوائ ترل/ 

مطم 

) لؤترنؤك ىجزوج( 

1.0 

مةكةي يثوسط 

( ) مشوقزوق يتاتيضةئ( 

: ةوةزاوخ ىةنامةئ وكةو ةتفةي 

ةتخوث 

تايزاكةب 

01 

مةيَيض يثوسط) 

ةوةندزاوخ ىوائ ترل/ 

مطم 

ةل شةب 0111() 

E ينماتيظ + مشوقزوق( 

مةحهَيث يثوسط ، ) كازؤخ مطك/ 

يننؤتلايم ةل مطم 01( 

) يننؤتلايم+ 

مشوقزوق( 

, ةوةندزاوخ ىوائ ترل/ 

C ينماتيظ ةل مطم 0( 

) C 

ينماتيظ+ 

مشوقزوق ( مةشةش يثوسط , ) كازؤخ ةل مطك/ 

+ يننؤتلايم+ 


) ىيةلةكَيت( 

مةتشةي 

يثوسط, 

) E ينماتيظ + يننؤتلايم+ 



وَيوخ ىةوؤبذسك ىزاشف ىوةنوبشزةبةب .) E ينماتيظ + c ينماتيظ+ 



مةيؤن يثوسط, 

C 

ينماتيظ ىاي يننؤتلايم يناهَييزاكةب 

مةك يؤي ةوب 

E 

. 

E 

ينماتيظ 

مةتفةح يثوسط 

) 

C 


مشوقزوق يةدامةب ىاكةجزوج ينادَيث شاث ةل اسك يدةب مةيةد ىةتفةي ةل 

ينماتيظ ىةتاك وةل مزاوض يةتفةيةل ةوةدسك مةك ىايهَيوخ ىةوؤبذسك واضزةب يكةيةوَيشةب 

لةطةل ىيةلةكَيت ةب يننؤتلايم ةوةيطنسطةب 

ىاي 

C 

ىهيشةباد 

ىاي 

C 

ىاي 

E 


. مةشةش يةتفةيةل وَيوخ ىةوؤبذسك ىزاشف ىةوةنوبشزةب ىةوةندسك 

ةل دناشةباد ستايش ىايهَيوخ ىةوةنوبذسك ىزاشف يةوؤبشزةب 

. اد مةتشةي يةتفةيةل لد ىنادَيل 

ىةوةندسك مةك ىؤي ةوب 

ينماتيظ ، 

E 


E 

C 

ىاي 

E 


ينماتيظ و يننؤتلايم ينادةوةكَيث. 

ىايةلةكَيت 

, يننؤتلايم ىؤيةب ةوؤبتركاض مشوقزوق ىنادَيث ىؤيةب اسهيب ةك كيتريمن ىديطكؤئ 

يمَويضاتؤث و مؤيدؤض ىةتاك 

وةل مشوقزوق ةب وازدَيث يجزوج ةل ةوؤب مةك وَيوخ 

ىايندزاوخ ىةرَيز و ىاكةزةوةنايط يشَيكةل اسكةن يدةب ىزايسَيمذ يكةيشاوايج ضيي 

ىوادزةش ىمؤيطلاك 

. 

. ىايةلةكَيت 

ىازؤطةن وَيوخ ىوادزةش 

. ىاكةوتايزاكةب ةثوسط ىاوَينةل 

ىةوَوبذسك ىزاشف ىواضزةب ىةوةنوبشزةب ىؤي ةتيبةد مشوقزوق ينةياخرَيزد 

ينادَيث ةكتيوةكةدزةد اوادمانجةزةدةل 

ةوةتيبةد 

مةك ييةكيصنةب ةنانوضكَيت مةئ 

. 

ىايةلةكَيت ىاي 

C 

ىاي 

E 

. وَيوخ ىوادزةش ىكيتريان ىديطكؤئ ىةوةندسك مةك و لد ينادَيل و 

ينماتيظ ةل ستايش ىكةيةوَيشةب 

C 

ىاي 

E 

وَيوخ 

ينماتيظ لةطةل ىيةلةكَيتةب يننؤتلايم ينادَيث ىؤيةب 

03


ةطساوب مدلا طغض طرفب ثدحتتسملا ناذرجلا يف امهنيب لخادتلاو ، 

ةدملو امهنيب ليخادتلاو 

03 

E 

نيماتيف ، 

c 

. صاصرلا ةدام 

طرفب ثدحتسملا ناذرجلا يف تيلاورتكللأاو مويسيلاكلا تانويا 

C 

نيماتيف ، 

E 

نيماتيف ،نينوتلايملل يئاقولا رودلا 


نيماتيف ،نينوتلايم ءاطعأ ريثأت نع فشكلل يه ةيلاحلا ةساردلا يف فدهلا نا 

, ىكيرتيانلا ديسكولأا زيكرت 

ىلع تاناويحلا تعزوو ةساردلا هذه يف ثانلأا نم اغلاب اذرج نوسمخو ةعبرا تمدختسا 

: ىلولاا ةعومجملا 

ةثلاثلا ةعومجملا 

/ مغك 

01 

: 

ىتلأاكو عيباسا 

.) برشلا ءاملا نم رتل 

زيكرتب نينوتلايم 

+ صاصرلا( 

01 

. مدلا طغض ىلع ةليوط 

. صاصرلا ةطساوب مدلا طغض 

ةدمل ةيرجتلا ترمتساو تاناويح 

تس تلمتشا امهنم لك عيماجم عست 

/ مغلم 

1.0 

ةعبارلا ةعومجملا 

زيكرتب مويدوصلا تاتيسا( 

.) برشلا ءاملا نم رتل 

ةيناثلا ةعومجملا ، 

/ مغلم 

1.0 

) ةرطيسلا تاناويح( 

زيكرتب صاصرلا تاتيسا( 

+ صاصرلا( 

ةسداسلا ةعومجملا ). فلع مغك / ةدحو 0111 زيكرتب E نيماتيف + صاصرلا( 

ةسماخلا ةعومجملا ،) 

فلع 

) E 

+ 

نيماتيف+ 

E 

ءاطعا نا 

نيماتيف 

نينوتلايم 

+ 

+ 

صاصرلا( 

صاصرلا( 

) لخادت( 

: ةعباسلا ةعومجملا 

لخادت 

: ةعساتلا ةعومجملا 

. صاصرلاب ةعومجملا ةلماعم يف عيباسا 

تببسامنيب ةلماعملا نم 

عم لخادتب نينوتلايم ءاطعا ىداو 

. امهنيب لخادتلا وأ c وا 

) c 

01 


+ 

) برش ءاملا نم رتل 

/ 

مغلم 

نينوتلايم+ 

صاصرلا( 

) لخادت(: 

0 

زيكرتب 

c 


ةنماثلا ةعومجملا 

.) c 

دعب يونعم لكشب يضابقنلإا مدلا طغض عافترا ظحول 

عبارلا عوبسلأا يف يونعم لكشب مدلا طغض يف ضافخنا ىلا اتدا 

E 

. ةلماعملا نم سداسلا عوبسلأا يف يضابقنلأا مدلا طغض يف اظافخنا 

نيماتيف ءاطعا نم رثكا لكشب يضابقتلأا مدلا طغضل يونعم ضافحنا ىلا 

c 


نيماتيف وا نينوتلايملا 

c 

وا 

E 

E 



نا . ةلماعملا نم نماثلا عوبسا يف بلقلا تابرض لدعم يف يونعم ضافخنا ىلا ىدا E نيماتيف 

عم نينوتلايم ءاطعا ناو 

. امهنيب ليخادتلاو c، 

E 

نيماتيف ، نينوتلايم ءاطعا ةطساوب تنسحت دق صاصرلا ءاطعاب ىكيرتيانلا ديسكوا نم ضافخنا 

يف مويساتوبلاو مويدوصلا نم لك تريغت 

مل امنيب ، صاصرلاب ةلماعملا ناذرجلا لصم يف مويسلاكلا ةبسن تضفخنا 

. ةسوردملا تلاماعملا نيب ذوخأملا ءاذغلا رادقمو تاناويحلا نزو يف يئاصحا ريغت يا ضحلاي ملو لصملا 

تابرض لدعمو يضاقبنلأا مدلا طغض عافترا ىلا يدؤي ةليوط ةدمل صاصرلاءاطعا ناب ةيلاحلا ةساردلا نم جتنتسي 

ءاطعا ةطساوب ابيرقت ةعيبطلا ريغ تلااحلا هذه تضفحناو ،لصملا يف يكيرتيانلا ديسكولأا 

ةبسن يف ضافخناو بلقلا 

امهنيب لخادتلا وا 

c 

وا 

E 

نيماتيف نم ربكا لكشب 

c 

وأ 

E 

نيماتيف عم ليخادتلاب نينوتلايم


ENGINEERING CLASSIFICATION AND INDEX PROPERTIES OF THE 

ROCKS AT DERBANDI GOMASBPAN – SUGGESTED DAM SITE 

MOHAMED TAHIR A. BRIFCANI 

School of Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Duhok, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

(Received: May 15, 2010; Accepted for publication: February 27, 2011) 

ABSTRACT 

This study concerns the ground conditions and the engineering properties of the rocks in Derbandi Gomasbpan 

(Gomasbpan valley), which was suggested to be a site for a dam construction. The study emphasized on the 

qualitative engineering classifications and index properties of the existed rocks at the site as to be the dam foundation, 

their abutments and for the stability of the slopes, including the slopes of the dam embankments (when it is built 

from) during and after construction. 

The Pila Spi Limestone which is one of the rock types and widely exposed at the site, was exceptionally, studied 

for its engineering behavior. The geotechnical laboratory testing of Pila Spi limestone was carried out and the 

acquired data were used for its engineering classifications both, as an intact rock and as a rock mass. The study 

results show that the general qualitative classification of this rock is rigid and high in mass strength, eventually, the 

rock was reliably evaluated for the dam foundation and its abutments. 

The Gercus and Kolosh Formations which are predominantly composed of shale, which extensively, exposed at the 

dam site and most of the stream drainage-basin area. The rocks at the dam site were studied in part for their 

mechanical properties, emphasized on their slake durability indexes and shale ratings. The test results of the slakedurability 

and rating of the shale were variable in values, few tested samples showed, relatively, with very low rating. 

The shale rating results were evaluated for the estimations of allowable slope angles of the dam embankment 

(construct from this shale) as a function of the shale ratings. The allowable lift thicknesses and required compaction 

field densities of the shale for the embankment were also estimated. 

KEYWORDS: Gomasbpan, Dam Site, Rocks, Index-Properties, Shale Rating. 

D 

1. INTRODUCTION 

erbandi Gomasbpan is located about 30 

Km NE of Hawler ( Irbil) city, 

between the longitudes 44 o - 18’- 00’’ and 44 o - 

21’- 00”N and the latitudes 36 o - 16’- 00’’ and 

N 

App. Scale 1: 3,500,000 

Fig. (1): Location map 

36 o - 19’- 00’’ E, at the vicinity of Gomasbpan 

village, Figure (1), and (2). The location was 

suggested to be a site for a dam construction, so 

that, the surrounding area could be developed for 

the out-door people-recreations, as well as for 

the agricultural and inhabitant benefits. 

Suggested dam site 

93


This study concerns the ground conditions 

and the engineering properties of the rocks in the 

Derbandi Gomasbpan. The study is emphasized 

mainly, on the qualitative engineering 

classification and index properties of the rocks 

existed at the dam site, such information 

basically, used for the design of dams 

foundations and their abutments, as well as for 

the study of the slopes stability and construction 

materials needed. 

Geomorphologically, the area is a part of the 

highland, mountainous, folded region, maximum 

elevation at the site is 1080 m above sea level, 

04 

while the lower elevation is 800m at the bottom 

of the narrowest gully path, which is about 50m 

in width where the dam foundation has to be 

located. The left-side slope of the valley is 

steeper ( 20 – 35 o ) than the right-side slope 

which is generally gentle (15 – 20 o ), along 

which the highway was constructed. The valley 

is with permanent stream flow, collecting water 

from the very wide drainages basin to the north 

and north-east of the site, down from the site. the 

stream opens to a wide cultivated planes and 

hills. 

SE NW 

Fig. (2): Derbandi Gomasbpan dam site, view from the upstream. 

Geologically the dam site is located on the 

southern limb of the Pirmam Anticline, the Pila 

Spi Limestone forms the highest ridges in the 

area and consists of resistant limestone beds, 

their thicknesses range between 0.3 to 2 m, the 

thickest beds are at the lower part, and all are 

dipping 25 to 30 o toward the Southwest. This 

study was restricted on the best exposure at the 

lower part (lithostratigraphically) of Pila Spi 

Limestone (about 10 to 15 m in thichness). The 

rock at this exposure was mostly, expected to be 

the dam foundation as well as the abutments, 

therefore, samples were taken from this 

limestone for the laboratory tests and the results 

were evaluated. The upper part of the exposure 

is thinly bedded and highly fractured so, it would 

be removed. The output of the qualitative 

classifications of the intact rocks and their 

masses from their properties and indexes could 

be considered during the planning, design and 

construction of the Derbandi Gomasbpan Dam. 

Pila Spi Limestone is underlained, 

predominantly, by clastic rocks of Gercus and 

Kolosh formations. These rocks are 

lithologically, feasible and consist mainly of 

shales which are extensively exposed at the dam 

site and all over the drainage basin. These rocks 

are relatively, soft and lower in rock mass 

strength and durability than the Pila Spi 

Limestone above. Parts of the Gercus and 

Kolosh rocks are expected to be submerged by 

the reservoir water of the future dam and the 

rock slopes toward the lake expected to be 

unstable due to rising and lowering of the water 

level in the reservoir. These rocks were 

classified based on their physical and 

mechanical properties including, slake durability 

indexes and shale rating values. The study of 

the slopes stability and durability of the shale 

and other soft rocks at the proposed dam site and 

along the valley sides were carried out from their 

slake durability indexes and rating. A correlation 

between shale rating values and the slopes 

amounts of the dam embankments of a certain 

heights was performed, as well as between the 

shale rating values and the required compaction


field density and lift thickness for the dam 

embankments in case when such materials are 

mechanically reliable and needed. 

2. MATERIAL AND METHODS 

Derbendi Gomasbpan was chosen for the 

dam site based on the available ground 

conditions required for a dam construction in 

this site, including, the geomorphological 

characteristics, permanent water flow and over 

all, the engineering geological properties of the 

rocks which include, the rock types, their 

structural features and their physical and 

mechanical characteristics. The study of these 

properties is required during the planning and 

designing of the dam foundation and abutments 

as well as for the stability of the dam 

embankments and the slopes around the 

reservoir. 

This study started with the site investigation 

for the dam site and surrounding area, The 

general information about the physiography, the 

lithostratigraphy, the surface water flow and the 

geologic structures such as the attitude of strata, 

their thicknesses, discontinuities characteristics 

and others were collected. Rock sampling from 

the proposed dam site was also carried out 

during this stage of work. Figures (3) and (7). 

Sixteen rock samples were taken from the 

Pila Spi dolomitic limestone for the laboratory 

testing, most of them were tested directly in the 

field, Figure (4). This rock was considered to be 

designed for the dam foundation and its 

abutments., The dolomitic limestone samples 

were tested for their strength indexes using the 

point load strength test device, Broch, E and J.A. 

Franklin, (1972), Figure (4). The point load 

strength index (Is) of each tested sample, was 

corrected (Is50) to the size of 50 mm diameter by 

using the correction factor f = (D/50) 0.45 ,then 

(Is50) = f x (P/D 2 ), were: P = the applied load 

in Newtons, and D = the distance between the 

load points in mm, and (P/D 2 )= Is 

The resulted values were determined and 

later on converted to unconfined compressive 

strength (UCS), using the equation adapted by 

D’ Andrea et, al., (1965). The tangent modulus 

of elasticity ( Et50) was also determined using the 

equation adapted by Irfan T.Y. and Dearman W. 

R. (1978), as following: 

UCS = 15.296 x Is50 + 16.375 

Et 50 = ( 0.588 x Is50 + 0.084 ) x 10 4 

The results of the point load strength tests 

and the other engineering properties of the 

dolomitic limestone are listed in table (1). The 

joints spacing range ( the range of distances in 

cm between two parallel and adjacent planes of 

joints of any set or orientation. ) was the only 

joint characteristic used and needed in this study. 

Each of these 16 joint spacing ranges, showing 

on the table (1), was taken within a square meter 

of the surface area of each specific location or 

spot on the outcrop, Palmstron, A., (1982), at 

which the rock sample was taken from and the 

procedure was integrated for the whole 

exposure.. The range values of these spacing in 

each specific sampled location might be close in 

the range values to that of the next spot 

locations. 

NE SW 

Fig. (3): The bedding attitude & Discontinuities of the Pila Spi Limestone at the dam site. 

04


04 

Fig. (4): Point – load test, Broch, E and J.A. Franklin, (1972). 

The dolomitic limestone, as an intact rock 

was classified for their engineering mechanical 

properties including, strength, tangent modulus 

of elasticity ( stiffness ) and Modulus ratio Et/σc 

Sample 

No. 

(MR), using Deere D.U. and Miller R.P.,(1966) 

method of intact rock classifications,, 

Figure (5). 

Table (1): Point-load test results of the Pila Spi limestone intact rock. 

Joint Spacing 

(Cm). 

Point L. Strength. 

Index (Is50) ( MPa) 

UCS (σc ) 

( MPa) 

* Modulus- ratio numbers are rounded . 

Et50 

(MPa) 

Modulus 

Ratio* 

1 30 - 70 3.636 71.991 2.222 x10 4 308.6 : 1 

2 50 - 75 8.089 140.104 4.840 x10 4 345.5 : 1 

3 55 - 110 6.289 112.572 3.782 x10 4 336.0 : 1 

4 35 - 95 4.344 82.821 2.638 x10 4 318.5 : 1 

5 40 - 70 4.101 79.104 2.495 x10 4 315.4 : 1 

6 45 - 80 5.554 101.329 3.350 x10 4 330.6 : 1 

7 40 - 130 8.125 140.655 4.862 x10 4 345.7 : 1 

8 50 -110 4.904 91.387 2.968 x10 4 324.8 : 1 

9 20 - 60 4.148 79.822 2.523 x10 4 316.1: 1 

10 50- 110 4.126 79.486 2.510 x10 4 315.8 : 1 

11 80 - 120 7.633 133.129 4.572 x10 4 343.4 : 1 

12 30 - 115 7.074 124.578 4.244 x10 4 340.7 : 1 

13 30 - 70 5.360 98.362 3.236 x10 4 329.0 : 1 

14 40 - 110 6.525 116.181 3.921 x10 4 337.5 : 1 

15 60 - 110 5.200 95.914 3.142 x10 4 327.6 : 1 

16 60 - 150 7.512 131.279 4.501x10 4 342.9 : 1


The unconfined compressive strength was 

used along with the joint spacing of the rock 

mass, measured in the field, to determine the 

mechanical and the quality of the rock-mass 

using the Z. T. Bieniwaski’s rock mass 

classification diagram, (1974), Figure (6), on 

which all data were plotted. The cohesion and 

the angle of internal friction of the rocks were 

also determined from the diagram. 

There were six weathered rock zones, 40 to 

80 cm in thicknesses with very close fracture 

spacing existed within the upper part of the Pila 

Fig. (5): Intact-rock modulus ratio, Deere and Miller Diagram, (1966). 

Spi Dolomitic Limestone, Figure (3). These 

weathered rock zones would affect the overall 

quality of the rock at the abutments of the 

proposed dam, so that, specific geotechnical 

engineering measures are necessary to deal with 

this case. 

The above properties of the dolomitic 

limestone, all together, are to be evaluated 

qualitatively for the design of the dam 

foundation, the abutments and for uses as a 

construction materials, depending on the type of 

the dam to be constructed. 

Fig. (6): Rock mass classification diagram, Z.T. Bieniwaski, (1974) 

09


Fourteen samples were taken from the existed 

Gercus and Kolosh shale and others miner 

degradable or nondurable rocks of claystone and 

siltstone. Shale and these soft rocks are exposed 

widely, along the valley sides, and at the dam 

site. Sampling started from the dam site and 

outward to the direction of upstream, within 

300m distance. Samples were collected at equal 

intervals and from the best available rock 

exposures Figure (7). These samples were taken 

with their natural water contents preserved and 

sent to the laboratory for their slake durability 

00 

Fig. (7): Red Shale of Gercus Formation. 

Fig. (8): Lab samples and equipments used for testing. 

index test, Figures (8) and (9). This test has been 

chosen based on the fact that shale is particularly 

variable material and behave quite differently in 

engineering works. The key performance 

variable for shale is their rate of breakdown 

during wetting and drying and the slake 

durability of the shale is its resistance to such 

process. The devise used to measure this 

property is the slake durability devise, adopted 

by International society of rock mechanic, ( 

ISRM. (1979b) and Figure (9).


Each of these 14 samples were tested and 

subjected to two cycles of slaking, the slake 

durability index (Id2 % ) of the second-cycle was 

calculated as: 

Weight of shale remaining inside drum 

Original weight of sample . 

Fig. (9): Slake durability test. 

x 100 

The soil-like shale (rocks that disintegrated 

through slaking) with slake durability indexes of 

less than 80% were then further characterized by 

measuring the plasticity index of fragments 

passing through the slake drum mesh, Lama and 

Vutukuri, (1978). While the rocks-like shale 

with slake durability indexes greater than 80% 

Table (2): Two cycles slake-durability (Id2) classification, 

ASTM. (1992) and others. 

Slake Durability, (Id2) % Classification 

00 -30 

30-60 

60- 85 

85- 95 

95- 98 

98-100 

The second-cycle was considered for the 

classification purposes. The results were firstly, 

classified qualitatively using the following 

classification method, adopted by the Geological 

Society, (1977); ISRM, (1979b), Franklin J.A. 

(1981) , ASTM, D-4644-87. (1992), Table (2). 

Very low 

Low 

Medium 

Medium to high 

High 

Very high 

were tested to determine their strength using 

point load strength index ( Is50) test, the result 

data are shown in table (3). The test was 

conducted on shale at natural water content and 

the load applied perpendicular to the bedding 

when tested for its strength. 

04


Sample 

Number 

The results of the lab tests were plotted on the 

Franklin Shale Rating System, modified from 

the original system adopted by Okland and 

Lovell, (1985), Figure (10), to determine the 

corresponding rating values ( Rs ) for each 

sample. The shale rating values obtained was 

04 

Slake Durability 

Index Id2 % 

Table (3): Results of shale lab-tests. 

P.L. Str. 

Index 

Is50 MPa 

Liquid limit 

used to derive a number of slope design 

parameters, from the correlation between shale 

rating and parameters relating to the stability of 

shale forming slopes of the dam embankment 

and of the area. 

Fig. (10): Modified Franklin Shale Rating System ( Okland and Lovell. (1985 

% 

Plastic 

Limit % 

Plasticity 

Index % 

Shale 

Rating Rs 

1 98.9 very high 1.818 _ _ _ C 7.60 

2 91.2 medium-high 0.505 _ _ _ B 5.85 

3 6.3 very low _ 84 54 30 A 1.40 

4 90.4 medium-high 0.394 _ _ _ B 5.90 

5 95.6 high 0.61 _ _ _ C 6.50 

6 97.6 high 1.113 _ _ _ C 7.00 

7 21.6 very low _ 73 41 32 A 1.35 

8 39.5 low _ 79 43 36 A 1.70 

9 92.3 medium-high 0.601 _ _ _ C 6.25 

10 94.9 medium-high 0.528 _ _ _ C 6.40 

11 93.3 medium-high 0.344 _ _ _ B 6.05 

12 83.4 medium 0.283 _ _ _ B 4.85 

13 87.7 medium-high 0.183 _ _ _ B 5.30 

14 92.6 medium-high 0.199 _ _ _ B 5.85


Shale rating values obtained were used 

specifically, to derive parameters for damembankment 

slope design and their stability, 

which include an estimate of allowable slope 

angle for the embankment heights as a function 

of shale rating, Figure (11). Shale rating was 

also used to estimate the allowable lift 

thicknesses when compacted and eventually, to 

develop the required compaction densities, their 

relationships are shown in Figure (12). This will 

help to find out a control procedure for 

nondurable shale before starting of the major 

earthwork. 

Fig (11): Embankment slope angle as a function of embankment height and shale rating. 

( modified from Franklin. 1981 ) 

Fig. (12): Tentative correlations among shale Rating, lift thicknesses and 

Compacted-shale densities ( modified from Franklin, 1981 ). 

04


04 

Sample groups Shale rating 

A 

3, 7, 8 

B 

2,4,5,12, 

13,14 

C 1,6,9,10,11 

1.35– 

1.70 

4. 85– 

5.80 

6. 25– 

7. 60 

3. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS 

Table (4): Performance parameters and data results. 

Embankment 

height 

(m) 

The results of the field work show that the 

different thicknesses of the dolomitic-limestone 

beds which are forming the lower part of the Pila 

Spi Formation at the dam site range from 0.5 to 

2 m, decrease upward with some weathered 

zones intervals. The dip angles of the beds range 

from 25 to 35 o toward the Southwest, same as 

the down stream direction, structurally, this type 

of ,rock with such properties can be considered 

as a positive aspect for the evaluation of the dam 

foundation and abutments. 

The results of the laboratory tests of Pila Spi 

Dolomitic Limestone samples, listed in Table 

(1), show that the unconfined compressive 

strength of the intact rocks ranges from 71.99 to 

140.60MPa which can be classified as medium 

to high in strength. The tangent modulus of 

deformation ( Et50) ranges from 2.11x10 4 to 

4.84x10 4 MPa and can be classified as medium in 

stiffness to stiff, while the modulus ratio (MR) 

ranges from 293 : 1 to 340 : 1, and mainly, 

classified as medium modulus ratio, Figure (5). 

Hint: The chalky limestone was not developed 

within the Pila Spi Formation at this dam site. 

The discontinuities in the rock mass are 

mostly bedding planes. The rock mass strength 

was classified, based on Z.T. Bieniawski’s 

strength classification diagram, (1974), Figure 

(6), as strong rock mass, cohesion (c) of the rock 

is between 200 to 300KPa, average 250KPa, 

the angle of the internal friction (Ø) ranges from 

40 – 45 o , average is 42.5 o . and the average wet 

density of the Pila Spi Dolomitic tested in the 

laboratory is 2.7 gm/cm 3 . The rock mass 

properties and the obtained data all together 

could be evaluated qualitatively, for the type and 

design of the dam foundation and the abutments 

as well as for their behavior during the stages of 

15 

15 

15 

Slope 

angle. (deg). 

7.5 - 15 

15 - 22 

22 - 26 

Lift thickness 

(m). 

0.22 – 0.28 

0.40 – 0.78 

0.54 - 0.77 

Compacted field 

density (Ton/m 3 ) 

1.67 – 1.90 

1.95 - 2.35 

1.76 – 2.25 

the construction, depending on the type of the 

dam. 

The slake durability-index (Id2) values of 3 

samples ( # 3, 7, and 8 of group A) from the total 

of 14 tested samples that were taken from the 

shale of Gercus and Kolosh Formations are 6.3, 

21.6 and 39.5% respectively, and classified as 

low to very low, Table (2). The plasticity 

indexes of these samples range from 30 to 36%, 

these results give very low shale rating (Rs) 

(1.35. 1.40 and 1.70) on the shale rating system, 

Figure (10). The first sample was taken from the 

upper part of Gercus Formation, while the 2nd 

sample was taken from area closes to the middle 

part of the this formation while the third sample 

was taken from the upper most part of the 

Kolosh Formation. Therefore, the rock zones or 

intervals from which these three samples 

represent are to be considered eventually, as very 

unstable and deformable in behavior in terms of 

slake durability. The slake durability- index (Id2) 

values of all other tested samples ( group B & C 

) are variable, ranged between 83.4 to 98.9% 

and were classified as medium to very high, and 

their corresponding shale rating values (Rs ) 

range from 4.85 to 7. 60 on the shale rating 

system diagram. 

The evaluation of the shale-rating results for 

the estimation of allowable slope angle of the 

shale for the dam-embankment of a certain 

height (built from that shale) as a function of Rs 

was determined. For 15m embankment height, 

for example, the slope angle as well as the lift 

thickness and the corresponding shale 

compaction for the embankment in terms of 

shale rating for the shale represented by each 

group of samples tested are shown in Figure (11) 

and table (4).


4. CONCLUSIONS 

As a result of the study and analysis 

conducted, the following conclusions are 

reached: 

1- Based on the site investigation, the existed 

rocks at the Derbandi Gomaspan suggested damsite 

are generally of two different types: 

The dolomitic limestone at the dam site is 

underlain by red to dark bluish shale-beds. The 

dolomitic limestone is the most resistant and 

stable rock, forming a narrow path (gully) with 

permanent stream flow. The mechanical 

properties of the intact dolomitic limestone 

characterize with medium to high in strength, 

medium stiffness to stiff in tangent modulus of 

elasticity and medium in modulus ratio. The 

discontinuities in the dolomitic limestone are 

mainly bedding planes with strong engineering 

rock mass, cohesion ranges from 200 to 300KPa, 

and the angle of the internal friction ranges from 

40 – 45 o . These physical and mechanical 

properties are proper for the dolomitic limestone 

to be used as the dam foundation 

2- The slake durability index ( Id2) of about 3/4 

of the total number of tested samples taken from 

the existed shale and other soft rocks at the dam 

site was classified as medium to very high, and 

the corresponding shale rating ranges from 4.85 

to 7.6. The other 1/ 4 of the number of the tested 

samples are with very low slake durability index, 

and their shale rating ranges from 1.35 to 1.70 

respectively. The rock zones or intervals, 

represented by the last 1/4 of the samples should 

be considered specifically, unstable with respect 

to the slake durability and rating, eventually the 

slopes of such rocks toward the lake would be 

unstable when the water level in the lake 

fluctuated. 

3- The shale rating obtained was evaluated for 

the estimation of allowable slope angle of the 

dam embankment at any height, as well as, for 

the estimation of allowable lift thicknesses and 

required compaction field density of the shale. 

5. RECOMMENDATIONS 

1- Additional data from the study area are 

required to improve the accuracy of the results 

and to expand the information for a better 

evaluation of the dam site. 

2- Special attention has to be concentrated on 

the weathered rock interval at the dam site and 

to be studied more quantitatively. 

3- The very low and low slake durability of the 

shale and other soft rock zones in the site have to 

be studied specifically, in detail in terms of 

sediment disintegration, transportation and 

geotechnical measures to be used to stabilize the 

slopes of such rock masses. 

REFERENCES 

- ASTM, (1992), Standard Test Method for Slake 

Durability of Shale and Other Similar Weak 

Rock ASTM Designation D-4644-87. In ASTM, 

Book of Standards, Vol. 4.08, Soil & Rock; 

Dimension Stone; Geosynthetics, ASTM, 

Philadelphia, Pa., pp., 951 -953. 

- Bieniwaski, Z. T., (1974) “Estimating the Strength of 

Rock Materials”. J.S. Afr. Inst. Min. Mettal. 74 (8) 

pp. 312-320. 

- Broch, E. and J. A. Franklin., (1972) “The Point-Load 

Strength Test” International Journal of Rock 

Mechanics and Mining Sciences. V.9, PP. 669-697. 

- D’Andrea, D.V., Fischer, R. L., Fogelson D. E., (1965): 

Prediction of Compressive Strength of rock 

from other properties. U.S. Bur. Mines Rep. Invest, 

6702. 

- Deere, D. U. And Miller R.P., (1966), Engineering 

Classification And Index Properties for Intact 

Rock, Technical Report. No. AFNL-TR-65-116, 

University of Illinois, Urbana, 299 pp. 

- Franklin, J. A., (1981), A Shale Rating System and 

Tentative Application to Shale Performance. In 

transportation Research Record 790, TRB, 

National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 

pp. 2-12. 

- Geological Society, (1977), The description of rock 

masses for engineering purposes: Geol.Soc. 

(London ) Eng. Group Working Party, Q. J. Eng. 

Geol. Vol.10, pp. 355-388. 

- Irfan, T, Y., and Dearman, W. R., (1978), Engineering 

classification and index properties of a weathered 

granite., Bull., Intl. Assoc. of Engineering 

Geology., No.17, pp., 79 – 90. 

- ISRM, (1979b), Suggested methods for determining 

water content, porosity, density, absorption and 

related properties and swelling and slake 

durability index properties. Intl. Soc. Rock Mech. 

Comm. On Standardization of Laboratory and 

field Tests, Intl. J. Rock mech. Min. Sci. & 

Geomech. Abstr., Vol. 16, pp. 141 – 156. 

- Lama, R. D. and Vutukuri, V.S., (1978), Hand book 

on Mechanical Properties of Rocks -Testing 

Techniques and results: Volume IV, Transactions, 

Technical Publications. Pp. 78 – 96. 

- Okland, M. And Lovel C. W., (1985), “ Building 

Embankments with Shale” 26 th U.S. Symposium 

on Rock Mechanics. Rapid City, SD, pp. 305-312. 

- Palmstrom, A., (1982), “ The Volumetric Joint Count---- 

- a Useful and Simple Measure of the Degree of 

Rock Jointing.” Proc. 4 th Int. Congr. Int. Assoc. 

Eng. Geol, Delhi. Vol, 5, pp, 221-228. 

03


نَيوﻪﺌ 

ارﻪﺑ 

نَيي ىيﻩزاذنﻪﺌ 

ﻪ 

44 

اات ىركاش اانركاﭭائ 

وب شاب َىي 

ﻪﺘﺨﻮﭙ 

ﻥﻳﺗﻪﻟﺧ 

َ اش و ىدرةئ نَييﻪﺗاهكَيﭙ 

َىتشورش و خودراب ب ﻪﻳذنﻩويﻪﭘ 

ﻪﻧﻳﻟوكﻪﭭ 

ڤﻪﺌ 

ک ﻪهج 

وكﻩو 

نيﻪﻫ 

) نايسموك َلىﻩوگ 

( نايسموك َىذنﻩﺑرﻩد 

َىهجﻠ 

نَيا ﻪﻟﺧااش 

و ىايﻩزاذانﻪﺌ 

نَياي ىرواج نَينراك الوﭙ 

رﻪﺴﻟ 

تﻪﮐد 

َىنرككابود ﻪﻧﻳﻟوكﻪﭭ 

ڨﻪﺌ 

. نركراينشَيﭘ 

و ىركش وب ت اينب ﻪﻧﻳﺑد 


ناصيد . نيوب تشورد َىهج ََىﭭﻪﺌ 

َ 


، ارﻪﺑ 

نَيي 

) 

Indexes 

( 

ﻪﻳﻪﻫ 

ﻪﻴﺴﮐﺪﻧﻹٲ 

و َىانركاﭬائ 

َىمﻩد 

ل ىركش َىيتاﭬائ 

انركاﭬائ 

وبﮊ 

ﻪتشﻩرﻪﮐ 

وكﻩو 

. ىﻪﻫ 

نَيصَيﭬﻧرﻪﺴ 

نَييﻪﻳﺗاهكَيﭘ 

فاند ﻪﻧﺟد 

ب ناَيوﻪﺌ 

) 

limestone 

( 

ﻪﻳيرلجا 

( نَيرﻪﺑ 

نَيروج ﮊ كَيئ وك ) بيشلايبلا ( نَيرﻪﺑ 

نَييﻪﺗاهكَيﭘ 

. َىنركاﭬائ 

ىتشﭘ 

رﻪﺳﻟ 

ىيزاذانﻪﺌ 

نَياي َىو نَيا ﻪﻟﺧاش 

َىيلاﮊ 

ادوج َىكﻪﮔﻧﻩر 

وب لوكﻪﭬ 

. نيﻪﻫ 

ىركش َىهج ل نزﻪﻣ 

َىكﻩوَيش 

ناد وبﮊ 

َىووداي . اد َىتﻪﮔ 

اتﻪﭬ 

تشﻩد 

ب ناسَيﭘ 

نَيمانجﻪﺌ 

. ىكيناكيم و ةيكينك ويج اتﻪﮔﻳﻗا 

نَينركيقا لﻪﮐد 

. نركﻪتَيتد 

قا د ةنوونم وكﻩو 

كَيئ . نانيئراكب ةن اتارﻪﺑ 

ناﭬﻪﺌ 

نَيﻳ 

ىﻩزاذنﻪﺌ 

نَيي ىروج نَينرك لوﭘ 

انانَيﭘ 

ىروج و ىتشﮔاي 

ىيﻩزاذنةئ 

انرك لوﭘ 

وك ) نذناﭘﺳﻪﭼ( 

ىركرايد نَيمانجﻪﺌ 

ىناتصيبل ىتشﮔ 

َىكﻩوَيش 

ب رﻪﺑ 

وكﻩو 

َىاي ىاتاﭬاائ 

اشَيك نزﻪﻣ 

نَيناتشةﭘ 

رﻪﺑﻣارﻪﺑ 

ل ىﻪﻫاي 

شاب اكﻪﻳ 

دﻳﮔرﻪﺑ 

و نقﻩرد 

( ناَيرﻪﺑ 

نَيايﻪﺗااهكَيﭘ 

ﻩرﻪﺑ 

ﭫﻪﺋ . ارﻪﺑ 

ﻦاﭬﻪﺌ 

. ىركاشوب تااينب وكﻩو 

نشابدوك نذناﮔﻧةصلﻪﻫ 

ةن اترﻪﺑ 

ﭬﻪﺌ تيباوﻪﭼ 

رﻪﻫ 

َىركاش َىاهج ل ﻪﻫ ﻩرافرﻪﺑ 

َىاكﻪﻳﻩوَيش 

ب َىي ) shale ( ) حفطلا ( َىروج ﮊ نَيوﻪﺌ 

. ﻯﺭﻜﺴ اﺯۄﻪﺤ 

اﺭﻪﭬﻩﺩﻟ 

نَيي 

ىركش 

) شولوكلا ( و ) سكريجلا 

) eganiard basin ( تايﭼد 

َىﭬاائ 

اﻳ 

ﻪﭬرﻪﺳ 

اانانَيترﻩد 

ناَير ﻪﭬﻩد 

ل و ىركرايناشَيﭘ 

ێﻧﻳﺭﻩۄﻟﻪﻫ 

ﺭﻪﺳﻟ ێﺭﻳﮔﺭﻪﺑ 

ێﺭﻩدﻧاﺷﻳﻧ 

اﻧﺭﻜﺗاﭘۄدﺐ 

. ﻥﺭﻜ ﻪﺗﻳﻫد 

ێۄاﻳﻧﻳﻟۄﻜﻪﭭ 

اﻜﻳﻧﻜﺗۄﻳﺟ 

ێﻳﻼﮊ 

اﺴﻩۄﺭﻪﻫ 

و َىانيرﻩوالﻪﻫﻫ 

ايرﻳﮔرﻪﺑ 

وك ركرايد َىتﻪﮔﻳﻗا 

نَيمانجﺌوئ 

ﺐ ﻦﺩﻧاﮕﻧﻪﺳﻟﻪﻫ 

ﻪﻧﺗاﻫ 

ﻰﻧﻳﺭﻩﻭﻟﻪﻫ ﻦﻳﻳ 

ﻯاركَي 

نَيمانجﻪﺌ 

. ةزاولا اﻳ 

) rating ( َىو نَيي ىياركَي 

ناﭬﮊ 

) embankments ( ىركاش نَياخﻩر 

ودرﻪﻫ 

اﻳﭬﻳﺸﻳﻧرﻪﺳ 

ىﮊ 

ناوﮊ 

اﻴﭬﺸﻴﻧﺭﻪﺴ 

و 

) etgainknud ekald( 

ارﻪﺑ 

ناﭬﮊ 

كﻩذنت 

وب َىو نَيي ﻯاركَي 

ﻦﻴﺸ 

ۄﮔ اﻧاﻧاﺩاﻫﺑ 

اﻤﻩﺭﻪﻤ 

اكﻪبجﻩو 

رﻪﻫ 

وب ناوﻩر 

اي اريوتش اناناد اهب اشﻩورﻪﻫ 

َىنيرﻩولﻪﻫ 

نَيي ىياركَي رﻪﺴﻟ 

ذنﻪﺑاﭘ 

وكﻩو 

وب راﻳد 

ارﻪﺑ 

وكﻩوﺭﻪﻫ 

َىو َىرﻪب 

انركﻩذَيز 

امﻩرﻪﻤ 

ب ) compaction ( َىوايةدار نير مَيك ۄ ) ححفط ( ﮊ ) lift ( انيشوﭘاد 

. 

َىيشَيﭘ 

ل ناناداهب ةي ات


) نابزموك يداو( 

نابزموكيدنبرد عقوم يف ةدجاوتملا روخﺼلل ةيسدنهلا صاوخلا و ضرلاا فورظب قلعتت ةساردلا هذى 

صاوخلا و ةيسدنهلا ةيعونلا تافينﺼتلا نأ تدكا ةساردلا هذى 

وﺼﻼﺧلﺍ 

. دسلا ءانبل ابسانم اعقوم نوكي 

يكل وحارتقا مت يذلا 

تارادحنلاا بيكرت يف لﺧدت و دسلل ساسلاا ن َ وكي يتلا و عقوملا اذى يف تنوكت يتلا روخﺼلل 

يف ريبك لكشب ةدجاوتملا 

) Limestone( 

) Index( 

ةلﺍﺩلﺍ 

. ءاشنلاا دعب و ءانثا دسلا مسج ءانبل داومك و ةدجاوتملا 

ةيريجلا روخﺼلا عاونا ىدحا يى يتلا و يبسﻼيبلا 

روخص تانيوكت نا 

ةيكينكتويجلا ةيربتخملا تاصوحفلا عم ةيسدنهلا اهصاوﺧ ثيح نم يئانثتسا لكشب ﻝفسﺃلﺃ ﺀﺯجلﺃ ةسارد 

مت دسلا عقوم 

يف جذومنك لاوأ روخﺼلا هذهل ةيسدنهلا 

ةيعونلا تافينﺼت رارقلا ةلﺼحتسملا تانايبلا جئاتن تلمعتسا و . ةيكيناكيملا و 

وى روخﺼلا هذهل يعونلا و ماعلا يسدنهلا فينﺼتلا نأب تتبثا جئاتنلا نا و لقحلا يف ماع لكشب رخﺼك ايناث و ربتخملا 

ةبسانم اهنأب روخﺼلا هذى مييقت مت لاحلا ةعيبطب و ،دسلا مسج نزو نم ةريبكلا طوغضلل ةديج ةمواقم وذ و ةدلص اهنا 

يف عساو لكشب ةدجاوتم ) Shale( 

حفطلا عون نم يى يتلا و شولوكلا و سكريجلا روخص تانيوكت نا . دسلل 

مت ،دسلا ضوح ةقطنم يف 

و 

) Drainage Basin( 

) Slake Durability﴿تتفتلا 

ىلع ةمواقملا 

تارشؤم ىلع 

ساسأك 

ةيراجلا هايملل ةيحطسلا ةيفيرﺼتلا قطانملا يف و حرتقملا دسلا عقوم 

ادكؤم ةيكينكتويجلا ةيحانلا نم اضيأ اهتسارد 

مييقت مت و ةفيعض روخﺼلا هذى ضعبل اهتلادعم و تتفتلا ةمواقم نأب ةيربتخملا جئاتنلا تتبثا و 

نم تينب اذا ) Embankments( 

ىلع حفطلا نم 

) Lift( 

. ) gnitaR( 

اهتلادعم 

دسلا يبناج رادحنا اهنمض نم تارادحنلاا اياوز تاريدقت ضرغل تتفتلا تلادعم جئاتن 

ءاطغ ةبجو لكل بسانملا كمسلا ريدقت كلذك و ،تتفتلا تلادعم ىلع ةلادك 

روخﺼلا هذى 

. 

اقبسم اىريدقت كلذك و اهتفاثك ةدايز ضرغل ) Compaction( 

اهلدح لبق ينبملا حطسلا 

44


52 

SPECTOPHOTOMETRIC DETERMINATION OF PARACETAMOLE VIA 

OXIDATIVE COUPLING WITH PHENYLEPHRINE YDROCHLORIDE 

IN PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATIONS 

FIRAS MUHSEN AL-ESAWATI * and RAEED MEGEED QADIR ** 

* Dept. of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Zakho, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

** Dept. of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Duhok, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

(Received: June 3, 2010; Accepted for publication: February 2, 2011) 

ABSTRACT 

A new, simple, rapid and sensitive spectrophotometric method was described in the present study for the indirect 

determination of paracetamol. The method is based on the oxidative coupling reaction of paracetamol ( after acidic 

hydrolysis to form p-aminophenol) with phenylephrine hydrochloride using atmospheric oxygen as an oxidant in 

alkaline medium to form a water soluble, stable indophenol dye and has a maximum absorption at 640 nm. Beer’s law 

is obeyed in a concentration range of 0.5-24 µg. mL -1 of paracetamol with a molar absorptivity of 7664 L.mol -1 .cm -1 , 

the accuracy is 98.86% and the relative standard deviation was less than 1.88% depending on the concentration levels. 

The proposed method has been applied successfully for the determination of paracetamol in some pharmaceutical 

preparations. 

KEYWORDRS: Spectrophotometric, Oxidative Coupling, Paracetamol. 

P 

INTRODUCTION 

aracetamol(N-acetyl-p-aminophenol; 

PCT) is a common analgesic and 

antipyretic drug that is used for the relief of 

fever, headaches and other minor aches and 

pains (1) . 

Various methods have been described for 

determination of paracetamol included 

chromatographic (2-8) , electrochemical (9-13) and 

(14-18) 

Spectrophotometric techniques. Ratio 

Spectra First-Order Derivative UV 

(19) 

Spectrophotometry , and Artificial Neural 

Networks (ANN) (20) , also has been employed 

for the spectrophotometric determination of this 

drug. 

In this paper we describe a simple and 

accurate method for rapid indirect 

spectrophotometric determination of 

paracetamol in pharmaceutical preparations. The 

method is based on the reaction of the hydrolysis 

protect of PCT to p-aminophenol (abbreviated as 

PAP) with phenylephrine hydrochloride in 

alkaline medium. 

EXPERIMENTAL 

1. Apparatus 

Shimadzu model (UV-160A) double beam 

UV_VIS spectrometer with 1.0 cm matches 

silica cells was used to carry out all spectral 

measurements. 

A electo. mag model (M 96K) water bath, 

HANNA model (pH211) microprocessor pHmeter 

and model (HF-400) sensitive balance 

were used. 

2. Reagents 

All chemicals used were of analytical reagent 

grade standard. PCT was supplied by S.D.I. 

(Iraq), PE by S.D.I. (Iraq), Sodium hydroxide by 

BDH, Hydrochloric acid by Fluka. 

- A stock solution of PCT (1000 µg.mL -1 ) was 

prepared by dissolving 0.25gm of pure PCT in 

10 ml of ethanol and diluted to 250 ml with 

distilled water. 150ml of stock solution of PCT 

was mixed with 25ml of hydrochloric acid 

(11.8M), an acidic hydrolysis of mixture was 

made by rflexation the mixture for one hour. 

The mixture cooled and diluted to 250ml with 

distilled water to obtain a solution of (600 µg 

mL -1 ) of p-aminophenol (PAP). A diluting 

concentration of solution were prepared from 

the last solution after equivalent the pH of 

volume of using concentration before the 

dilution to 7 by sodium carbonate (20%) and 

then diluted to volume we need. 

- Working solution of PE (0.1M) was prepared 

by dissolving 5.0917gm in 250ml distilled 

water. 

- Sodium hydroxide solution (1.0M) was 

prepared by dissolving 10gm in 250ml distilled 

water. 

3. Procedure for indirect determination of 

Paracetamol


Into a series of 25 ml calibrated flask, 

increasing volumes of (0.5-6 ml) of PCT (as 

PAP) working solution (25 and 100 µg mL -1 ) 

were transferred to cover the range of the 

calibration curve and 7.0 ml of 0.1 M of PE 

followed by 1.0 ml of 1.0 M of sodium 

hydroxide, the solution was diluted to the mark 

with distilled water and allow the reaction 

mixture to stand for 10 min. The absorbance was 

measured at 640 nm against reagent blank, 

prepared in the same way but containing no 

PCT. The color of the dye solution was stable 

more than 12 hrs. 

4. Procedure for Pharmaceuticals 

Ten (10) tablets were weighed and powdered 

finely. An accurate weight, equivalent to one 

tablet, was transferred into a 100ml calibrate 

flask, dissolve as completely as possible in 

ethanol (10-25ml) and dilute to volume with 

distilled water. Filter and prepare solution of 

1000µg/ml of PCT from later and treat it as the 

same way as mentioned under the general 

procedure. 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

1. Absorption Spectra: 

C 

The result of this investigation indicated that 

the reaction between PCT (as PAP) and PE in 

the alkaline medium yield highly soluble colored 

condensation product which can be utilized as a 

suitable assay procedure for PCT. This blue 

colored product showed a maximum absorption 

at 640 nm, the blank at this wavelength shows 

zero absorbance (Fig. 1). 

Fig,(1): Absorption spectrum of (A) 

reaction product of PCT (as PAP) 12µg 

mL 

2. Study of the optimum reaction conditions 

The effects of various parameters on the 

absorption intensity of the dye were studied and 

the reaction conditions were optimized. 

2.1-Effect of reagent concentration 

Various concentration of PE was added 

to a fixed concentration of PCT (as PAP), and 

the results shown that 7.0 ml of 0.1 M of reagent 

solution was sufficient to develop the color to its 

full intensity and give the maximum value of 

absorbance with minimum absorbance of blank. 

-1 with PE vs. blank. (B) blank vs. 

distilled water. (C) reaction product vs. 

distilled water. 

Table (1): Effect of concentration of reagent 

mL, volume of PE (0.1 M) Absorbance 

0.1 0.098 

5.0 0.158 

0.5 0.210 

0.5 0.238 

4.0 0.387 

5.0 0.401 

6.0 0.425 

7.0 0.431 

8.0 0.430 

10.0 0.430 

2.2-Effect of sodium hydroxide concentration 

To establish the optimum conditions (stability of 

the dye resulting from the reaction of the PCT 

with reagent intensity of the dye formed, 

minimum blank value and relatively rapid 

reaction rate), the effect of medium of reaction 

was studied. Only alkaline medium (1.0M of 

sodium hydroxide) was found to be optimum. 

Neutral and acidic medium results in low 

sensitivity of the color and was not stable. The 

effect of the amount of sodium hydroxide was 

also investigated and 1.0 ml was found to be 

optimal. 

Table (2): Effect of sodium hydroxide concentration 

mL, volume of NaOH ( 1.0 M) Absorbance 

0.1 0.108 

0.3 0.189 

0.5 0.236 

0.7 0.378 

0.9 0.422 

1.0 0.430 

1.5 0.410 

2.0 0.402 

3.0 0.390 

4.0 0.381 

5.0 0.377 

2.3- Effect of temperature 

The effect of temperature on the color 

intensity of the dye was studied. In practice the 

absorbance was decreased when the color is 

developed at 0°C or when the calibrated flask is 

placed in a water bath at 40-60°C. Therefore, it 

is recommended to undergo the reaction at room 

temperature (25°C). 

53


2.4- Effect of time 

The color intensity reached maximum after 

the PCT solution was reacted in development 

54 

Temp. (� C) 

Table ( 3): Effect of time and temperature 

Absorbance/ Minutes standing time 

5 10 30 45 1 2 

time was selected to be used in the general 

proceeds with PE and sodium hydroxide for 10 

min. 

Absorbance / Hour standing time 

4 

6 12 Overnight 

0 0.387 0.390 0.391 0.390 0.384 0.366 - - - - 

Room temp. 0.424 0.431 0.430 0.431 0.429 0.431 0.431 0.430 0.431 0.429 

40 0.421 0.420 0.419 0.419 0.418 0.415 0.403 - - - 

50 0.411 0.408 0.405 0.403 0.400 0.391 - - - - 

60 0.384 0.371 0.345 0.310 0.291 0.276 - - - - 

2.5- Accuracy and precision 

To determine the accuracy and precision of 

the method, PCT (as PAP) was determined at 

three different concentrations. The results are 

shown in table.1 indicate that satisfactory 

precision and accuracy could be attained with 

the proposed method. 

Table (4): Accuracy and precision of the method. 

Paracetamol 

taken 

µg 

Relative error 

%* 

Relative 

standard 

deviation%** 

4 -0.19 1.27 

8 +0.41 0.84 

12 +0.33 1.88 

* Average of three determinations. 

** Average of six determinations 

3. Calibration curve 

Under the above optimum conditions, the 

linear calibration curve (Fig.2) for PCT (as PAP) 

is obtained which shows that beer's law is 

obeyed over the concentration range of (0.5-24 

µg mL -1 ) with correlation coefficient of 0.998 

and an intercept of 0.014 and slope of 0.0375 . 

the molar absorptivity of the colored product 

was 7664 L.mol -1 .cm -1 . 

Absorbance 

Absorbance 

4. The nature of reaction product 

The stoichiometry of the reaction between 

PCT (as PAP) and PE was investigated using the 

molar ratio method (21) Fig (2): Calibration curve for indirect determination of 

PCT. 

. The results obtained 

(Fig.3) shows a 1:1 of the colored product 

formed between PCT and PE at 640 nm. 

0.35 

0.3 

0.25 

0.2 

0.15 

0.1 

0.05 

1.0 

0.9 

0.8 

0.7 

0.6 

0.5 

0.4 

0.3 

0.2 

0.1 

0.0 

0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 

µg/mL (PCT) 

0 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 

Mole Ratio of PE/PCT (as PAP) 

Fig (3): Mole ratio of reaction product of PCT 

(as PAP)-PE.


5. Proposed reaction mechanism 

The acidic hydrolysis of Paracetamol (I) is 

formed p-aminophenol (II) which readily 

oxidized by atmospheric oxygen to pbenzoquinonimine, 

the later couples with 

phenylephrine hydrochloride (III) in alkaline 

medium to form a water soluble indophenol dye 

(IV) which has maximum absorption at 640nm: 

OH 

NH CH 

OH 

OH 

O 

R 

CH 3 

(I) 

+ 

R= CH-CH 2NHCH 3 

OH 

NH 2 

HCl 

OH - 

OH 

OH 

NH 2 

H 

N 

(II) 

6. Analysis of Paracetamol in pharmaceutical 

preparations 

The proposed method was applied 

satisfactorily to the indirect determination of 

paracetamol in the following pharmaceutical 

preparations: 

Paracetamol tablets with paracetamol 

500mg; from Meheco (China). 

Paracetol tablets with paracetamol 500mg; 

from S.D.I. (Iraq). 

Algesic tablets with paracetamol 350mg, 

Codeine phosphate 10mg ; from S.D.I. (Iraq). 

Myogesic tablets with paracetamol 450mg, 

orphenadrinecitrate 35mg; from Dar-Al-Dawa 

(Jordan). 

The concentrations of the PCT (as PAP) were 

calculated by direct measurements on the 

appropriate calibration graph. The results 

obtained are summarized in (Table2), and 

compared favorably to those reported by Al- 

Esawati (22) and the official method(BP) (23) . 

OH 

(III) (IV) 

R 

Table 5: Determination of paracetamol in 

pharmaceutical preparations 

Pharmaceutical 

preparation 

Paracetamol 

tablets 

Paracetol 

tablets 

Label 

claim mg 

BP 

method 

Recovery % 

Reported 

method 

Proposed 

method 

500 98.73 97.97 97.34 

500 97.47 98.65 96.92 

Algesic tablets 350 97.97 102.20 98.55 

Myogesic 

tablets 

450 98.99 101.81 102.63 

CONCLUSIONS 

Spectrophotometric procedure is proposed for 

the indirect determination of paracetamol in 

pharmaceutical preparations. The method is 

based on the oxidative coupling reaction of 

paracetamol ( after acidic hydrolysis to form paminophenol) 

with phenylephrine hydrochloride 

using atmospheric oxygen as an oxidant in 

alkaline medium to form a water soluble, stable 

indophenol dye. The proposed method has been 

applied successfully for the determination of 

paracetamol in some pharmaceutical 

preparations. 

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55


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56 

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Office, London, p. 1854 (1998).


ةييتاي َىتشث( 

ليهظ لةطد َىناسكَوئ اناهيكَيث اكَيلزاك اكَيسب لىوماتيسازاث وب ىطنةبةش َىكندنلامةخ 

انامزةد تَينونم ظاند ىديزولكوزدياي ويسظ 

لىوماتيسازاث اي زةسكيئ ةن اي ىطنةبةش اَييسب اندنلامةخ، َىناسكَوئ اناهيكَيث ىكةكَيلزاك اناهيئزاكب 

ىتزوك 

اهيج ىسكوئ ىاهيئزاكبو ىديزولكوزدياي ويسظ ليهظ لةطد ) لوهيفوهيما -ازاث 

وب شست َىكةدنوان ةل ادَيظائ 

ظاند َىزاطيش 

ب ادَيظائ ظاند ةياناوت و لوهيفودهيئ اي ٌجوخ َىشولائ اهتاًكَيث وب ةتشثلاث ةمةتسيس ظةئ 

ذ ترليلم/ 

ماسغوسكيام 

ارَيز ب و % 98.86 

) 24- 

0. 5( 

اتةي اوناهيئ ارَيز ب 

ذ اديرب اساي َىزوهسو تريمونان 

604 

. تفت َىكةدنوان ةل اةد َىناسمةئ 

َىندنارم َىزةظَيث ب ىدنارلمةي ويستشزةب 

1- 

1- 

و مس. 

لوم. 

ترل 4660 ىيرب يزلاوم اهيرم ىةكلوك واي ب . لىوماتيسازاث 

لوماتيسازاث اي انامزةد 

ذ ادوج تَينونم زةسل ىاهيئزاكب ةتاي ةنايتظةكزةس ب ةَييز ظةئ 

. 

% 8811 

فشاكلا عم يدسكأتلا نارتقلأا لعافت ىلع دامتعلأاب لوماتيسارابلل يفيطلا ريدقتلا 

ةيئاودلا تارضحتسملا ضعب يف ديارولكوردياه نيرف لينف 

ىنلع ةنقيرطلا دنمتعت ت يئانملا لنسولا ينف لوماتينسارابلا 

ننم ةيوركيام تايمك ريدقتل ةرشابم ريغ ةيفيط ةقيرط 

ل يرت ميك ىناظيث انادلا 


تمدختسا 

نيرنف لنينف فنشاكلا عنم ) لوننيفونيمأ-ارانب 

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ىنلإ 0.5 ننم نيكرتلا لدنم نمنم نبطوا 

رنيب نوواق . رتموواو 

1- 

لدنعم نانك و 

. 

600 

يجوملا لوطلا دنع صاصتما ىلعأ يطعتو ءاملا يف ةبئاذو 

1- 

نس. 

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رتل 4660 يه يرلاوملا صاصتملاا لماعم ةميق تواكو لوماتيسارابلا نم رتللم/ 

مارغوركيام 

نيكرتلا لوتنسم ىنلع فادانمتعا % 1. 

88 ننم لنقا يبنسنلا ينسايقلا ارنحولااو % 98. 

86 

. 

ةيئاودلا 

40 

ينه لوماتينسارابلل لاجرتنسلاا ةبنسو 

تارضحتسملا ضعب يف لوماتيسارابلا ريدقت يف حاجنب ةقيرطلا يبطت تو 

57


58 

CERTAIN SPECIES OF MALLOPHAGA (BIRD LICE) OCCURING 

ON DOMESTIC PIGEONS (Columba livia domestica Gmelin, 1789) 

IN ERBIL CITY-IRAQ 

REZAN KAMAL AHMED 

Dept. of Biology, College of Science, University of Salahaddin, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

(Received: June 4, 2010; Accepted for publication: June 4, 2011) 

ABSTRACT 

Pigeons are a source of food, and used as pets, cultural and peace symbols. They also make good laboratory animal, 

poultry are attacked by several species of biting lice. The main objective of the current study was to determine and identify 

the prevalence and intensity of infestation with abundance of individual species of chewing lice on certain domestic pigeons 

of Erbil City-Kurdistan Region-Iraq. During the period from the beginning of October 2008 to the end of October 2009, a 

total of 40 domestic pigeons were obtained from animal market Erbil, the feathers were examined by using magnifying lenses 

and dissecting microscope. The ectoparasites were collected in small vials and fixed in 70% ethanol for further 

identifications. Three different species of chewing lice were reported [Goniocoites gallinae from the head and neck (89.3%), 

Menacanthus stramineus from the breast skin (67.9%) and Columbicola columbae from the Wing and tail feather (32.1%)] 

with the overall prevalence 70.0%. The pigeons had higher prevalence of double 15 (37.5%) compared with single 7 (17.5%) 

and triple 6 (15%), whilst 12 (30 %) of the examined pigeons were uninfested. 

KEYWORDS: Mallophaga, domestic pigeons, Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq. 

P 

INTRODUCTION 

igeons are a source of food, and used as 

pets, cultural and peace symbols. They 

also make good laboratory animal (Cooper, 

1984). Poultry are attacked by several species of 

biting lice that causes reduce egg production, 

decrease market quality of birds. This is 

manifested by extensive damage to feathers and 

marked irritation of the skin, which may cause 

overall weakening and even death of the birds 

infested (Porkert, 1978; Jurasek and Dubinsky, 

1993; Holscher and Wintersteen, 1998). Many 

authors in different parts of the world studied the 

ectoparasites of the bird in general and pigeon in 

special. Although most of them were 

emphasized the need for more parasite research, 

especially in the area of systematic because only 

a small percentage of parasite species have been 

identified (Monis, 1999; Brooks & Hoberg, 

2001). 

In a study performed by Zangana (1982) only 

two species of ectoparasites (Gonocoites 

gallinae and Columbicola tschulyschmann) were 

detected from 435 collected domestic pigeons 

(Columba livia domestica) at different parts of 

Nineva province and some parts of Erbil and 

Duhok provinces-Iraq. From three different 

locations of Kampala-Uganda, 34 pigeons were 

studied for parasites. Three lice Columbicola 

columbae, Menopon gallinae and Menacanthus 

stramineus were reported (Dranzoa et al., 1999). 

Mushi et al. (2000) were conducted a study on 

12 domestic pigeons (C. livia domestica) in 

Sebele, Gaborone, Botswana, the prevalence of 

C. columbae was 30%. Adang et al. (2008) were 

purchased 240 domestic pigeons (127 males & 

113 females) in Ziria-Nigeria, in which 177 

(73.8%) were infested by certain species of 

ectoparasites, which included: M. gallinae 

(6.3%), C. columbae (63.8%), and Goniodes sp. 

(10.8%). 

The study of bird parasites (including 

pigeons) is a neglected field of zoological study 

in Iraq; therefore the present study was aimed to 

record the incidence of chewing lice among 

certain domestic pigeons of Erbil City, and to 

determine the intensity of infestation and 

abundance of individual species of chewing lice on 

Pigeons. 


Sampling area: 

A total of 40 domestic pigeons (Columba 

livia domestica Gmelin, 1789) were obtained 

from animal market Erbil during the period from 

beginning of October 2008 to the end of October 

2009. The pigeons brought alive and kept in 

large special cage with grid tops and sides (2X 

3X 4m 3 ) in the animal house of Science College, 

Biology Department for further examination and 

fed on the wheat and adequate water. The


feathers of the birds were brushed using a fine 

brush onto a white flat container for the 

collection of ectoparasites, with the special 

attention paid to the examination of the head, the 

neck, under wings, body and leg feathers with a 

hand lens. Dissecting and light microscope were 

used for further examination. 

The ectoparasites were placed immediately in 

a small vial containing 70% alcohol for killing 

and preserving. The vial then labeled with the 

correct host-name, locality, date and number of 

the ectoparasites in each pigeon (Wall & 

Shearer, 2001). The ectoparasites were identified 

using standard text by Wall and Shearer (2001). 

Criteria of infestation: 

The ecological terms (prevalence and mean 

intensity of infestation) were used here based on 

the terminology of Margolis et al. (1982) 

Prevalence of infestation = The percentage of 

number of individuals of a host species infected 

with a particular ectoparasite species/ Number of 

hosts examined. 

Mean intensity of infestation = Total number 

of each ectoparasite species per total number of 

infected host in a sample. 

Statistical analysis 

The results were analyzed statistically using 

the computer program SPSS 11.5 for Windows 

(� 2 analysis), the differences were considered to 

be statistically significant when p-value obtained 

was less than 0.05. 


Throughout the period of the current study 

several species of chewing lice were identified 

among 40 domestic pigeons in Erbil City-Iraq. 

Table (1) shows the total infested number of 

domestic pigeons which was 28 cases with 

overall prevalence of different chewing lice 

70%, and this is relatively similar (73.8%) to 

that reported by Adang et al. (2008), that may be 

due to the many factors, which include home 

range, behavior, size and roosting habit of the 

host, market breeding conditions, and crowdy 

caging of domestic pigeons. The results of the 

present study confirmed the finding of other 

studies performed in some parts of the world 

(Mushi et al., 2000; Petryszak et al., 2000; 

Senlik et al., 2005). Statistically there was non 

significant differences between male and female 

infestation rates, this result is in agreement with 

Petryszak et al. (2000) and Adang et al. (2008), 

which they mentioned that the sex of pigeons did 

not influence the number of bird lice present. 

Table (2) shows three different species of 

chewing lice isolated from different sites on the 

body of the domestic pigeons with their 

infestation rates. Goniocoites gallinae (Fig. 1A) 

from the head and neck (89.3%), Menacanthus 

stramineus (Fig. 1B) from the breast skin 

(67.9%) and Columbicola columbae (Fig 1C) 

from the Wing and tail feather (32.1%). This is 

obvious that species of chewing (biting) lice may 

infest pigeons; they feed on skin scales, feathers, 

and scabs and spend their entire lives on the bird 

(nymph and adult) (Holscher and Wintersteen, 

1998). 

The infested sites of the isolated chewing lice 

was in agreement with the finding of Richards 

and Davies (1973) and Pattison (1996), in which 

they mentioned that G. gallinae found near the 

end of the feathers and on the skin of the host, 

especially on the head, neck, M. stramineus, 

common birds body louse, and C. columbae 

common wing louse. 

The pigeons have higher prevalence rates of 

double 15 (37.5%) infestation compared with 

single 7 (17.5%) and triple 6 (15%), whilst 12 

(30 %) of the pigeons were uninfested (Table 

3). The differences in the prevalence rates of 

single and mixed infestations were non 

significant. 

The high prevalence rate of double 

infestation of the pigeons by G. gallinae and M. 

stamineus, compared with single infestation may 

be due to to the fact that ectoparasites can 

cohabit without causing any harmful effects to 

each other. 

The interaction of two or more ectoparasites 

on the same host may be said to be a low interspecific 

competitive interaction characterized by 

simultaneous infestations that may not be 

detrimental to the two species (Adang et al., 

2008). 

59


60 

Table (1): Rates of infestation with different chewing lice species among domestic pigeons in Erbil City-Iraq. 

Host Sex 

No. 

Examined 

No. 

Infested 

Prevalence 

(%) 

Male 21 15 4.17 

Female 19 13 68.7 

Total 40 28 70.0 

Table (2): Prevalence and preference sites of chewing lice of domestic pigeons in Erbil City-Iraq. 

Ectoparasites Infestation sites Number of 

infested Pigeons 

(28) 

Prevalence 

(%) 

Total numbers of 

ectoparasites 

Mean 

intensity 

G. gallinae Head and neck 25 89.3 108 4.3 3-9 

M. stramineus Breast skin 19 67.9 93 4.9 2-7 

C. columbae Wing and tail 

feather 

Range 

9 32.1 30 3.3 2-5 

Table (3): Frequency of single and mixed chewing lice infestations on domestic pigeons in Erbil City-Iraq. 

Infestation type Parasite species Total % 

None 12 30 

single G. gallinae 7 17.5 

Double G.gallinae+ M. stramineus 

M. stramineus + C. collumbae 

Triple G.gallinae+M. stramineus + C. collumbae 6 15 

A 

C 

B 

Fig. (1): Photomicrograph of isolated domestic pigeon lice: 

A: Adult of Menacanthus stramineus 

B: Adult of Goniocoites gallinae 

C: Adult of Colmbicola columubae 

12 

3 

30 

7.5


REFERENCES 

- Adang, K.L.; Oniye, S.I. Ezealor, A.U.; Abdu, P.A. and 

Ajanusi, O.J. (2008). Ectoparasites of domestic 

pigeon (Columba livia domestica, Linnaeus) in 

Zaria, Nigeria. Research Journal of Parasitology, 3 

(2): 79-84. 

- Brooks, D.R. and Hoberg E.P. (2001). Parasite 

systematics in the 21st century: opportunities and 

obstacles. Trends in Parasitology, 17:273-275. 

- Cooper, J. E . (1984). A veterinary approach to pigeons. 

Journal of small Animal practice, 24; 505- 516. 

- Dranzoa, C. Ocaido, M. and Katete, P. (1999). The ecto-, 

gastrointestinal and haemo-parasites of live 

pigeons (Columba livia) in Kampala, Uganda. 

Avian pathology, 28:119-124. 

- Holscher, K. and Wintersteen, W. (1998). Iowa 

Commercial Pesticide Applicator Manual Animal 

Pest Control. Iowa State University. Category 1E 

(http://www.extension.Iastate.edu/publications/cs 

13, 1-24pp) 

- Jurasek, V. and Dubinsky, P. (1993): Veterinary 

Parasitology (in Slovak). Priroda, Bratislava. 382 

(Cited by Sychra, O. (2005). Chewing lice 

(Phthiraptera: Amblycera, Ischnocera) from chukars 

(Alectoris chukar) from a pheasant farm in 

Jinacovice (Czech Republic). Vet. Med. – Czech, 50 

(5): 213–218). 

- Margolis, L. Esch, G.W. Holmes, J.C. Kuris, A.M. and 

Schad, G.A. (1982). The use of ecological terms in 

parasitology (Report of an ad hoc committee of the 

American Society of Parasitologists). Journal of 

Parasitology, 68 (1): 131-133. 

- Monis, P.T. (1999). The importance of systematics in 

parasitological research. International Journal of 

Parasitology, 29:381-388. 

- Mushi, E.Z. Binta, M.G. Chabo, R.G. Ndebele, R. and 

Panzirah, R. (2000). Parasites of domestic pigeons 

(Columba livia domestica) in Sebele, Gaborone, 

Botswana. Journal of South Africa Veternary 

Association, 71(4): 249-250. 

- Pattison M. (1996). Poultry Diseases 4th ed, Bailliere 

Tindal, London, WB Saunders, Jordan, FTW: 287– 

289 

- Petryszak, A. Rościszewska, M. Bonczar, Z. and 

Pośpiech, N. (2000). Analyses of the population 

structures of Mallophaga infesting urban pigeons. 

Wiad Parazytology, 46(1): 75-85. 

- Porkert, J. (1978). Mass occurrence of Goniocotes 

megalocephalus on one injured Hazel Grouse (in 

German). Angewandte Parasitologie, 19, 213–219. 

- Richards, O.W. and Davies, R.G. (1973). A general 

textbook of Entomology. 9 th edn., Halset Press, a 

Division of John Wileyand Sons, Inc. New york. 

886pp. 

- Senlik, B.; Gulegen, E. and Akyol, V. (2005). 

Ectoparasites of domestic pigeons (C. l. domestica) 

in Bursa province. Türkiye Parazitoloji Derneği,, 

29 (2): 100-102. 

- Wall, R. and Shearer, D. (2001). Veterinary Ectoparasites: 

Biology, Pathology and Control. 2 nd edn., Oxford. 

Blackwell Science. 262pp. 

- Zangana, F. M. (1982). Study on the parasites of domestic 

pigeon Columba livia domestica in Nineva and 

some areas of Erbil and Duhok province. M.Sc., 

Thesis. College of Science, University of Mosul. 

61


62 

يَهاً يستؤك زةسةه ) ةدهَهاب ي َيثسةئ( 

قاسَيع- 

سَيهوةي 

يزاشةه 

زةهَيتسق ي َيثسةئ يزؤج مَيدنةي 

(Columba livia domestica 1789, Gmelin) 

وكةو ايةوزةي . تيشائ ياٌَيي وزوتهةك و يَهاً يزةوةنايط وكةو وَيدزاكةب ةو نازؤخ يةواضزةسةه ينتيسب ستؤك 

َيثسةئ يناكةزؤج ةه زؤش يكةيةزاًذةب ىاكةي يزةوةهةث ةطَوَيك يزةوةنايط , تَيدزاكةب شاب ييةطيقات يلَيزةوةنايط 

و ةرَيِز يندسلناشين تسةد و ىدسليزايد ةه ووب تييسب ةيةوةهيرَيوت مةئ يكةزةس ينجاًائ 

. وَيسكةد شسَيي زةهَيتسق ي 

يٌَيزةةي-سَيهوةةي 

يزاش يناكةي يَهاً ةستؤك ةه مَيدنةي زةسةه زةهَيتسق يَيثسةئ يناكةزؤج ةب ىووب شووت يِسض 

يؤةك , 8002 يًةكةي نييسشت 

يياتؤكات 8002 يًةكةي نييسشت يطناً ياتةزةس ىاوَين يةواًةه . قاسَيع-ىاتسدزوك 

يةهَيواي يناهَييزاكةبةب ىاسهَيلشث ىايناكةِزةث , سَيهوةي يزاش ينازةوةنايط يِزاشابةه ىايرطزةو يَهاً يستؤك 

َيؤناةثيئ % 00 

ةةك نوةضب يةشوش وانةه ةوةةناسكؤك ىاكةي يكةزةد ةزؤخةشً 

00 

ةتخوث 

تيشط 

. يزالَيوت نييبدزوو و ىدسكةزوةط 

} ىاسكزاًؤت زةةهَيتسق ي َيثسةئ ةه شاوايج يزؤج َيس . ستايش يندسلناشين تسةد ؤب ىايندسكيرطَيج 

تيسةبةًةب ووبادايت 

Columbicolo 

ةو % 9072 

هةس تيةسَيث ةه Menacanthus stramineus , % 22.3 

ةةه يةناود ينووةب شوووت يةرَيِز .% 00 تيشط ينووب شووت يةرَيِز ةب ةو { % 3873 

ىً وزةسةه 

Goniocoites gallinae 

موك و َياب يِزةث ةه 

ةستؤك ي 38 )% 30( 

مَلاةب , 9 )% 33( 

ينايس و 0 )% 3073( 

يكات ينووب شووت ةب دزوازةبةب 33)% 

3073( 

(Columba livia domestica 1789, 

فيللاا مامحلا ىلع ةدجاوتملا ) رويطلاا لمق( 

قارع-ليبرا 

ةنيدم يف 

Gmelin) 

columbae 

ووبستشزةب ىاكةستؤك 

. ىووبووبةن شووت ىاكةواسهَيلشث 

ضراقلا لمقلا عاونا ضعب 

ياذناويحلا لذم اذ يا دذعي ي . ملاذتلاي دذيلاقتلاي ياداذعلل دذمروي ةذكيلا ياذناويحو اذ يا لمعتذتيي ااذغلا رداصم دحا وه مامحلا 


داذذديا ناذذو ةذذساردلا هاذذهل 

يذذتيسرلا ادذذهلا . ضراذذقلا لذذمقلا لذذم رذذيبو ددذذع لذذبق لذذم ةذذنجادلا ياذذناويحلا اجاذذهت , ةدذذيدلا ةذذيربتخملا 

. قارذعلا-ناتذسدروو 

ايذلقا -لذيبرا 

ةذنيدم يذف فذيللاا ماذمحلا ىذلع دذجاوتملا ضراذقلا لذمقلا عاوناذب ةباذصلاا ةدذ ي ةبذتن يخذشتي 

ةذنيدم يذف ياذناويحلا لذيب قوذس لذم ةكيلا ةمامح 00 تعمج 8002 

ليلاا ليرشت ةياهن ىلا 

8002 

ليلاا ليرشت ةيادب لم ةرتكلا للاخ 

ىذلع ةذيياح ةريغذص يناذنق يذف ةليدعملا ةيجراخلا يايليكطلا تعمج . حيرشتلا رهدمي ةيريبكت ياسدع لامعتسأب شيرلا 

: يذذه ضراذذقلا لذذمقلا لذذم ةذذكلتخم عاوذذنا ةذذ لا دوذذجي لدذذس . 

ي )% 9072( 

ردذصلا دذلج لذم Menacanthus stramineus ي )% 2273( 

ةبذتن ي % 00 ناذو ةذيجراخلا ياذيليكطلاب ةباذصلال ةذيلكلا ةبذتنلا . )% 3873( 

حف . ليبرا 

يخذذشتلا ياوذذطخ لذذم دذذيدم ارذذجاي تذذيبثتلا ضرذذغل لوناذذثيا % 00 

ذنعلا ي ا رذلا لذم تذلدع يذتلا 

لياذلاي ةذحنجلاا شذير لذم 

لذم ) % | 30( 

38 ناذو اذمنيب ) % 33( 

9 ةذي لاثلا ي )% 3073( 

0 ةدرذكملا ياباذصلااب ةذنراقم )% 3073( 

33 

Goniocoites gallinae 

Columbicolo columbae 

ىذلعا تناو ةيسانثلا ياباصلاا 

. 

ليباصم ريغ صوحكملا مامحلا


INCIDENCE OF BLOOD STREAM INFECTION IN NEONATE CARE UNIT 

IN SULAIMANI PEDIATRIC TEACHING HOSPITAL 

SAHAND K. ARIF * and GOLZAR F. ABDULRAHMAN ** 

* Dept. of Biology, College o Science, University of Sulaimani., Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

** Technical institute of Sulaiman, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

(Received: June 5, 2010; Accepted for publication: November 28, 2010) 

ABSTRACT 

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the incidence of nosocomial blood stream infections, identify the common bacteria, their 

biotypes and antibiotic sensitivity patterns and to identify the probable exogenous source, from the environment and 

personnel, leading to such infections. 

METHODOLOGY: Two hundred and two (202) neonates were included in this study which was carried out in the 

Neonatal care unit- Sulaimani Pediatric Hospital in Sulaimani-Kurdistan Region - Iraq from July to December 2008 

RESULTS: There were 102 female and 100 male, the most common cause of disease were, Jaundice 95 (47%) followed 

by cyanosis 32 (15.8%), septicemia 15 (7.4%), diarrhea and vomiting. The mortality rate was increased as the neonate 

weight decreased. Environmental samples were collected from floor and walls, beds, sinks, tap water, disinfectants, 

ventilator and suction pumps, swab were also taken from hands, nasal cavity and coats of the Nurses. Suction pump 

and nurse coats showed the highest rate of bacterial contamination (14 isolates for each). During the study period, 15 

patients developed 15 episodes of confirmed nosocomial blood stream infection (NBI), accounting for an incidence 

rate of 7.4%, five different bacterial species were identified from blood samples, and all the infections were 

monomicrobial. The most common organisms causing nosocomial blood stream infection were E coli (6 isolates), P. 

aeroginos, (4 isolates), E. cloacae (2 isolates), S. aureas (2 isolates) and Citrobactr frundii (1 isolate). 

CONCLUSION: Understanding these risk factors and adjusting clinical practice to reduce the risk may reduce the 

incidence of nosocomial infection and improve outcomes, more continuing medical education programmes are needed 

for the health care team to improve their competence. 

KEYWORDS: Neonatal care unite, Blood stream infection, Environmental samples 

N 

INTRODUCTION 

eonatal deaths account for over a third 

of the global burden of child mortality 

(Lawn et al., 2004). Hospital-acquired 

bloodstream infection is a serious health 

problem in hospitals all over the world and is 

associated with high mortality, prolonged 

hospital stay, and extra cost (Garrouste-Orgeas, 

et al., 2006). Most studies of nosocomial 

bloodstream infections (NBI) in pediatric 

intensive care unit (PICU) were carried out in 

the developed countries. In Iraq and especially in 

Kurdistan region, the true magnitude of the 

problem is not known (Al-Zwaini, 2002, and 

Efird, et al., 2005), so the present study 

conducted to estimate the incidence of blood 

stream nosocomial infections in the neonatal 

care unite of Pediatric Hospital in Sulaimani 

city, identify the common bacteria, their 

biotypes and antibiotic sensitivity patterns and 

identify the probable exogenous source, from the 

environment and personnel, leading to such 

infections. 

MATERIAL AND METHODS 

1-Studied population: 

Two hundred and two neonates attended to 

Neonatal care unit- Sulaimani Pediatric Hospital 

in Sulaimani-Kurdistan Region – Iraq from 

March to December 2008 and who remained at 

least 48 hours were followed up and evaluated. 

Clinical data for each neonate was collected and 

included the following information: Neonate 

name, date of admission, type of delivery, 

gestational age, gender, body weight, clinical 

diagnosis on admission and length of 

hospitalization. 

2-Definitions 

Bloodstream infections were regarded as 

nosocomial if they occurred more than 48 hours 

after admission to the hospital. Criteria of the 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention were 

used as standard definition for NBI (Garner, et 

al., 1988). The cases of clinical sepsis without 

laboratory-confirmed bloodstream infection 

were excluded. 

3-Blood samples: 

Blood samples were collected with all aseptic 

precautions for blood culture and sensitivity 

studies, inoculated into bottles containing 

63


Trypticase Soya Broth for isolation of bacteria. 

The blood culture bottles were incubated at 37ºC 

and sub cultured on solid media (blood agar, 

MacConckey agar and Chocolate agar) after 

24hr to 48hr and at 7 days. Isolates were 

identified by Gram stain and conventional 

biochemical methods. 

4-Environmental sample 

Environmental sampling was obtained on a 

weekly basis from floor walls, sinks, tap water, 

disinfectants, ventilator and suction pump, swabs 

were also taken from hands, nasal cavities and 

coats of the nurses of each room in neonatal care 

unite. The colleted swabs then were cultured on 

blood agar and MacConkey agar, plates then 

were incubated aerobically overnight at 37ºC, if 

no growth was detected, plates then were reincubated 

for another 24 hours before reported 

as negative cultures. 

5-Identification of microorganisms 

Methods used for identification of Gram 

positive bacteria are Gram-stain, catalase, 

coagulase, DNase, bile esculin hydrolysis, 

growth on NaCl, susceptibility to optochin, 

colonial morphology and haemolysis. Methods 

used for identification of Gram-negative rods are 

64 

Male 

(100) 

Female 

(102) 

Total 

(202) 

No. 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 


2-Types of the Disease 

As illustrated in figure (2), the most common 

cause of disease was, Jaundice 95 (47%) 

followed by cyanosis 32 (15.8%), septicemia 15 

(7.4%), diarrhea and vomiting 11 (5.4%) and 

bad feeding 7 (3.4%). The mortality rate in male 

with jaundice was (3/48, 6.2%), while in female 

% of Patient 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

45 

3 

6.2 

Fig. (2). Types of the diseases 

7 

5 

41.6 

1 

was (3/47, 6.3%). The mortality rate in cyanotic 

male (5/12, 41.6%) was higher than female 

(3/20, 15%), one of the 4 female neonates with 

septicemia died while the 2 male patient whom 

suffered from septicemia died during the study 

(figure 3 and figure 4). 

50 

9 

4 

0 0 

2 2 

Jaundice Cynosis Bad feeding D and V Septicemia 

Live Dead % of Dead 

Fig. (3):- Correlation between diseases and the mortality rate in male neonates. 

22 

65


66 

% of patients 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

44 

33 

25 

17 15 

3 

6.3 

3 

6 

0 0 

4 1 3 1 

Jaundice Cynosis Bad feeding D and V Septicemia 

Live Dead % of Dead 

Fig. (4):- Correlation between diseases and the mortality rate in female neonates. 

3-Correlation between neonatal weight and 

mortality rate. 

Seventy seven (40 male and 37 female) of the 

patients were more than 3000 gm while only 2 (1 

male and 1 female) were less than 1000gm. The 

mortality rate was increased as the neonate 

weight decreased, 50% of the neonates weighted 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

1 1 1 1 

50% 

9 8 

4 5 

38% 

15 

1110 

6 

28% 

less than 1000gm died while 38% of the 

neonates weighted 1000-1500 gm died, this rate 

further decreased when the weight was between 

2001-2500 gm, while the minimum rate of death 

was recorded among neonate weighted more 

than 2000 gm (figure 5). 

16 16 

30 

6% 

2 

30 

27 

49 

40 

37 

66 

14% 14% 

11 

8 

3001 

Male Female Live Dead % of death 

Fig. (5):- Correlation between neonatal weight and mortality rate. 

4-Environmental isolates as a probable 

exogenous source of nosocomial infection: 

Seven different bacterial species were 

isolated from different sites inside the neonatal 

care unit rooms, which were, E coli (18 isolates), 

P. aeroginosa (13 isolates), S. aureas (11 

isolates), S. epidermidis (10 isolates), Proteus 

mirabilus (7 isolates), E. cloacae (2 isolates) 

and Citrobactr frundii (1 isolate). The Suction 

pump and Nurse coats showed the highest rate of 

bacterial contamination (14 isolates for each), 

followed by Sinks (13) Surfaces (9) Beds (5), 

Ventilation (4) and Soaps and Antiseptics (2 

isolates for each) (figure 6). Infection room 

showed the higher rate of contamination (32 

isolates), all above bacterial species were 

detected except Citrobacter frundii, 14 bacterial 

isolates were isolated from Premature room 

included all species except Citrobacter frundii 

and E. cloacae, while in isolation room only 10 

isolates were recorded but Citrobacter frundii 

and E coli were not isolated (figure 7)


No. of Isolates 

No. of Isolates 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

10 

Suction P 

6 

5 

4 

4 4 

2 

2 2 2 

1 1 1 1 1 1111 1 1 1 1 1 

Sink 

Surface 

Antiseptic 

Bed 

Ventelation 

P aerogenosa S aureus E coli S epidermitis E cloaca P mirabilis C frundii 

Fig. (6):- Microorganisms isolated according to the site of isolation. 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

14 

6 

4 4 4 4 

2 2 

3 

2 

3 

2 2 

3 

1 

0 0 0 0 0 0 

Coat 

8 

Soap 

2 

1 1 1 1 1 

0 

Infecntion Premature Isolation Others 

P. aeroginosa S. aureas E coli S.epidermidis E. cloacae Proteus Citrobactr frundii 

Fig. (7):- Microorganisms isolated from different neonatal care unit rooms. 

5-Clinical isolates (Characteristics of 

nosocomial bloodstream) 

During the study period, 15 patients 

developed 15 episodes of confirmed Nosocomial 

blood stream infection (NBI), accounting for an 

incidence rate of 7.4%. Three episodes of 

clinical sepsis without laboratory-confirmed 

bloodstream infection occurred during the same 

period and were excluded from the analysis. 

Five different bacterial species were identified 

from blood samples, all the infections were 

monomicrobial. The most common organisms 

causing nosocomial blood stream infection were 

E coli (6 isolates), P. aeroginosa, (4 isolates), E. 

cloacae (2 isolates), S. aureas (2 isolates) and 

Citrobactr frundii (1 isolate) (Figure 8). 

67


68 

No. of isolates 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

0 

26.6% 

40% 

13.3 

6.6% 

13.3 

P. aeroginos E coli S. aureas Citrobactr frundii E. cloacae 

Type of Bacteria 

Fig. (8):- Types of microorganisms isolated from blood samples. 

6-Comparison between clinical and 

environmental samples. 

When the environmental bacterial isolate 

compared to those isolated from blood samples 

in the same period of time and in the same place, 

we observed that certain environmental bacterial 

isolates were identical to that isolated from 

blood (table 2) samples as confirmed by 

antibiotic resistance profile (table 3) and 

biochemical assays (API 20 system), 

Enterobacter cloacae and Citrobacter frundii 

isolated from the surface in infectious room in 

two different cases were identical to those 

isolated from blood at first and second week of 

August respectively. At the fourth week in 

August Enterobacter cloacae was isolated from 

the suction pump sample in phototherapy room, 

which was also identical to that isolated from the 

blood sample. 

Table (2):- Comparison between clinical and environmental samples. 

Clinical sample Environmental sample Pathogen 

Blood (1st Week, Aug.) Surface (1st Week, Aug.) Enterobacter cloacae 

Blood (2nd Week, Aug.) Surface (2nd Week, Aug.) Citrobacter frundii 

Blood (4th Week, Aug.) Sanction P (4th Week, Aug.) Enterobacter cloacae 

Table (3):- Antibiotic pattern of clinical isolates. 

No. Samples CIP(5) N.A(30) DA(2)Mcg S(10) C(30) AM(10) AMC(10) TMP(5) P 

1A Blood (247) S S R S S R R S R 

1B Suction Pump (24) S S R S S R R S R 

2A Blood (509) S S R S S R R R R 

2B Surface 12(b) S S R S S R R R R 

3A Blood (667) S S R S S R R R R 

3B Surface (19-5) S S R S S R R R R 

S=Streptomycin, NA=Nalidixic Acid, AM=Ampicilin, C=Chlramphenicol , TMP=Trimephoprim, 

CIP=Ciprfloxacin , P=pinicilin, DA=Clindomycin AMC=Amoxiccillin (Clavulanic Acid). 

DISCUSSION 

Unfortunately, hospitals in developing 

countries are at high risk of infection 

transmission, and improvements in neonatal 

outcomes are subverted by hospital-acquired 

infections and their associated morbidity, 

mortality and cost (Nejjari, et al., 2003 and Raza 

et al., 2004). These infections can be attributed 

to lack of knowledge and training about basic 

infection control processes, coupled with 

inadequate infrastructure, systems of care and


resources. This has serious consequences when 

devices such as intravenous catheters and 

ventilators are introduced without sufficient 

attention to the substantial risk of infection they 

entail (Martinez-Aguilar et al., 2001 and 

Silva et al., 2000). 

In the present study the majority, 77 out of 

202, of the neonate were more than 3000 gm 

while only 2 out of 202 of the neonates were less 

than 1000 gm. Cimiotti et al, (2008) also 

reported that the majority of the neonate (45.8%) 

were more than 2500 gm while 11.6% were less 

than 1000 gm. Numerous studies have indicated 

that neonate weight less than 1000 gm was a risk 

factor for nosocomial blood stream infection 

(Sohn, et al., 2001, Harihara, et al., 2001 and 

Babazone, et al., 2008), while in our study non 

of the patients with nosocomial blood stream 

infection had weight below 1000 gm, this 

difference may be due to that only 0.99 % of 

patients were belong to this weight group. 

The incidence rate of blood stream infection 

In the present study was 7.4%, a study 

conducted in Saudi Arabia recorded incidence 

rate of 19.2% nosocomial infection (NI) in 

neonatal intensive care unit and only 40.9% of 

those infections were blood stream infection 

(Mahfouz, et al., 2010). 

Previous studies have documented widely 

varying infection rates between individual 

institutions. In developing countries, 

investigators in Brazil and Indonesia have 

reported rates of hospital-acquired infections to 

be as high as 51%–52% among all neonatal 

intensive care unit (NICU) admissions (Nagata, 

et al., 2002 and Zaidi, et al., 2005). A 

prospective multicentre study conducted by the 

European Study Group found an infection rate of 

7% in 7 NICUs (Raymond and Aujard, 2000). 

The USA national point prevalence survey, a 

collaborative study in 29 hospitals representing 

19 states, found a NICU infection rate of 11.4% 

(Sohn et al., 2001). In Spain a study found an 

incidence rate of 1.6 NIs per 100 patients-day 

observation in the NICU (Urrea, 2003). 

Although the Centers for Disease Control 

and Prevention definitions are usually used in 

these studies, it may be difficult to make direct 

comparisons with these data because of 

inconsistencies in surveillance or study methods, 

such as intensity of surveillance, prospective 

versus retrospective data collection, infection 

detection methods and the populations included 

(Mahfouz, et al., 2010). 

The most common organisms causing blood 

stream infection in this study were E coli, P. 

aeroginosa, E. cloacae, S. aureas and Citrobactr 

frundii, In most of the developing countries 

gram negative organisms are still the main cause 

of sepsis especially early onset neonatal sepsis 

(Anwer et al., 2000, Joshil et al., 2000, 

Aurangzeb B and Hameed, 2003, Cordero, et 

al., 2004, Anita, et al., 2005, Larson, et al., 

2005 and Jaballah, et al., 2007). In the present 

work, culture studies revealed growth in 62 

samples indicating considerable contamination 

of different areas of the units and sources of 

infection. Our results were in agreement with 

those reported by (Chandrashekar, et al., 1997 

and Newman, 2002) in which gram negative 

bacteria was predominant in environmental 

samples. In contrast to our study Deep et al., 

(2004) found that gram positive bacteria 

(coagulase negative staphylococci and S aureus) 

were the most common organisms isolated from 

the environment as an exogenous source of 

nosocomial infection, this may be due to that 

they observed an outbreak of multi-drug 

resistant gram positive in their hospital. The 

Suction pump and Nurse coats showed the 

highest rate of bacterial contamination in our 

study. Numerous NICU outbreaks of infection 

have been reported. The vast majority of 

clustered cases for any pathogen have been 

found to be genetically similar strains with 

transmission due to cross contamination from a 

small number of health care workers. Reservoirs 

for transmission are numerous: laundry, soap 

bottlesand sinks, hand lotion, pet dog, bed toys, 

blood gas analyzer, ventilator circuits, multiuse 

vials, sibling-to mother- to-patient, water tap, 

hands, suction equipment, air conditioner, 

wooden tongue depressors, water bath for blood 

products, expressed mother’s milk, powdered 

milk, latex gloves, resuscitator and saline for 

heparin dilution. About 85% of all NICU 

surfaces will grow nosocomial pathogens 

(Spainhour, 1998, Harbarth et al., 1999 and 

Reese et al., 2004). 

In conclusion, the results of this study will 

assist in developing intervention strategies for 

the prevention of NIs in NICUs in the region. 

More continuing medical education programmes 

are needed for the health care team to improve 

their competence. Understanding these risk 

factors and adjusting clinical practice to reduce 

the risk may reduce the incidence of nosocomial 

infection and improve outcomes. 

69


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BIOACCUMULATION OF SOME HEAVY METALS IN THE TISSUES OF 

TWO FISH SPECIES (Barbus luteus AND Cyprinion macrostomum) IN 

GREATER ZAB RIVER- IRAQ 

NASHMEEL SA’ID KHDHIR * , LANA S. AL-ALEM ** and SHAMALL M.A. ABDULLAH *** 

* Dept. of Environmental Science, College of Science, University of Salahaddin, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

** Dept. of Biology, College of Science, University of Salahaddin, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

*** Dept. of Biology, College of Education-Scientific dept, University of Salahaddin, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

(Received: June 9, 2010; Accepted for publication: April 10,2011) 

ABSTRACT 

Concentrations of the heavy metals copper (Cu), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn) were determined in water 

and six organs (testis, ovary, kidney, liver, gills and muscle) of Barbus luteus and Cyprinion macrostomum in the 

Greater Zab River during spring 2009. Generally, B. luteus showed no significant accumulation for the studied 

metals. The sex organs (testes and ovaries) of C. macrostomum exhibited a tendency toward Cd and Pb accumulation; 

furthermore, Cu was significantly (P


were placed in screw-capped bottles and boiled 

till complete dryness. Then concentrated nitric 

acid was added to the samples and boiled close 

to dryness, then diluted with distilled deionized 

water. The solution was filtered and stored in 

refrigerator till analysis (APHA, 1998). 

From each species, fifteen individuals fish 

were obtained and stored in pre-washed 

polyethylene containers in ice and brought to the 

laboratory on the same day of capture. In the 

laboratory, the fish sample for each organ 

(testes, ovary, kidney, liver, gills and muscle) 

from each species was dissected, using clean 

equipments and put separately in prewashed 

labeled petri dishes and transferred into oven to 

dry at 105 ° C for 24 hours. The dried tissues were 

placed in Muffle Furnace at 550 ° C for 5 hours. 

The dry-ashed samples were cooled at room 

temperature then digested in 2N HCl and the 

volume completed to 50 ml with distilled deionized 

water. The solutions were filtered 

(Dalaly and Al-Hakim, 1987). The resulting 

solutions of digested water and fish organ were 

analyzed by Flame Atomic Absorption 

Spectrophotometer (PYE UNICAm SP9-Philips) 

for detection of Cu, Cd, Pb and Zn 

concentrations according to APHA (1998). All 

plastics and glassware used in manipulation of 

samples were completely acid-washed and 

reagents of analytical grade were utilized for the 

17 

blanks and calibration curves (Bartram and 

Balance, 1996). 

All metal concentrations were expressed in 

terms of micrograms per gram of dry weight (µg. 

gm -1 dry wt.). One way analysis of variance 

ANOVA and Duncan’s multiple range test were 

used by applying SPSS program version 11.5 to 

find out statistical differences among various 

parameters according to the recommendations of 

Townend (2002). 

RESULTS 

The concentrations of cupper, cadmium, lead 

and zinc in the water of Greater Zab River and 

different organs of B. luteus and C. 

macrostomum are shown in Table (1) and 

Figures (1-4). For B. luteus, the maximum Cu 

value of 0.838 µg. gm -1 dry wt. was recorded in 

the testis, while the minimum value was 0.400 

µg. gm -1 dry wt. in the ovaries. Highest Pb value 

was 0.922 and the lowest was 0.409 µg. gm -1 dry 

wt. in testes and muscles respectively. On the 

other hand, the range of Cd was between 0.938 - 

1.537 µg. gm -1 dry wt. in ovary and gills 

respectively. Furthermore, the minimum value of 

Zn was 0.130 µg. gm -1 dry wt. in both muscles 

and ovaries, while the maximum level was 

evaluated to 0.260 µg. gm -1 dry wt. in the testes. 

Table (1):- Mean values (µg. gm -1 dry weight ± SE) of heavy metals Cu, Cd, Pb and Zn in Greater Zab River 

water and various organs of Barbus luteus and Cyprinion macrostomum. 

Parameters Copper Cadmium Lead Zinc 

Water 0.611±0.058 a 1.221±0.040 a 0.653±0.046 a 0.233±0.026 de 

Barbus luteus Testis 0.647±0.100 a 1.244±0.100 a 0.717±0.117 a 0.260±0.000 e 

Ovary 0.568±0.089 a 1.181±0.120 a 0.716±0.086 a 0.132±0.001 a 

Kidney 0.607±0.057 a 1.258±0.116 a 0.711±0.115 a 0.180±0.000 ab 

Liver 0.641±0.057 a 1.249±0.116 a 0.629±0.089 a 0.208±0.002 cd 

Gills 0.599±0.057 a 1.238±0.173 a 0.669±0.085 a 0.168±0.002 b 

Muscles 0.601±0.115 a 1.245±0.116 a 0.662±0.139 a 0.130±0.000 a 

Cyprinion 

macrostomum 

Testis 0.607±0.002 a 1.275±0.001 b 0.710±0.000 ab 0.125±0.000 ab 

Ovary 0.609±0.001 a 1.260±0.000 ab 0.728±0.000 b 0.150±0.012 bc 

Kidney 0.601±0.001 a 1.279±0.000 b 0.685±0.000 ab 0.151±0.000 bc 

Liver 0.749±0.001 b 1.263±0.000 ab 0.699±0.000 ab 0.160±0.006 bc 

Gills 0.622±0.005 a 1.240±0.000 ab 0.675±0.000 ab 0.180±0.012 c 

Muscles 0.601±0.000 a 1.257±0.000 ab 0.699±0.000 ab 0.090±0.006 a 

Mean values with different letters in each column indicate significant differences (P


Fig. (1):- Mean values (µg. gm -1 dry weight) of Cu in various organs 

of Barbus luteus and Cyprinion macrostomum. 

Fig. (2):- Mean values (µg. gm -1 dry weight) of Pb in various organs of 

Barbus luteus and Cyprinion macrostomum. 

17


17 

Fig. (3):- Mean values (µg. gm -1 dry weight) of Cd in various organs of 


Fig. (4):- Mean values (µg. gm -1 dry weight) of Zn in various organs of 


Statistical analysis results showed that there 

were no significant accumulations of the metals 

Cu, Cd, Pb and Zn in the tissues of B. luteus 

comparing to their concentrations in the water of 

Greater Zab River during the period of this 

investigation. Moreover, significant differences 

(P


of C. macrostomum in the present study was in 

the decreasing order of gills ≥ liver ≥ kidney ≥ 

ovary ≥ testis ≥ muscle. In other words, gills 

seemed to be the organ which has the highest 

value of Zn followed by liver and kidney. On the 

other hand, muscles appeared to be the organ 

that has minimum Zn concentration 

(0.090±0.006 µg. gm -1 dry wt.) and showed no 

significant (P


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ILO and UNEP, International Program of Chemical 

Safety (1987). Geneva, Switzerland. 

� Williams, P.L; James, R.C and Roberts, S.M. (2000). 

Principles of Toxicology: Environmental and 

Industrial Applications. Second edition. John Wiley 

& Sons, Inc. 603pp.


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نوط( 

مةد نييةنوبو 

يسام ةرؤج وود ىناكةناش ةل سروق ىلَيخموت دنةض ىةوةنووبؤكةدهيس 

قايرع - ةروةط يباس يرابور يوائ ةل ) Cyprinion macrostomum 

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Barbus luteus 

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ةروةط مةد نييةنوب يسام ي) 

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78 

ECCENTRICITY OF THE HORIZONTAL AXIAL RESTRAINT 

FORCE FOR STRAIGHT AND CAMBERED BEAMS 

KANAAN SLIWO YOUKHANNA ATHURAIA * and. RIYADH SHAFIQ AL-RAWI ** 

* School of Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Duhok, Kurdistan Region- Iraq 

** Dept. of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Baghdad-Iraq 

(Received: June 17, 2010; Accepted for publication: April 10, 2011) 

ABSTRACT 

Theoretical formulas to predict the eccentricity of the horizontal axial restraint force (based on strain readings) 

for straight and cambered beams were derived. Theoretical formulas to predict the horizontal axial restraint force 

were derived too. Four portal frames were cast, two of them are with single span (one with straight beam 50mm x 

60mm and other with cambered beam). The effectiveness of cambered beams compared to straight ones are shown 

where there is increment in the values of axial compressive force for cambered beams. 

KEYWORDS: Beam, Camber, Strain, Eccentricity, Axial Force, Compressive. 

W 


ith the presence of end axial and 

rotational restraint, the flexural 

behavior of beams or one-way slab strips is quite 

different from the behavior of simply -supported 

beams or one-way slabs. The rotational restraint 

is responsible for the negative flexural moment 

at the ends (supports) of the member. This is not 

the exact situation which can be suggested 

according to the laws of mechanics of an elasticplastic 

material like reinforced concrete. Usually 

in the analysis and design of continuous beams 

and continuous one-way and two-way slabs, the 

rotational restraint only is assumed to be present 

at the edges of an interior beam or interior slab 

panel. 

In axially restrained slabs subjected to 

membrane forces, these forces were always 

theoretically assumed or considered to be acting 

at the mid-depth of the slab cross-section 

(Brotchie and Holley 1971) (Park 1965) (Park 

1964) (Ramesh and Datta 1973) (Fenwick and 

Dickson 1989) (Christiansen 1963) (Okleston 

1958). This means that the rotational restraint 

provided by the torsional stiffness of the 

surround was ignored in these analyses. Very 

few research works (Guice and Rhomberg 

1988) considered the presence of a partial 

rotational restraint at the edges of one-way slab 

panels, in addition to the partial axial restraint. 

This partial rotational restraint was provided by 

fixing the edges of the slab panels by cover 

plates. 

While the development of membrane 

compressive action has been attributed to lateral 

restraint, some test data (Guice and Rhomberg 

1988) suggest that providing lateral restraint is 

only one condition required for insuring an 

enhancement in load capacity. Guice and 

Rhomberg (Guice and Rhomberg 1988) stated 

that: “the lateral restraint acting at the midsurface 

of slab would permit the edge to rotate 

and would apparently provide little or no load 

enhancement”. 

2. RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE 

The concrete is much better in compression 

than in tension, so, there is a need for all 

formulas that presents the effectiveness of any 

structural configuration (such as camber) in 

increasing the compression zone of a concrete 

section. In this research, an attempt is made to 

do so. 

3. EXPERIMENTAL WORK 

Four reinforced concrete portal frames were 

cast in order to measure the strains at mid-span 

of the beams. Using same concrete mix, portal 

frames denoted as F1 (single span straight), F2 

(single span cambered), F3 (triple span straight) 

and F4 (triple span cambered) were prepared. 

General layout of the frames is given in 

Appendix (A). 

3.1 Materials 

3.1.1 Cement: Ordinary (type I) Portland 

cement was used. The cement was produced 

conforming to Iraqi Specifications: No. 5: 1984 

[I.O.S. 5/1984]. Its chemical and physical 

analyses are shown in Appendix (B).


3.1.2 Fine aggregate (Sand): The sand was 

sieved at sieve size (4.75mm) to get rid of coarse 

particles. The sand was then washed and cleaned 

by water several times, later it was spread out 

and left to dry in normal air. The sand was 

conforming to Iraqi Specifications: No. 45:1984 

and ASTM C33-86 Specifications [ASTM, 

1986]. Its gradation and other properties are 

given in Appendix (C). 

3.1.3 Coarse Aggregate (Gravel): Gravel was 

used as coarse aggregate. It was sieved to a 

maximum size of (9.5mm) conforming to ACI 

Code provisions, that the maximum size of 

aggregate should not be greater than one-fifth of 

the narrowest dimension of the concrete section. 

The gravel was washed and cleaned several 

times (in water) and left in air to dry. Its 

gradation and other properties are given in 

Appendix (C) and are conforming to ASTM 

C33-86 Specifications [ASTM, 1986]. 

3.1.4 Water: Ordinary drinking water was used 

for mixing and curing of the concrete. 

3.1.5 Reinforcement: Deformed steel bars 

conforming to ASTM A615-86 specifications 

were used as reinforcement. The bars were 

deformed (5mm) in diameter. Other properties of 

the steel reinforcement are given in Appendix 

(C). 

3.2 Mix Design 

Mix design procedure of the ACI Committee 

211 (Neville 1995) was followed to design the 

proportions of the concrete mix. The mix was 

proportioned to have (28 days) cylinder strength 

in the range of (25 N/mm2) and the slump is 

chosen to be within the range of (50 mm). Trial 

batches were made to check the slump of the 

mix, and corrections were applied to mix 

proportions. Mix proportions (by weights) were 

(0.370 : 1 : 1.120 : 1.596) water to cement to 

sand to gravel respectively. 

All frames were cured (with water) for 28 

days after which the strain gages were firmed in 

position at mid-span of the beams (interior span 

for triple span frames). The uniformly 

distributed loads were then gradually applied 

and the deflection readings were measured 

3.3 Strain Gages 

The strain gages were fixed in the required 

positions before the application of the uniform 

load. The strains were measured using (55mm) 

length foil type strain gages by digital strainmeter 

(TDS-100) with a capacity of (10) 

channels. Some details of the strain gages used 

are as follow: 

* Foil type. * Precision strain gages. 

* Resistance = (120 +- 0.2%) Ohms. 

* Gage factor = (2.075 +- 0.5%). 

* Measurements Group Inc. (U.S.A.). 

Strain gages were fixed in position as 

follows: 

Strain gage at the top fiber of mid-span, 

another strain gage at the bottom fiber of midspan, 

two strain gages at mid-depth of mid-span 

section each one from one side to take the 

average of both for mid-depth strain. 

Dead load (DL=2.533 kN/m) were applied 

for a period of 35 days after which a live load 

(LL=2.043 kN/m) is added to dead load resulting 

in total load (DL+LL=4.576 kN/m. 

4. STRAIN READING 

The experimental measurements of strain 

reading are given in Table (1). The general 

shapes for the distribution of the strain 

reading measurements of all frames are shown in 

Fig. (1). 

Frame 

Table (1) Strain readings at mid-span. 

F1 F2 

Time + 

[Strain (ε) × 10-6] ++ at: 

(days) Top Middle Bottom Top Middle Bottom 

0 -1009 733 770 -495 -235 423 

9 -1002 780 812 -564 -246 475 

29 -1051 822 860 -537 -213 590 

46 -1418 1253 1384 -813 -330 956 

Frame F3 F4 

Time + 

[Strain (ε) × 10-6] ++ at: 

(days) Top Middle Bottom Top Middle Bottom 

0 -1520 -452 82 -1427 -878 -272 

9 -1610 -469 92 -1576 -817 -296 

29 -1702 -487 93 -1662 -980 -316 

46 -2053 -226 125 -2252 -906 -348 

+ Time is measured relatively to the first reading. 

++ The load of first three readings were dead load only, while for the last reading, it was (dead + live) loads. 

Cracks occurred in the case of the third and fourth readings (29 & 46 days). 

79


80 

h/2 

h/2 

5. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 

In cambered beams, the difference 

between fully axially restrained and partially 

axially-rotationally restrained beams is much 

strict than in slabs, because the depth to width 

(h/b) ratio is higher in beams than in slabs. In 

axially restrained beams, the restraint force must 

be at the mid-depth point which idealizes the 

hinges, while in partially axially-rotationally 

restrained beams, that idealizes the actual 

connection of framed members, the restraint 

force must be eccentric or accompanied with a 

fixed end moment. 

Theoretically as shown in Fig. (2), it can 

be assumed that the eccentricity (e) of the total 

horizontal axial force (Fc) from the center line of 

the beam section is equal to the distance of the 

internal concrete compressive force from the 

center line, i.e.: 

6. EXPERIMENTAL PREDICTION OF 

ECCENTRICITY 

Experimentally, by measuring the strain at 

different locations (Top, Mid-depth and Bottom) 

Fig. (1): Measured strain diagrams of beams at mid-span. 

d 

b 

(a) (b) (c) (d) 

As 

N.A 

εB 

b 

εm 

c 

εT 

h/2 

h/2 

FC 

e 

N.A 

c 

εT 

e 

εm 

εB 

h ar 

e � 

2 2 

� ………… (1) 

where: h is the overall depth of the concrete 

section. 

r a is the equivalent rectangular stress 

block depth of restrained member. 

e is the eccentricity of total 

compressive force. 

and 

ar 

FC 

As 

f y � N 

� ………… (2) 

0. 

85f 

`c 

b 

Fig. (2): Eccentricity of the axial force. 

ar 

c 

εm 

εT 

εB 

N.A 

FC e 

where As is the area of steel reinforcement 

fy is the yield tensile strength of steel 

reinforcement. 

f`c is the compressive strength of 

concrete. 

N is the axial compressive force. 

b is the width of concrete section. 

0.85f`c 

e 

Fc 

T=Asfy 

of the beam section, it may be possible to 

estimate the eccentricity of the total horizontal 

axial compressive force (FC). 

For the strain diagram as that shown in 

Fig.(1.b), the eccentricity can be written as:


eexp 

h 

[ 3 � ( 

�T 

)] 

6 �T 

� �m 

� …………… (3) 

where eexp is the experimental eccentricity of 

total compressive force. 

εm is the strain at mid-depth of concrete 

section. 

εT is the strain at top of concrete section. 

h is the overall depth of concrete 

section. 

While for that shown in Fig.( 1.c), it can be 

written as: 

h 

eexp ( 3 � y 

1 

) 

6 

Where: 

y 

1 

And 

� …………… (4) 

2 

2 

� ( �m 

� 2�T 

) � �m 

( 3� 

B 

� 4� 

m ) 

� ……. (5) 

�.[ 

�.( 

�T 

) � �m 

( � B 

� 2� 

m )] 

B m � � � � � …………… (6) 

Where εB is the strain at the bottom of the 

concrete section. 

For the strain diagram shown in Fig.( 1.d), 

the eccentricity is: 

h 

exp � ( y 

2 

� 3) 

6 

e ……………… (7) 

Where: 

5�T�6�m��B y 2 � 

� �2�� T m B 

….…… (8) 

Table (2) gives numerical values for the 

eccentricities of the portal frames of the present 

study. Figure (3) shows the relation of the ratio 

(eexp/h) with time. It can be seen that for the 

single span portal frames (F1 and F2), the 

camber effect is to decrease the eccentricity [at 

mid-span], this is due to the increase in the 

compressive zone of the beam section. A 

superior effect of the interior span compared to 

the single span is recognized by the small 

eccentricities of frames (F3 & F4) compared to 

that of frames (F1 & F2). 

Direct Axial Compressive Force (N) 

Considering Eq. (9) (Athuraia 2004): 

c 

As 

f y � N 

� ………………….. (9) 

0. 85� 

1 

f `c 

b 

The direct axial compressive force (N), may 

be written as: 

y f 

N � 0. 85� 

1 

f `c 

b. 

c � As 

.…..… ….. (10) 

Substituting (cexp) for (c), a semi-empirical 

formula would be: 

y f 

N � 0. 85� 

1 

f `c 

b. 

cexp 

� As 

……. (11) 

Where the term (As.fy) represents the axial 

force provided by steel reinforcement 

From Fig. (1), the following relations may be 

derived to calculate (cexp): 

For the strain diagram shown in Fig. (1.b), 

the experimental position of the neutral axis is 

given by: 

c 

h 

( 

�T 

) 

2 �T 

� �m 

� ……………… (12) 

where � B is the strain at bottom of concrete 

section. 

� T is the strain at top of concrete section. 

h is the overall depth of concrete section. 

For that shown in Fig. (1.c), the neutral axis 

position is: 

c 

h 2� 

m � � 

( 

B 

) 

2 �m 

� � B 

� …………...…. (13) 

Where m � 

: Strain at mid-depth of concrete 

section. 

While for the strain distribution as that shown 

in Fig. (1.d), the neutral axis position is given 

by: 

c 

h 2� 

m � � 

( 

B 

) 

2 �m 

� � B 

� …………… (14) 

Substituting the numerical values of (cexp) 

calculated by using Eqs. (12), (13) and (14), and 

given in Table (3), the direct axial compressive 

force (N) would be as those given in Table (4). 

Figure (4) shows the relationship between axial 

force (N) and time. 

It can be noticed that for the single span 

portal frame (F1) after increasing load, the axial 

compressive force inflects into an axial tension 

one. It is believed that this is due to excessive 

deflection that occurs with increased load that 

tends to make the eccentricity of the axial force 

greater than (h/2) and the line of action for this 

axial force to be out of the section, which 

produces a moment same as that of the flexural 

loads . The beneficial effect of camber 

(especially for an interior span) can also be seen. 

Eq. (11) is a general one with respect to 

(cexp). Substituting Eqs. (12), (13) and (14) into 

81


Eq.(11), the following equations can be 

predicted: 

82 

y f 

� 

( N ) 

bh 

T 

exp � 0. 

425� 

1 

f `c 

( ) � As 

. …(15) 

�T 

� �m 

� B 

� 2�m 

( N ) exp � 0. 

425� 

1 

f `c 

bh( 

) � As 

. f y …(16) 

� B 

� �m 

7. CONCLUSIONS 

Theoretical formulae were derived to predict 

the eccentricity of axial compressive force. 

Force (N) 

e / h 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

0.5 

0.4 

0.3 

0.2 

0.1 

0 

Fig. (3) Relation of (e/h) with time. 

Fig. (4) Relation of force "N" with time. 

2�m 

� � 

( N ) 

f bh 

B 

exp � 0. 

425 

1 

`c 

( ) � As 

. f y 

�m 

� � B 

Fig.(3) Relation of (e/h) with time. 

� … (17) 

Where all strains (ε) are in absolute values. 

0 20 40 60 

Time (Days) 

F1 F2 F3 F4 

Fig. (4) Relation of force "N" with time. 

0 10 20 30 40 50 

Time (Days) 

F1 F2 F3 F4 

Another theoretical formulae were derived to 

predict the axial compressive force.


Frame F1 

Frame F3 

APPENDIX (A) 

Fig. (A.1) Photos of portal frames. 

Beam section: (50x60) mm. 

Column section: (50x70) mm. 

Footing section for frames (F1&F2): (0.3x0.3x0.1) m. 

Footing section for frames (F3&F4): (0.4x0.4x0.1) m. 

Clear height of columns = 0.5 m. 

Both beams and columns are reinforced by: 2 – φ 5 mm 

Column stirrups: φ 5 mm @ 50 mm c/c (Stirrups), 

Beam stirrups: as per ACI code [Nilson & Winter, 1986] 

Footing for frame (F1) is reinforced by 3 - φ 5 mm 

(one layer in both directions) 

Footing for frame (F2) is reinforced by 5 - φ 5 mm 

(one layer in both directions) 

Frame F1 

1.0 m 

Frame F3 

Frame F2 

Frame F4 

0.5 1.0 m 

0.5 

Frame F4 

Frame F2 

1.0 m 

Fig. (A.2) General layout of portal frames. 

Fif (2): General layout of portal frames. 

83


APPENDIX (B) 

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ORDINARY CEMENT 

As tested by the National Center for Constructional Laboratories (NCCL). 

84 

B.1 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES 

Oxide 

% 

B.S. 882:1973 

Composition 

By Weight 

Limiting values 

SiO2 21.20 

CaO 61.98 

MgO 3.00 Max. 4 % + 

Fe2O3 3.28 Al2O3/Fe2O3 > 0.66 

Al2O3 

5.72 

SO3 2.48 Max. 3 % ++ 

L.O.I. 1.26 Max. 4 % 

Ins. Residue 0.89 Max. 1.5 % 

L.S.F. 0.88 Min. 0.66 

Max. 1.02 

+ 

Iraqi Standards No. 5 required 5 % as Max. 

++ Iraqi Standards No. 5 required 2.8 % as Max. 

++ B.S. 882: 1973 requirements are: SO3 = 2.5% Max. 

when C3A is equal or less than 

Compound Composition % 

By Weight 

C3S 41.01 

C2S 29.84 

C3A 9.91 

C4AF 9.98 

B.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 

Property Value Limiting Values 

[IQS-NO.5/1984] 

Fineness Blaine 312 m2/kg Min. 230 m2/kg 

Setting Time 

(Vicat) 

Compressive 

Strength 

Soundness 

Initial 

160 minute Min. 45 minute 

Final 290 minute Max. 600 minute 

3 days 16.09 N/mm2 Min. 15 N/mm2 

7 days 25.90 N/mm2 Min. 23 N/mm2 

Auto-Clave 0.20 % Max. 0.80 % 

APPENDIX (C) 

GRADATION AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF SAND AND GRAVEL 

AND PROPERTIES OF REINFORCEMENT 

C.1 Gradation and other properties of sand 

Sieve % 

% Passing according to: 

Size Passing IQS - 45 ASTM- B.S. 882: 

(mm) 

C33-86 1973 + 

10.00 100 100 100 100 

4.75 100 90-100 95-100 90-100 

2.36 90 75-100 80-100 75-100 

1.18 71 55-90 50-85 55-90 

0.60 52 35-59 25-60 35-59 

0.30 24 8-30 10-30 8-30 

0.15 4 0-10 2-10 0-10 

Sulphate Content = 0.11 % (max. limit = 0.5 %) 

Specific Gravity = 2.64 

Absorption = 0.70 % 

+ Grading area (zone) number (2).


REFERENCES 

Sieve Size (mm) % 

Passing 

C.2 Gradation and other properties of gravel 

% Passing according to : 

ASTM–C33-86 B.S. 882: 1973 

& IQS-45/1980 

12.5 100 100 100 

9.5 100 85-100 85-100 

4.75 17 10-30 0-25 

2.36 0.4 0-10 0-5 

1.18 0.2 0-5 --- 

Sulphate Content = 0.09 % (max. limit = 0.1 %) 

Specific Gravity = 2.57 

Absorption = 0.70 % 

- Brotchie, J. F., and Holley, M. J. (1971). Membrane 

Action in Slabs, ACI Special Publication Paper SP 30-16, 

pp. 345-377. 

- - Park, R.(1965). The Lateral Stiffness and Strength 

Required to Ensure Membrane Action at the Ultimate Load 

of a Reinforced Concrete Slab - and – Beam Floor. 

Magazine of Concrete Research (London), Vol. 17, No. 50, 

March, pp. 29-38. 

- Park, R. (1964). Ultimate Strength of Rectangular 

Concrete Slabs Under Short Term Uniform Loading 

with Edges Restrained Against Lateral Movement, 

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers (London), 

Vol. 28, June, pp. 125-150. 

- Ramesh, C. K., and Datta, T. K. (1973). Ultimate 

Strength of Reinforced Concrete Slab-Beam System–A 

New Approach. Indian Concrete Journal, Vol. 5, No. 3, 

August, pp. 301-308. 

- Fenwick, Richard C., and Dickson, Andrew R. (1989). 

Slabs subjected to Concentrated Loading. ACI Structural 

C.3 Steel bars (Reinforcing) 

As tested by: 

the Central Institution for Measuring and Quality Control. 

Deformed 

(diameter) 

bars 

5 mm 

Yield strength 774 N/mm2 

Ultimate strength 793 N/mm2 

Elongation 3 % 

Journal, Vol. 86, No. 6, November-December, pp. 672- 

678. 

- Christiansen, K. P. (1963). The Effect of Membrane 

Stresses on the Ultimate Strength of the Interior Panel in a 

Reinforced Concrete Slab. The Structural Engineer, Vol. 

41, August, pp.261-265. 

- Okleston, A. J. (1958). Arching Action in Reinforced 

Concrete Slabs. The Structural Engineer, V.36, June, 

pp.197-201. 

- Guice, Leslie K., and Rhomberg, Edward J. (1988). 

Membrane Action in Partially Restrained Slabs. ACI 

Structural Journal, Vol. 86 , No. 4 , July-August, pp.365- 

373. 

- Neville, A. M. (1995). Properties of Concrete”, 4th Ed., 

The English Language Book Society-Pitman Publishing, 

London. 

- Athuraia, Kanaan Sliwo (2004). Effect of Membrane 

Action on Results of Load Test. Ph. D. thesis, Baghdad 

University, College of Engineering, Baghdad, IRAQ. 

85


نَيي 

ىنووضلةه نَيندناخ 

ب دراثشار( 

يوشائاي يرةوةت ايادَيرط 

اسَيهاي 

َيرةتنةش ايهادوج انركرايرد ايرويت نَينتشراد 

86 

ةتخوث 

راض . يوشائاي ىرةوةت ايادَيرط 

اسَيه 

انركرايد ايرويت نَينتشراد 

اشةورةه . نترطرةو ةنتاه ىدنامةضو تشار نَيكنيزارةد 

ىدايو ممم ) 05 × 05( 

ةتشاراي ناوذ 

كةي اكنيزارةد[ 

ةيةه ىهلااظ كةي ناوذ 

ود . نرك باش ةنتاه رطلةه نَير 

ةكيةث 

ينكنيزارةد لةطد نرك دراورةب ب نركرايد ةنتاه ىدنامةض نَيكنيزارةد 

انركَيلراك 

تابتعل ) لاعفنلإا تاءارقل دانتسلإاب( 

. ] ةي 

ىدنامةضاي ىواكنيزارةد 

. ىةهاياد ىدنامةض نَيكنيزارةد 

اي ىرةوةت اراشف نَيياوبد 

كةيهةدَيز 

يذوةئ 

. تشار 


ةيقفلأا ةيروحملا ةديقملا ةوقلل يزكرملا فلاتخلإا داجيلأ ةيرظن غيص قاقتشإ مت 

نانثإ ،ةلماح لكايه عبرأ بص مت . ةيقفلأا ةيروحملا ةديقملا ةوقلا داجيلإ ةيرظن غيص قاقتشإ مت ًاضيأ . ةسوقمو ةميقتسم 

تابتعلا ةيلاعف راهظإ مت .] ةسوقم ةبتع تاذ رخلآاو ملم ) 05 x 05( 

ةميقتسم ةبتع تاذ اهدحأ[ 

دحاو ءاضف تاذ اهنم 

. 

ةسوقملا تابتعلل ةيروحملا طاغضنلإا ةوق ميقب ةدايز كانه ثيح ةميقتسملا تابتعلاب ةنراقم ةسوقملا


THREE DIMENSIONAL REPRESENTATION OF A REMOTE STRUCTURE 

USING REFLECTORLESS TOTAL STATION INSTRUMENT 

RAAD AWAD KATTAN and SAMI MAMLOOK GILYANA 

School of Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Dohuk, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

(Received: June 12, 2010; Accepted for publication: February 27, 2011) 

ABSTRACT 

Remote structures and objects are always make a great measuring challenge to the engineers and surveyors. 

Even with the introduction of the EDM instrument, a reflector has to be placed at the observed point. In this study, a 

reflectorless total station instrument works with red light laser was used. The objective is to measure and visualize the 

3d coordinates of a remote roof dome. 330 points were observed from 5 control points. For this purpose the 

instrument was checked and the spatial accuracy was in the range of 2mm. Points were imported to the AutoCAD 

software and it was possible to present the data in different forms. Contour lines, sections shaded 3d surface are 

presented. Deviations of the surface from the perfect spherical shape were measured. Polynomial surface was 

generated to fit the point cloud. 

KEYWORDS:- Reflectorless, Total Station, 3d Measurements, Structures, Dome 

R 

1-INTRODUCTION 

emote structures such as high rise 

towers, domes, bridges, elevated 

motorways, dams, require special techniques in 

observations and measurements. Ordinary 

observation by total station instruments,[4] is 

difficult or impossible as there is no way to place 

the reflector on the selected points on these 

structures. Fragile and delicate objects such as 

glass or plastic structures, ancient sites are added 

to such list of objects which cannot be measured 

using conventional surveying methods. The 

object in question in this project represents a 

problem to be tackled. It is a semispherical dome 

made of polycarbonate sheets supported on a 

metal frame. The aim is to have a 3-D model of 

this object 

2-REVIEW OF THE 3-D MEASUREMENT 

TECHNIQUES 

Different techniques are regularly used in 

remote object surveying among these are: 

1-Close range photogrammetric methods: 

Indirect observation of targets are carried out 

using pairs of close range images. Known 

control points are to be placed in the scene and 

through the well known solutions such as 

collinearity, coplainarity, DLT solutions, 3-D 

ground point coordinates can be computed,[3] 

2-Laser scanning technique is the most recent 

method. Instruments generating laser beam scan 

the required objects sequentially. The reflected 

laser signal plus the horizontal and vertical 

angles can be converted into 3-D coordinates. 

Millions of observation can be generated 

sequentially. A 3-D model can be generated. 

Such systems are still experimental and 

relatively expensive, [8]. 

3-The conventional intersection method: a base 

line is placed at some distance from the object 

and horizontal and vertical angle observations 

are to be taken to each target from the two ends 

of the base line. The accuracy of this method 

depends mainly on the accuracy of angle 

observations . this method proved to be accurate 

and efficient, but it is time consuming and 

demanding,[1],[2]. 

4-Using the reflectorless total station 

instruments,[8]: This technique has been tried in 

this research and will be dealt with in more 

details. 

3-THE REFLECTORLESS TOTAL STATION 

The total station instrument used is the Leica 

TCR1101, figure(1). The instrument can 

operates in two modes; the first is the reflector 

mode using the infrared radiation, and the 

second is the reflectorless mode using the red 

laser. 

In this project the reflector mode was used to 

establish control points around the studied 

object. The reflectorless mode was used to 

observe the selected points on the dome. 

87

88 


According to the manufacture specifications 

the instrument has the accuracy mentioned in 

table (1) 

Fig, (1): The reflectorless total station TCR1101 

Table (1): Manufacture specification of the TCR 1101 total station 

Angle accuracy ±1.5˝ 

Distance accuracy ±2mm±2ppm reflector mode 

±3mm±2ppm reflectorless mode 

Range in average atmospheric condition 3km reflector mode 

80m reflectorless mode, standard range 

Measuring time 3sec reflectorless mode 

The laser spot has an elliptical shape and it 

can be seen as a pulse on the observed object in 

dim weather. The spot has the following 

dimensions as it appears on the object: 

At 50 m: approx. 10 mm x 20 mm 



The spot dimension effect directly the 

measurement accuracy. As the spot size 

increases the uncertainty of the measurements 

increases.


Fig. (2 ): A close view on the display screen of the instrument 

4- INSTRUMENT CHECK 

A test was made to check the spatial accuracy 

of the instrument. Two points A and B were set 

at a horizontal distance of 7m and a vertical 

distance of 1m,figure(3). Screws with bolt head 

The instrument was setup on point S in 

similar configuration to that will be used in 

observing the spherical dome. Arbitrary 

coordinates were given to point S and arbitrary 

azimuth were given. The total station instrument 

(in Tie Distance mode) was targeted to point A 

and then to B. Full observation were made at 

each point. The instrument then automatically 

display point coordinates, horizontal, vertical, 

and slope distance between points A and B. It is 

the slope distance which was more important to 

us. The slope distance represents the resultant of 

the difference in coordinates and equal to 

[sqrt(∆E 2 +∆N 2 +∆H 2 )]. 

The instrument displayed the slope distance 

AB=7.062m. A steel tape was used to measure 

directly this distance. Tape value was=7.060m. 

A difference of 2mm is quiet acceptable value, 

knowing that the bolt head diameter=7mm. 

Fig. (3): The instrument check setup 

are used for observation at point A and B. These 

are of the same type fixed on the dome and used 

for observing the dome points. The diameter of 

the bolt head=7mm. 

5- OBJECT DESCRIPTION 

The selected object in this project is a 

semispherical transparent roof at the top of a 

3- story building ,figure (4). The dome is made 

of polycarbonate panels supported on a metal 

frame consisted of 24 steel strips joined together 

at the top. The diameter of the dome at the base 

is equal to 7.4m. Its height from its concrete base 

is equal to 2.2m. 

6-MEASUREMENTS AND DATA 

COLLECTION 

Three control points A,B, and C were 

selected around the dome on the roof surface. 

The control points make an approximately an 

equilateral triangle with side length of about 

15m. Two additional points D and E at a height 

of 1.5m were selected later on the top of two 

small rooms to allow for elevated platform, 

figure(5) 

89

90 


A UTM coordinates were assigned to the 

control points using previously observed GPS 

point on the roof of the building. The UTM 

coordinate values will help in proper orientation 

of the survey. 

At each control point an accurate set up was 

made. Centering was made using the laser 

plummet spot. Leveling was achieved using the 

electronically sensitive bubble. 

After measuring the height of the instrument 

and height of target and feeding them to the 

instrument, a back sight is made on the next 

control point. On IR mode of observation with a 

reflector, ordinary traverse data is recorded to 

the observed control point. The instrument is 

then switched to the reflectorless mode and the 

observations will be carried out by using laser 

pulses. The telescope is pointed to small screw 

heads located on the dome metal strips. 

Observation of these points can constitute a 

complete 3-D model. After sighting each point, 

Fig. (4 ): Observation from traverse control point 

Fig. ( 5 ): Observation at the elevated point (D) 

a one button touch will measure the slope 

distance, horizontal and vertical angles. The 

instrument will change these values to a 

northing, easting, and elevation and store them 

sequentially according to the assigned point 

number sequence. The instrument screen display 

the point ID number and the three coordinates, 

figure(2 ). From each control point more than 

100 points were observed. The total number of 

observed points were=330. All observations 

were made in cloudy weather to avoid the effect 

of bright light on the laser spot. 

Points on the top of the object could not be 

observed from the control points A,B, and C. 

Therefore the instrument had to be transferred to 

the elevated points D and . From there good 

observation view was possible.


7-DATA TRANSFER 

At the end of each observation session the 

data is transferred via a special cable to a laptop 

Fig. (6): The transformation of the data to the computer 

computer, (figure 6 ). In Excel format the data 

consists of point number, point description and 

the Northing, Easting and Elevation, (figure 7-a ) 

Fig. (7): a- Data page in excel format b-Reduced data 

As it is not very practical to handle the UTM 

large figure coordinates, constants were 

subtracted from each coordinate value, changing 

the easting to X , the northing to Y and the 

elevation to a Z coordinates as shown in figure 

(7 -b). A constant value of 510 was subtracted 

from the elevation of all points. Some of the 

points with elevations less than 510 appear 

negative. The X,Y,Z coordinates were saved in 

text format. 

8-GRAPHICAPHICAL REPRESENTATION 

AND DATA ANALYSIS 

On the AutoCAD Civil 3-D Land2009 

program the X,Y,Z coordinates were imported 

and displayed with their actual elevations. The 

command :Point-Import/Export Point-Import 

Point was used. The format of the file was 

E,N,Z space delimited. This will match the text 

X,Y,Z file. Figure (8 ) shows the points after the 

import process. The figure shows a gap area on 

the top of the object. This is due to a lack of 

91

92 


observations on this location. At this stage few 

points on the top of the object appear to deviate 

from the mean surface. On plotting contour 

lines, fault contours were very apparent. For this 

reason, 3 points were eliminated from the data 

set. 

Fig. (8): The display of the imported points. Only elevations are show 

Through the command terrain, terrain model 

explorer, a surface was created. Points file of the 

surface was added and selected from AutoCAD 

object. A surface was built and contour lines 

representing the shape of the dome were plotted 

at interval of 0.2m. The shape of the contour 

lines was approximately concentric circles, 

(figure9 ). Figure ( 10) shows the contour lines 

pattern in isometric projection.


3-D Polylines were used to connect between the 

points located on one metal strip,. This will help 

Fig. (9): Surface contour lines at interval=0.2m 

Fig. (10): Isometric projection of the dome surface 

in visualizing the real shape of the object, (figure 

11). 

93

94 


The AutoCAD program helped in drawing 

section through the spherical dome. Figure ( 12 ) 

shows one section passing through the centre of 

Using the command Terrain- Surface 

Display-3D Face, the shaded face of the dome 

Fig. (11): The dome metal strips 

Fig. (12): Section passing through the centre of the dome 

the dome. The section shows the slightly 

unsymmetrical shape of the object. This is 

probably due to the erection process. 

could be displayed approximating the shape to 

the real object, (figure13).


Fig. (13): Shaded terrain surface display 

Fig. (14): A circle of diameter=7.23 m shows the slight manufacturing error 

Figure (14) shows the top view of the dome 

enclosed by a perfect circle of diameter=7.23m. 

the slightly elliptical shape of the dome is 

apparent. The axes measured from the 

AutoCAD plot was =7.45m and 7.12m. The 

difference between the two dome axes= 33cm 

and its cause is a manufacturing error. 

95

96 


Fig. (15) : A circle of diameter =7.48m drawn next to the dome section 

Figure (15) shows the deviation of the 

vertical section from the perfect circle plotted 

next to it. 15-20 cm deviation is observed at each 

side. 

A full cubic polynomial surface was tried to 

fit the dome surface. The polynomial was 

z = a + bx + cy + d 2 + ey 2 + fx 3 + gy 3 + hxy + 

ix2y + jxy 

A solution was made to the coefficients 

using all the 330 X,Y, and Z coordinates, i.e 

yielding 330 equations to be solved by least 

squares. The coefficients value was 

a = -1.7536699072728794E+01 b = 

1.5955209680572433E+00 

c = 3.2815673198281274E+00 

Figure (17) shows the scatter points plotted in 

the Z-Y and Z-X plane. This plot helps in 

visualizing any error in any point coordinates. 

The error will make the point floating above the 

surface. Fault points can be eventually erased. 

Fig. (16): Full cubic polynomial Surface plot 

d = -1.1415928774895295E-01 e = 

-1.7923917396961178E-01 

f = -2.8904480389045813E-03 

g = 4.9398526804153640E-04 h = 

1.4269793489451468E-02 

i = -8.8434044874405174E-04 

j = -1.3692450329015515E-03 

The R-squared= 0.989513646887 

Standard Error of Mean: in X= 9.858556E-02 

in Y= 9.107441E-02 in Z=3.975666E-02 

These values represents the deviation of the 

points from the assigned poly surface. 

Figure (16) shows a 3D plot of the poly 

surface 

Figure (18) shows the scattered points in the 

X-Y plane and contour plot at 0.2m interval. 

These plots were done with the aid of an on 

line processing in a web site [ 5 ]


Fig. (17): Z data vs. Y data Z data vs. X data 

Fig.(18): X data vs. Y data Contour plot 

9-CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION 

1-Remote objects such as high rise roofs or high 

rise motorway structures can be easily 

measured and checked using this technique. A 

deflection in the bottom of high rise surfaces 

could be measured and visualized with sufficient 

accuracy. 

2-The metal surface bolts on the fairly reflected 

sheets did not contribute in large amount of error 

due to scattering and reflection. 

Some error were accounted for in points located 

at the top of the dome. One reason is probably 

due to the angle of the laser light makes with the 

bolt head. As the points rise, the angle will 

highly deviated from 90 degree, figure(19) With 

the few millimeter instrument accuracy, the large 

size of the target could lead to some accountable 

error. 

Fig. (19): deviation of the reflection angle from 90° could lead to some error. 

97

98 


3-Some points on the dome top surface and one 

metal strip are deliberately left missing. It was 

possible to observed these but leaving them 

could indicate the effect of these missing points 

on the final presentation. Contour lines on the 

top of the object suffer from this shortage, 

figure(14). 

4-The roof surface shape is not meant to be 

made highly perfect spherical dome. The 

workmen probably use their prior experience in 

the erection process. And some deviation is 

highly expected. However the present 

measuring system proved to be capable of high 

degree of accuracy and it can be used in surface 

construction checks. 

5-The system was checked at short distances less 

than 20m. Further test have to be made at longer 

ranges, up to the declared maximum range. 

6-Life is getting even more easier. The 

motorized version of the reflectorless total 

station could automatically scan a surface at 

fixed distance scan interval. This will help in 

producing DTM with large huge number of 

points representing remote surfaces. 

REFERENCES 

- Barry F. Kavanagh,(2008),Surveying Principles and 

Applications, (8th Edition), Prentice Hall 

- F. Moffitt ,(1997),Surveying ,(10th Edition), Prentice Hall 

- Kattan, R, Balata F.( 2007).Ground coordinate 

measurements using satellite images and terrestrial 

photographs. Journal of Dohuk University, vol.10,no2, 

- Kattan, R. Zidan A. (1995)Automated surveying system. 

The First Iraqi Technological Conference, Baghdad 

- “On line curve fitting and surface fitting”, Web site, 

http://zunzun.com/. 

- Department of Maritime Archaeology Western Australian 

Museum,(2006), Total Station How to do it, Web site, 

Manual Report , No. 220 

- Boehnlein , D.“Tests of the Leica Total Station for Survey 

& Alignment”, Report no.NuMI-L-637 . Web site 

- Irvine W., Maclennan F., (2006),Surveying For 

Construction ,(5th Edition), McGraw Hill


اناهيئزاك 

ب 

َىتخةو 

وخو َىناظيثوز 

وَييزايشادنةئ 

وب 

ادَيناظيثو 

طنةتضائ 

ةهيبد زةدةظ 

وَينجامزائ 

وائ 

ةشنوم 

وَيتاًكَيث 

ةتخوث 

زةض ل ىدناجضةض 

ةهَيًب 

ييرمائ اناوةضيث 

وَيظد 

) EDM ( يطتاهغموسيةك اكريت ب ىةكدزاك وَيي 

ايتاسيود اناظيث 

وَييرمائ 

يزةصَيل 

و 

اكريت 

ىسكةتاي 

ب 

تةكدزاك 

– 

ةناوةضيث 

َىي 

مامةت 

َىكةيةطصَيو 

– 

َىناظيث 

َىيرمائ 

ىاهيئزاك 

ب 

. ىاظيث 

ةهيتاي وَيلاخ 

ادَيهيلوكةظ 

. زايدةن َىو 

وَيلاخ 

اكةبوق َىناب 

وب ييلا َىض 

وَيلاخ 

اهتيد اندناظةي 

انسكظةيزةب 

و ىاظيث 

َىهيلوكةظ 

َىظانجامزائ 

َىيرمائ 

انسكحةض 

َىمةزةم 

َىظوبو 

– 

ىسكةتاي 

يسكلوترنوك 

وَيلاخ 

اندناظةي 

انسكنايش وب يت ) Auto Cad ( َىمانزةب 

زةض وب تنشيَيزاد 

ةهتاي ةلاخ ــظةئ 

وب ) ملم2( 

يكيصَين 

جهَيث 

ذ 

لااخ 

) 333( 

. زوج وازوج وَييهَيو 

َىظد 

. زوضاي 

اناظيث 

يزايهيبسيوي 

. ىسكةتاي ييلا َىض 

وَينابوةضزاثو 

يزوتهك وَيلَيي 

انسكظةيزةب 

. ىسكةتاي يزوهض دنةض َىي 

) Polynomial ( يزاكيرب َىكةناب 

ب ياظيث 

َىناب 

اندناظةيو 

ب اتاد 

هصلاخلا 

تافاسملا سايق 

مادختسا هلاح يف ىتح . نيحاسملاو نيسدنهملل سايقلا يف ايدحت ةيئانلا فادهلأاو 

تاشنملا لكشت 

فده. 

ءارمحلا رزيللا 

ةعشأب لمعي 

. هساقملأ طاقنلا ىلع زاهجلا هسكاع 

تيبثت بجيف ةيسيطانغمورهكلا هعشلااب ةلماعلا 

– 

هسكاع نودب ةلماكتم ةطحم 

– 

سايق زاهج مادختسا مت ثحبلا اذه يف 

333 سايق مت. 

هطاقق ىلإ وصولا نكمي لا ةبق فقس ىلإ داعبلإا هيثلاث تايثادحلإل يئرم ليثمت دادعإو 

سايق وه ثحبلا 

طاقنلا بلج مت . رتميلم 2 دودحب هل ةيغارفلا ةقدلا تقاكو 

زاهجلا صحف مت ضرغلا اذهلو . ةرطيس طاقق سمخ نم هطقق 

عطاقمو هيروتنك 

طوطخ دادعإ مت 

. ةفلتخم اكشإب تاقايبلا 

ليثمت نم نكمتلل دقلا داكوتولأا جماقرب ىلإ هساقملأ 

ساقملا حطسلا ليثمتو 

حيحصلا يوركلا لكشلا نع ساقملا 

حطسلا نيابت سايق مت 

. داعبلأا هيثلاث حوطسو 

. 

دودحلا ددعتم يضاير حطسب 

99


100 

ON GENERALIZATIONS OF REGULAR RINGS 

ABDULLAH M. ABDUL-JABBAR 

Dept. of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Salahaddin, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

(Received: July 7, 2010; Accepted for publication: March 9, 2011) 

ABSTRACT 

A ring R is defined to be right (left) SF-ring if every simple right (left) R-module is flat. In this paper we 

study a condition under which SF-rings are regular. Also we find some properties and main results for it by 

adding some conditions. Furthermore, connections of such rings with other types of rings are studied. 

Moreover, we continue to study SSF-rings. Also, we find several properties for it and we connected such 

ring with other types of rings. 

KEYWORDS AND PHRASES: regular rings, flat module, SF-rings, SSF-rings. 

T 


hroughout this paper rings are 

associative with identity. For a 

subset X of a ring R, the left annihilator of X 

in R is ℓ(X) = {r � R: rx = 0, for all x � R}, 

likewise for the right annihilator r(X). Y(R) 

and J(R) will stand respectively, for the right 

singular ideal and the Jacobson radical of R. 

A ring R is said to be von Neumann regular 

(regular) [22] if for every element a � R, 

there is an element b � R such that a = a b a. 

Recall that an ideal I of a ring R is called 

regular if every element of I is regular. A 

ring R is called �-regular [14] if for any a � 

R, there exists a positive integer n and an 

element b of R such that a n = a n b a n . A 

ring R is called strongly regular [12] if for 

each a � R, there exists b � R such that a = 

a 2 b. It should be noted that in a strongly 

regular ring R, a = a 2 b if and only if a = 

ba 2 . A ring R is called strongly �-regular [2] 

if for every a � R, there exists a positive 

integer n, depending on a and an element b 

� R such that a n n�1 = a b. Or equivalently, R 

is strongly �-regular if and only if a n R = 

a n 2 R. It is easy to see that R is strongly �regular 

if and only if Ra n = Ra n 2 . A ring R 

is called right (left) weakly regular [9] if for 

each a � R, a � a R a R (a � R a R a). 

R is called weakly regular if it is both right 

and left weakly regular. Recall that R is 

reduced if it has no non-zero nilpotent 

element. R is semi-prime ring [8] if it 

contains no non-zero nilpotent ideals. A ring 

R is called left semi-duo [6] if every 

principal left ideal of R is a two-sided ideal 

generated by the same element. Following 

[23], a ring R is called right (left) quasi-duo 

if every maximal right (left) ideal of R is 

two-sided. 

It is well known that R is a von Neumann 

regular ring if and only if every right (left) 

R-module is flat. By adding the condition 

“left semi-duo ring” to prove that R is a von 

Neumann regular if and only if R is a right 

SF-ring. 

2. SF-RINGS 

In this section we continue to study SFrings 

due to Rege in [20]. Also we find 

some properties and main results for it by 

adding some conditions. Furthermore, 

connections of such rings with other types of 

rings are studied. 

The following lemma, which is due to 

Rege in [20], plays a central role in several 

of our proofs. 

Lemma 2.1: 

Let I be a right (left) ideal of R. Then, R / 

I is a flat right (left) R-module if and only if 

for each a � I, there exists b � I such that a 

= b a (a = a b). 

Definition 2.2[20]: 

A ring R is called right (left) SF-ring if 

every simple right (left) R-module is flat. 

Theorem 2.3: 

Let R be a ring. If R / a R is a right SFring, 

then R is a von Neumann regular. 

Proof: 

Let a be a non-zero element of R and 

assume that R / a R is a right SF-ring, then


for each a � a R, there exists b � a R such 

that a = b a. Since b � a R, then b = a r, for 

some r � R. Therefore, a = a r a and hence R 

is a von Neumann regular. � 

The following result is a necessary and 

sufficient condition for SF-rings to be von 

Neumann regular. 

Theorem 2.4: 

Let R be a left semi-duo ring. Then, R is 

a von Neumann regular if and only if R is a 

right SF-ring. 

Proof: 

Let R be a von Neumann regular, then R 

is a right SF-ring [20]. 

Conversely, assume that R is a right SFring 

and I is an ideal of R. Then, for each a 

� I, there exists b � I such that a = b a. 

Since R is a left semi-duo ring, then R a is a 

two-sided ideal of R and hence R a is a left 

flat, so there exists b � a R such that a = a r 

a, for some r � R and hence R is a von 

Neumann regular. � 

Proposition 2.5: 

If R / r(a) is a right SF-ring such that r(a) 

� ℓ(a), for every a � R, then R is a reduced 

ring. 

Proof: 

Let a � R such that a 2 = 0. Then, a � r(a). 

Since R / r(a) is a right SF-ring, there exists 

b � r(a) such that a = b a. Since b � r(a), 

then a b = 0 and hence b � r(a) � ℓ(a). 

Thus, b a = 0. Therefore, a = 0. Whence, R 

is a reduced ring. � 

Following [5], a ring R is said to be 

strongly right bounded (briefly, SRB) if 

every non-zero right ideal contains a nonzero 

two-sided sub ideal of R. 

The following lemma due to Kim et. al. 

in [11]. 

Lemma 2.6: 

If R is a semi-prime and SRB-ring, then 

R is a reduced. 

Theorem 2.7: 

If R is a right SF-ring, semi-prime and 

SRB-ring, then R is a strongly regular ring. 

Proof: 

Let R be a semi-prime and SRB-ring, and 

then by Lemma 2.6, R is a reduced ring. In 

order to show that R is strongly regular we 

need to prove that a R + r(a) = R, for any a 

� R. Suppose that a R + r(a) � R, there 

exists a maximal right ideal L containing a 

R + r(a). But a � L and R / L is a right flat, 

then there exists b � L such that a = b a, 

whence (1-b) � ℓ(a) = r(a) � L, yielding 1 

� L, which contradicts L � R. In particular, 

a r + d = 1, for some r � R and d � r(a), 

whence a 2 r = a. This proves that R is a 

strongly regular ring. � 

Following [1], a ring R is said to be 

quasi-strongly right bounded (briefly, 

QSRB) if every non-zero maximal right 

ideal contains a non-zero two-sided sub 

ideal of R. 

Lemma 2.8[1]: 

Let R be a QSRB-ring. Then, R / Y(R) is 

a reduced ring. 

Theorem 2.9: 

If R is a right SF-ring and QSRB-ring, 

then R is a strongly regular ring. 

Proof: 

Let R be a QSRB-ring, then by Lemma 

2.8, R / Y(R) is a reduced ring. We claim 

that Y(R) = (0). Suppose that Y(R) � (0), 

then by [4], there exists 0 � y � Y(R) such 

that y 2 = 0. Let M be a maximal right ideal 

containing r(y). Since r(y) is a maximal 

two-sided ideal of R, then M must be 

maximal two-sided ideal of R. On the other 

hand since R / M is a right flat, and since y 

� M, there exists c � M such that y = c y, 

whence (1-c) � r(y) � M, yielding 1�M, 

which contradicts M � R. This proves that R 

is a reduced ring. In order to show that R is 

strongly regular, we need to show that a R + 

r(a) = R, for any a � R. Suppose that a R + 

r(a) � R, then there exists a maximal right 

ideal L containing a R + r(a). But a � L and 

R / L is a right flat, there exists b � L such 

that a = b a, whence (1-b) � ℓ(a) = r(a) � L, 

yielding 1 � L, which contradicts L � R. In 

particular, a r + d = 1, for some r � R and d 

� r(a), whence a 2 r = a. This proves that R is 

strongly regular ring. � 

Recall that an element c � R is said to be 

right (left) regular if r(c) = 0 (ℓ(c) = 0). 

Proposition 2.10([16, Proposition 4]): 

If R is a right SF-ring, then any left 

regular element is right invertible in R. 

Finally we give the following result. 

Theorem 2.11: 

Let R be a reduced ring such that for 

every a � R, R / r(a n ) is an SF-ring, for 

some positive integer n. Then, R is a 

strongly �-regular ring. 

Proof: 

101


Let a be a non-zero element in R, and let 

a´ n = a + r(a n ) � R / r(a n ), for some 

positive integer n. Clearly, a´ n � 0´ because 

otherwise if a´ n = 0´, then a + r(a n ) = r(a n ), 

and this yields a � r(a n ) and hence a n+1 = 0, 

gives a = 0 since R is reduced, this is 

contradiction. Let a´ n x´ = 0´, we shall prove 

that x´ = 0´. Observe that (a + r(a n )) (x + 

r(a n )) = r(a n ), implies a x + r(a n ) = r(a n ), 

and hence a x � r(a n ), so a n+1 x = 0, thus x 

� r(a n+1 ). Since R is reduced, therefore, x � 

r(a n ) implies a n x = 0, whence x � r(a n ). 

Hence x´ = 0´, this means that a´ n is a right 

non-zero divisor. Likewise we can prove 

that a´ n is a left non-zero divisor. Since 

R / r(a n ) is SF-ring, then by Proposition 

2.11, a´ n is invertible element. Then, there 

exists 0´� y´ n = y + r(a n ) 

� R / r(a n ) such that a´ n y´ = 1, then (a + 

r(a n )) (y + r(a n )) = 1 + r(a n ). So (a y – 1) 

� r(a n ), and a n (a y – 1) = 0. Thus, a n+1 y = 

a n . This proves that R is strongly �-regular 

ring. � 

102 

3. SSF-RINGS 

In this section we continue studying SSFrings, 

which was introduced by R. D. 

Mahmood and Z. M. Ibraheem in [13]. 

Furthermore, we find several properties for 

it and we connection such rings with other 

types of rings. 

We start this section with the following 

definitions. 

Definition 3.1: 

Recall that for any ring R, and an ideal I 

of R, R / I is called singular if I is an 

essential right ideal of R. 

Definition 3.2[13]: 

A ring R is called a right (left) SSF-ring 

if every simple singular right (left) Rmodule 

is flat. 

Lemma 3.3[17]: 

For any a � C(R), if a = a r a for some r 

� R, then there exists b � C(R) such that a = 

a b a, where C(R) is the center of R. 

Following [21], a ring R is said to semicommutative 

if x y = 0 implies x R y = 0, 

for x, y � R. Or, for each a � R, ℓ(a) 

(equivalently r(a)) is a two-sided ideal of R 

[11]. Clearly every reduced ring is semicommutative. 

The following result is a relation between 

right SSF-rings and C(R), which is von 

Neumann regular ring by adding semicommutative 

ring. 

Theorem 3.4: 

Let R be a semi-commutative right SSFrings, 

then C(R) is a von Neumann regular 

ring. 

Proof: 

First we will show that a R + r(a) = R, for 

any a � C(R). If not, there exists a maximal 

right ideal M of R such that a R + r(a) � M. 

Since a � C(R), a R + r(a) is an essential 

right ideal and so M must be an essential 

right ideal of R. Therefore, R / M is a right 

flat. So, there exists b � M such that a = b a. 

This implies that (1-b) � ℓ(a). Since R is 

semi-commutative, then ℓ(a) � r(a), for 

each a � R. Therefore, (1-b) � r(a) � M and 

so 1 � M, which is a contradiction. 

Therefore, a R + r(a) = R, for any a � C(R) 

and so we have a = a r a, for some r � R. 

Applying Lemma 3.3, we obtain that C(R) is 

a von Neumann regular ring. � 

The following result is a slightly 

improvement of Theorem 2.4 of [13]. 

Theorem 3.5: 

If R is a semi-commutative and SSFring, 

then R is a reduced ring. 

Proof: 

Let a 2 = 0. Suppose that a � 0. Then, 

there exists a maximal right ideal M of R 

containing r(a). 

First observe that M is an essential right 

ideal of R. If not, then M is a direct 

summand of R. So, we can write M = r(e), 

for some 0 � e = e 2 � R. Since a � M and 

every idempotent in R is central; a e = e a = 

0. Thus, e � r(a) � M = r(e), whence e = 0. 

It is a contradiction. Therefore, M must be 

an essential right ideal of R. Thus, R / M is 

right flat and so there exists b � M such that 

a = b a. If we set b = e, then a = e a. 

Therefore, (1-e) �ℓ(a). Thus, (1-e) a = 0, 

this implies that a = e a = a e. Therefore, (1e) 

� r(a) � M. But, also e � M, whence, 1 � 

M. This is a contradiction. Therefore, a = 0 

and so R is a reduced. � 

Lemma 3.6[11]: 

If R is a semi-commutative ring, then R a


R + r(a) is an essential right ideal of R, for 

every a � R. 

Theorem 3.7: 

If R is a semi-commutative and SSFrings, 

then R is a right weakly regular ring. 

Proof: 

We will show that R a R + r(a) = R, for 

any a � R. Suppose that there exists b � R 

such that R b R + r(b) � R. Then, there 

exists a maximal right ideal M of R 

containing R b R + r(b) . Therefore, by 

Lemma 3.6, M must be an essential right 

ideal of R. Thus, R / M is a right flat. So, for 

each b � M, there exists c � M such that b 

= c b. This implies that (1-c) � ℓ(b). Since 

R is a semi-commutative and SSF-ring, then 

by Theorem 3.5, R is a reduced ring. Thus, 

ℓ(b) = r(b). Therefore, (1-c) � r(b) � M and 

so1 � M, a contradiction. Then, R a R + r(a) 

= R, for any a � R. Hence R is a right 

weakly regular ring. � 

Proposition 3.8([20, Proposition 4.7]): 

Let R be a right quasi-duo ring. The 

following statements are equivalent. 

(1) R is a right weakly regular ring. 

(2) R is a strongly regular ring. 

Recall that R is a 2-primal ring [3] if 

P(R) = N(R), where P(R) is the prime 

radical of R and N(R) is the set of all 

nilpotent elements. 

Theorem 3.9: 

Let R be a 2-primal ring. If R is an SSFring, 

then R / P(R) is weakly regular. 

Proof: 

Let 0´� a´ � R´ = R / P(R). We will show 

that R´ a´ R´ + r(a´) = R´. If it is not true, 

then there exists a maximal right ideal M of 

R such that R´ a´ R´ + r(a´) � M / P(R). 

Since R´ is reduced, we have that r(a´) = 

ℓ(a´), for any a´� R´. Then, by Lemma 3.6, 

R´ a´ R´ + r(a´) is an essential right ideal of 

R´. Thus, M / P(R) must be right essential in 

R´. Therefore, R / M is simple singular right 

R-module and R / M is right flat. So, there 

exists b´ � M / P(R) such that a´ = b´a´. This 

implies that (1- b´) � ℓ(a´) = r(a´) � M / 

P(R), this implies that 1 � M / P(R), which 

is a contradiction. Therefore, R / P(R) is 

right weakly regular, which completes the 

proof. � 

Theorem 3.10: 

If R is a 2-primal, right quasi-duo and 

SSF-rings, then R is a �-regular ring. 

Proof: 

Let R be a 2-primal and right SSF-ring, 

then by Theorem 3.9, R / P(R) is weakly 

regular. Therefore, by Proposition 3.8, R / 

P(R) is a strongly regular. Thus, by [9, 

Theorem 1], R is �-regular ring. � 

Lemma 3.11([20, Proposition 4.4]): 

Let R be a right quasi-duo ring. Then, R / 

J(R) is a reduced ring. 

Proposition 3.12: 

Let R be a right quasi-duo ring. If R is 

SSF-ring, then R / J(R) is a strongly regular 

ring. 

Proof: 

Let R be a right quasi-duo ring, then by 

Lemma 3.11, R / J(R) is reduced. Thus, by 

the same methods in the proof of Theorem 

3.9, R / J(R) is weakly regular. Therefore, 

by Proposition 3.8, R / J(R) is strongly 

regular. � 

Recall that a ring R is called right weakly 

continuous [18] if J(R) = Y(R), R / J(R) is 

regular and idempotent can be lifted modulo 

J(R). 

The following lemma is due to Ming in 

[15]. 

Lemma 3.13: 

If Y(R) contains no non-zero nilpotent 

element, then Y(R) = (0). 

Following [7], a ring R is called 

reversible if ab=0 implies ba=0 for a, b � R. 

Lemma 3.14[10]: 

If R is a reversible ring, then r(a) = ℓ(a), 

for each a � R. 

Finally we prove the following result. 

Theorem 3.15: 

For a reversible ring R, the following 

statements are equivalent: 

(1) R is a von Neumann regular; 

(2) R is right weakly continuous and right 

SSF-ring. 

Proof: 

(1) � (2). Observe that if R is von 

Neumann regular, then R is SF-ring [20] and 

hence it is SSF-ring. 

(2) � (1). Suppose that Y(R) � (0). Then, 

by Lemma 3.13, we may assume that Y(R) 

is not reduced. So, there exists non-zero a � 

Y(R) such that a 2 = 0. We claim that Y(R) + 

r(a) = R. If not, there exists a maximal 

essential right ideal M containing Y(R) + 

r(a). Thus, R / M is a right flat. Therefore, 

there exists b � M such that a = b a. This 

implies that (1-b) � ℓ(a). Since R is 

103


reversible, then by Lemma 3.14, ℓ(a) = r(a) 

and hence (1-b) � r(a) � M. Thus, 1 � M, 

which is a contradiction. Therefore, Y(R) + 

r(a) = R. Hence we can write 1 = c + d, for 

some c � Y(R) and d � r(a). Thus, a = c a 

and so (1-c) a = 0. Since c � Y(R) = J(R), 1c 

is invertible. Thus, a = 0, which is also 

contradiction. Therefore, Y(R) is reduced 

and so Y(R) = (0). � 

REFERENCES 

- Abdullah J. S. A. (2003), On YJ-Injectivity, Ph. D. 

Thesis, Mosul Univ. 

- Azumaya G. (1954), Strongly �-regular rings, J. Fac. 

Sci. Hokkaida Univ. Vol.13, 34-39. 

- Birkenmeier G. F., Heatherly H. E. and Enoch K. 

Lee, Completely prime ideals and associated 

radicals, Proc. Bienniar Ohio State-Denison 

Conference 1992, edited by Jain S. K. and 

Rizvi S. T., World Scientific, New Jersey 

(1993), 102-129. 

- Birkenmeier G. F. and Tucci R. P. (1988), 

Homomorphic image and the singular ideal of 

a strongly right bounded rings, Comm. 

Algebra, 16, 1099-1112. 

- Camillo D. M. and Yu H. P. (1994), Weakly regular 

rings, Comm. Algebra, 22 (10), 4095-4112. 

- Chen J. L. and Ding N. Q. (1999), On general 

principally injective rings, Comm. Algebra, 

27(5), 2097-2116. 

- Cohn P. M. (1999), Reversible rings, Bull. London 

Math. Soc., 31, 641-648. 

- Faith C. (1973), Algebra: Rings, Modules and 

Categories I, Springer-Verlag Berlin 

Heidelberg New York. 

- Hirano Y. (1978), Some studies on strongly �regular 

rings, Math. J. Okayama Univ. 20, 

141-149. 

104 

- Kim N. K. and Lee Y. (2003), Extensions of 

reversible rings, Journal of Pure and Applied 

Algebra 185, 207-223. 

- Kim N. K., Nam S. B. and Kim J. Y. (1999), On 

simple singular GP-injective modules, Comm. 

Algebra, 27(5), 2087-2096. 

- Luh J. (1964), A note on strongly regular rings, 

Proc. Japan Acad., Vol. 40, 74 -75. 

- Mahmood R. D. and Ibraheem Z. M. (2004), On 

rings whose simple singular R-modules are 

flat, Raf. Jour. Sci-, 5(1), 82-84. 

- McCoy N. H. (1939), Generalized regular rings, 

Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. Vol. 45, 175-178. 

- Ming R. Y. C. (1978/1979), On Von Neumann 

regular rings III, Monatsh. Math., 86 (3), 251- 

257. 

- Ming R. Y. C. (2003), On injectivity and Pinjectivity 

IV, Bull. Korean Math. Soc. 40, No. 

2, PP.223-234. 

- Nam S. B. (1999), A note on simple singular GP- 

Injective modules, Kangweon-Kyungki Math. 

Jour. 7(2), 215-218. 

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continuous and C2-rings, Comm. Algebra, 

29(6), 2429-2446. 

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Canad. Math. Bull., 16(3), 317-322. 

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and SF-rings, Math. Japonica 31, No. 6, 927- 

936. 

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Okayama Univ., 19. 

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Scad Sci. U. S. A. 22, 707-713. 

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J. 37, 21-30.


يةوةوان يةناوَيث وومةي َوب ووتاي رةطةئ SF يرَوج ةل ) ثةض( 

تسار ةتاكةد ةك 

R 

يةقلةئ يةساهَيث 

ةتخوث 

يرَوج ةل ةقلةئ رةسةل ويةكةد كَيجرةم يةسارد ادةوةهيَلَوكَيل مةل . وور ةتبب R َوب ) ثةض( 

تسار يةداس 

. جرةم كَيدنةي يندركدايز ةب يكةرةس ينجامائ و تافيس ةل كَيدنةي ةوةتةنامويزَود ايةورةي . كَير ةتبب 

ينبةد ماوةدرةب شةمةئ يارةرةس . ىاكةقلةئ يرت يرَوج َلةط ةل ةوةتةواتسةب ىامةقلةئ مةئ شةمةئ يارةرةس 

يناكةتةفيس يرَوز ةرةي يةبرَوز ةوةتةنامويزود ايةورةي. 

R 

ل 

) رسيأ( 

نميأ طيسب رماغ لويدوم لكل ناك اذا 

ضعب اندجو كلذك ،ةمظتنم حبصت يك 

SSF 

SF 

يرَوج ةل ىاكةقلةئ يندركةسارد َوب 

ىاكةقلةئ يرت يناكةرَوج َلةطةل ةيةقلةئ مةئ ةوةتةنامواتسةب ايةورةي 

SF 

SF 

طمنلا نم 

) رسيأ( 

نميأ اهنأب 

ةقلحلا ىلع طورش عضو ةسرد مت ثحبلا اذه يف 

R 


ةقلح فرعت 

. احطسم 

نم ىرخأ طامنأ عم ةقلحلا هذه انطبر ،كلذ ىلا ةفاضأ . طورشلا ضعب ةفاضأب اهل ةيسيئرلا جئاتنلا و صاوخلا 

مث اهل صاوخلا نم ددع اندجو كلذك 

. 

SSF 

طمنلا نم تاقلحلا ةسارد 

انلوانت كلذ ىلا ةفاضأ 

. تاقلحلا 

. 

تاقلحلا نم ىرخأ طامنأ عم ةقلحلا هذه انطبر 

105


106 

THE EXISTENCE AND UNIQUENESS SOLUTION FOR NONLINEAR 

SYSTEM OF FRACTIONAL INTEGRO-DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 

HUSSEIN J. ZEKRY 

Dept. of Mathematics, Faculty of Science, University of Zakho, Kurdistan Region, Iraq. 

(Received: July 7, 2010; Accepted for publication: June 4, 2011) 

ABSTRACT 

This paper deals with existence and uniqueness of solutions for a nonlinear integro-differential equation of 

fractional order � ; � � R , 0�� 1, 

with fractional initial condition. Our results are based on contraction mapping 

principle (Banach fixed point theorem) and Picard approximation method. 

KEYWORDS: Existence and Uniqueness Solution, Nonlinear Fractional Integro-differential Equation, Picard Approximation 

Method, Banach Fixed Point Theorem. 

I 


n the last few decades, fractional order 

models are found to be more adequate than 

integer order models for some real world 

problems. Fractional derivatives provide an 

excellent tool for the description of memory and 

hereditary properties of various materials and 

processes. Integro-differential equations arise in 

many engineering and scientific disciplines, 

often as approximation to partial differential 

equations, which represent much of the 

continuum phenomena. Many forms of these 

equations are possible. Some of the applications 

are unsteady aerodynamics and aero elastic 

phenomena, visco elasticity, visco elastic panel 

in super sonic gas flow, fluid dynamics, 

electrodynamics of complex medium, many 

models of population growth, polymer rheology, 

neural network modeling, sandwich system 

identification, materials with fading memory, 

mathematical modeling of the diffusion of 

discrete particles in a turbulent fluid, heat 

conduction in materials with memory, theory of 

lossless transmission lines, theory of population 

dynamics, compartmental systems, nuclear 

reactors, and mathematical modeling of a 

hereditary phenomena. For details, see [5, 6, 7] 

and the references therein. 

In recent years, there has been an interest in 

the study of fractional integro-differential 

equations. In [5], Schauder’s fixed-point 

theorem has been used to obtain local existence, 

and Tychonov’s fixed-point theorem to obtain 

global existence of solutions of fractional 

integro-differential equation. In [6], used Arzela- 

Ascoli lemma to obtain existence and 

uniqueness of solution of fractional integrodifferential 

equation. The existence of extremal 

solutions of the fractional integro-differential 

equations using comparison principle and Ascoli 

lemma has been investigated in [1]. While in 

[4, 8], some important results concerning with 

the stability, uniformly and asymptotically 

stability of solutions of fractional differential 

and integro-differential equations has been 

obtained. In [8], also we investigate the initial 

value problem for nonlinear fractional 

differential equations by using Banach fixed 

point theorem. 

In this work we considered the following 

nonlinear fractional integro-differential equation 

which has the form 

ht () 

( � ) 

u ( t ) �f( t , u( t )) � � g ( t , s, u( s )) ds , 0�� 1 (1.1) 

a 

with fractional initial condition 

( � �1) 

u () a � u0 

(1.2) 

u ��;( � is the set of all real 

Where 0 

n n 

numbers), f �C ( I �� , � ) and g �C ( I �I �� 

n 

n n 

, � ) where C( I �� , � ) is the set of all 

n 

continuous functions defined on I �� and 

n n 

C ( I �I �� , � ) is the set of all continuous 

n 

n 

functions defined on I �I �� , where � 

denotes the real n-dimensional Euclidean space, 

and I is a compact subinterval of [ ab , ] with 

0 � a � t � b , also ht () is a continuous function 

which is defined on the interval [ ab , ] . 

Our work is to extend some results of [8] by 

using both, Picard approximation method to 

obtain global existence and uniqueness solution 

and Banach fixed point theorem to obtain local 

existence and uniqueness solution of (1.1) and 

(1.2) respectively. 

n


2. PRELIMINARIES 

In this section we present some definitions 

and lemmas which well be used in the sequel, 

see [2, 3]. 

Definition 2.1. The Riemann-Liouville 

fractional integral of order � � 0 for a function g 

is defined as 

t 

�� 1 

� �1 

D g () t � g ( s ) �b �s�ds 

�( �) 

� (2.1) 

0 

Provided that this integral (Lebesgue) exist, 

where Γ is the Gamma function. 

Definition 2.2. The fractional derivative (in the 

sense of Riemann-Liouville) of order 0


� 

h( s) 

� �1 

� ( t �a) 

u 

f ( s, uo( s )) � � g ( s, �, uo( � )) d� �ds 

� 

� �( 

�) 

a 

� 

108 

1 

� � � 

�( 

�) 

t 

� �1 

� ( t s ) � f ( s, uo ( s )) 

a 

h( s) 

� � b ( C1�hC2) � g ( s, � , uo ( � )) d� �ds 

� 

� �( � �1) 

a 

� 

that is: 

u ( t ) �u) � 

1 0 

Cb � 

�( � � 1) 

* 

1 () � u t � D where 

* 

u0� Df, 

t ��. 

and by mathematical induction we get that 

Um (t) –Uo(t) 

Cb � 

�( � � 1) 

which shows that 

* 

um () t � D 

where 

* 

u0� Df, 

t ��, for m � 0,1,2, ... . 

Next, we prove the uniformly convergent of 

the sequence of functions (3.3) in the 

domain * 

D , so for m � 1, 

we have: 

� �1 

( t �a) 

u 0 1 

u 2( t ) �u1( t ) � � ( t � s ) 

�( �) �( 

�) 

� � � 

�f( s , u ( s )) g ( s, , u ( )) d �ds 

� � 

� � � 

� �1 

h( s) 

� �1 

( t a) u 0 

1 � � � 1 � � � � 

( �) 

a 

t 

h( s) 

� � 

� �1 

�( � ) � ( , 0( )) � ( , � , 0( 

� )) � 

� � 

� 

� 

a a 

1 

t s f s u s g s u d ds 

�( �) 

� � 

t 

� ( t 

a 

� �1 

s ) ( f ( s, u1( s )) f ( s, u 0( 

s )) 

1 

� � � 

�( 

�) 

that is 

h( s) 

� 

� g ( s, � , u ( � )) �g( 

s, � , u ( � )) d� ) ds 

1 0 

a 

t 

� ( t 

a 

� �1 

s ) ( L1 u1( s ) u 0 ( s ) 

1 

� � � � 

�( 

�) 

h( s) 

� 

a 

L u ( � ) �u 

( � ) d� ) ds 

2 1 0 

C b �b( L � h L ) � 

�( � �1) � �( � �1) 

� 

� � 

2( ) � 1( 

) � � 

1 2 

� 

u t u t 

for m � 2 

t 

� 

a 

0 

t 

1 

� �1 

3 2 2 

�( 

�) 

� 

a 

u ( t ) �u ( t ) � ( t � s ) ( f ( s , u ( s )) � 

h( s) 

� 

f ( s, u ( s )) � g ( s, � , u ( � )) �g( 

s, � , u ( � )) d� ) ds 

1 2 1 

a 

t 

1 

� 

�( 

�) 

� 

a 

� 

� �1 

1 2 � 1 

that is 

( t s ) ( L u ( s ) u ( s ) 

h( s) 

� 

� L u ( � ) �u( 

� ) d� ) ds 

a 

2 2 1 

� � 

2 

C b �b( L1�hL2) � 

3( ) � 2( 

) � � � 

u t u t 

�( � �1) � �( � �1) 

� 

suppose that the inequality 

� � 

n 

C b �b( L1�hL2) � 

n�1( ) � n( 

) � � � 

u t u t 

�( � �1) � �( � �1) 

� 

is true for some m=n, we have to show that 

� � 

n �1 

C b �b( L1�hL2) � 

n�2( ) � n�1( 

) � � � 

u t u t 

is also true. 

�( � �1) � �( � �1) 

� 

t 

1 

� �1 

n �2 n �1 n �1 

�( 

�) 

� 

a 

u ( t ) �u ( t ) � ( t � s ) ( f ( s, u ( s )) � 

h( s) 

� 

f ( s, u ( s )) � g ( s , � , u ( � )) �g( 

s , � , u ( � )) d� ) ds 

n n �1 

n 

a 

t 

1 

( t 

( �) 

� 

a 

� �1 

s ) ( L1 u n�1( s ) u n( 

s ) 

� � � 

� 

h( s) 

� 

� L u ( � ) �u( 

� ) d� ) ds 

a 

2 n�1 n 

� � 

n 

C b �b( L1�hL2) � 

� � � 

�( � �1) � �( � �1) 

� 

1 

( �) 

that is 

t 

h( s) 

( � 

� �1 

) ( 1� 2 � ) 

a a 

t s L L d ds 

� � � 

� � 

n �1 

C b �b( L1�hL2) � 

n�2( ) � n�1( 

) � � � 

u t u t 

�( � �1) � �( � �1) 

� 

thus by mathematical induction we get 

� � 

m 

C b �b( L1�hL2) � 

m�1( ) � m( 

) � � � 

u t u t 

�( � �1) � �( � � 2) � 

for m � 0,1,2, ... . 

from the above we deduce that, for 

p � 0, we have 

u ( t ) �u ( t ) � u ( t ) �u ( t ) � 

m � p m m � p m � p �1 

u ( t ) �u ( t ) �... � u ( t ) � 

u ( t ) 

m � p �1 m � p �2 m �1 

m


� � 

m�p�1 � 

� ( 1�2) � 

C b b L h L C b 

� � � � 

�( � �1) � �( � �1) � �( � �1) 

� 

m �p�2 m 

� � 

( 1 � 2 ) Cb ( 1 � 2 ) 

� b L hL � �b L hL � 

� � �... � � � 

� �( � �1) � �( � �1) � �( � �1) 

� 

� � 

m 

� 

� 1 � � � 2 1 � 2 

C b b ( L h L ) b ( L h L ) 

� � � �1� 

� 

�( � �1) � �( � �1) � � �( � �1) 

� 

2 

� 

p �1 

� b ( L1 �hL2) � �b ( L1 �hL2) 

� � 

� � �... � � � �... 

� 

� �( � �1) � � �( � �1) 

� � 

� 

(3.6) 

from inequality (3.2) we conclude that (3.6) 

* 

is uniformly convergent on the domain D . 

� 

u () t is a uniform 

Hence the sequence � � 

m �1 m � 0 

0 convergent sequence to u () t , i.e. 

0 

lim um ( t ) u ( t ) 

m �� 

� . Then 

� �1 

t 

( t � a) u 0 1 

� �1 

lim ( t s ) �f 

( s, u m ( s )) 

m �� ( �) �( 

�) 

� 

a 

� ( � ) 1 

� 

� �( �) �( 

�) 

h( s) 

� g ( s , � , u m ( � )) d� �ds 

� 

a 

t 

� �1 

a u 0 

� 

t 

h( s) 

� � 

� �1 

� � 

( t �s) �f( s , u ( s )) � g ( s, � , u ( � )) d� �ds 

� � 

� � 

a a 

� � � 

t 

1 

� �1 

lim ( t s ) ( f ( s, u m ( s )) f ( s, u ( s )) 

m �� ( 

�) 

� 

a 

� � � 

h( s) 

� 

� g ( s, � , u ( � )) �g( 

s, � , u ( � )) d� ) ds 

a 

� 

� 

� 

1 

� � 

t 

lim � ( t 

m �� ( 

�) 

� 

a 

� �1 

s ) ( L1 u m ( s ) u ( s ) 

m 

h( s) 

� 

� L2 � u m ( � ) �u ( � ) d� ) ds � � 0 

a 

�� 

0 * 

Hence u () t �D and is a solution of the 


(1.1) with fractional initial condition (1.2). 

Theorem 3.2. Assume that the hypotheses H1, 

H2 and H3 are satisfying. Then the nonlinear 

fractional integro-differential equation (1.1) with 

fractional initial condition (1.2) has a unique 

solution. 

Proof: Let us consider w() t to be another 

solution of (1.1) which satisfies (1.2), that is 

� �1 

t 

( t �a) 

u 0 1 

� �1 

( ) � � ( � ) ( , ( )) 

w t t s f s w s 

�( �) �( 

�) 

a 

h( s) 

� 

� � g ( s , � , w ( � )) d� �ds �� 

a 

hence we have 

t 

1 

� �1 

w ( t ) �u ( t ) � ( t � s ) ( f ( s, w ( s )) � 

�( 

�) 

� 

h( s) 

� 

a 

f ( s, u ( s )) � g ( s, � , w ( � )) �g( 

s , � , u ( � )) d� ) ds 

� 

a 

t 

� ( t 

a 

� �1 

s ) ( L1 w ( s ) u ( s ) 

1 

� � � � 

�( 

�) 

t�[0, b] 

h( s) 

� 

a 

L w ( � ) �u 

( � ) d� ) ds 

2 

max w ( t ) u( t ) max w ( t ) �u 

( t ) 

� � 

t�[0, b] 

� 

�b( L1�hL2) � 

� � 

� �( � �1) 

� 

Which is a contradiction by inequality (3.2), 

thus we have 

w ( t ) �u( t ) � 0 

hence w ( t ) � u( t ) . 

Example 3.1: Consider the following nonlinear 

fractional integrodifferential equation 

(0.5) 1 ut () 

y () t � � 

24 2 

(4 �t) (1 � u ( t ) ) 

t 

us ( ) 

�� 

ds 

t�s (2e �10)(2 � u ( s ) ) 

0 

with fractional initial condition 

( �0.5) 

y (0) � 0 

on the closed interval [0,1] , here 

1 ut () 1 

f ( t , u ( t )) � � � , 

24 2 

(4 �t) (1 � u( t ) ) 12 

us ( ) 1 

g ( t , s, u ( s )) � � , 

t�s (2e �10)(2 � u( s ) ) 12 

f ( t , u ( t )) � f ( t , u ( t )) 

2 1 

1 u2( t ) u1( t ) 

� � 

2 

(4 �t 

) (1 � u ( t ) ) (1 � u ( t ) ) 

1 

� u2( t ) �u1( 

t ) 

16 

g ( t , s, u2( s )) � g ( t , s, u1( s )) 

� 

2 1 

1 u2( s ) u1( s ) 

� � 

t�s (2e �10) 

(2 � u ( s ) ) (2 � u ( s ) ) 

1 

� u2( s ) �u1( 

s ) 

16 

2 1 

109


110 

and h( t ) � t � h � 1 

hence the conditions H1 H2 and H3 hold with 

1 1 

C1 �C 2 � , L1 � L2 

� , b � 1, 

12 16 

� 

b ( L1�hL2) 1/8 

� � 0.141 � 1. 

�( � �1) �(1.5) 

Therefore by Theorem 3.1 and Theorem 3.2 

the given nonlinear fractional integrodifferential 

equation with given fractional initial condition 

has a unique solution on the interval [0, 1]. 

Ii. Banach Fixed Point Theorem 

In this part we apply Banach fixed point 

theorem to show the existence and uniqueness 

of solutions for nonlinear fractional integrodifferential 

equation (1.1) with fractional initial 

condition (1.2). 

n n 

Theorem 3.3. Let the function f �C ( I �� , � ) 

n n 

and g �C ( I �I �� , � ) , and that they satisfy 

the conditions H2 and H3 respectively, then the 


(1.1) with fractional initial condition (1.2) has a 

n 

C( I, � ), . . 

unique solution in � � 

Proof: Let us consider the mapping � on 

n 

C( I, � ), . as: 

� � 

� �1 

( t � a) u 1 

0 

� �1 

� � � � 

� u ( t ) � � ( t � s ) f ( s , u ( s )) 

�( �) �( 

�) 

t 

a 

h( s) 

� 

� � g ( s, � , u ( � )) d� �ds �� 

a 

Since f ( t , u) and g ( t , s, u) belong to 

n n 

n n 

C( I �� , � ) and C ( I I , ) 

then it is clear that 

t 

h( s) 

� �1 

� �� respectively, 

t 

( � 

� �1 

) ( , ( )) 

� 

a 

t s f s u s ds , 

and �( t � s ) � g ( s, �, u( � )) d� ds are also in 

a a 

n 

C( I, � ) and it shows that: 

n n 

� u( t ) : C ( I , � ) �C ( I , � ) . 

� � 

n 

By Lemma 2.1 the space � ( , ), . � 

C I � is a 

Banach space. Next we shall show that the 

n 

mapping � is a contraction in C([0, b], � ) , let 

w() t and ut () be any two functions that belong 

n 

to C( I, � ) , and consider: 

� � � � 

� �1 

( t �a) 

u 0 1 

� w ( t ) � � u ( t ) � � ( t � s ) 

�( �) �( 

�) 

h( s) 

� � 

� �1 

� �1 

h( s) 

� �1 

� � ( t �a) 

u 0 

�f( s , w ( s )) � g ( s , � , w ( � )) d� ds � � 

� � 

� 

� 

� �( 

�) 

a 

� 

t 

1 

( t �s) �f( s , u ( s )) � g ( s , � , u ( � )) d� �ds 

�( �) 

� � � 

� 

a � a 

� 

� 

� 

� 

1 

� � 

t 

max � ( t 

t �[ 

a, b ] �( 

�) 

� 

a 

� �1 

s ) ( f ( s, w ( s )) f ( s, u ( s )) 

h( s) 

� 

� � g ( s, � , w ( � )) �g( s, � , u ( � )) d� ) ds � 

�� 

a 

� 

� 

� 

L 

� � 

t 

1 max � ( t 

t �[ 

a, b ] �( 

�) 

� 

a 

� �1 

s ) ( w ( s ) u ( s ) 

�L2 h( s) 

� 

a 

w ( � ) �u( � ) d� ) ds � 

�� 

b L h L 

� � 

� 

( 1�2) max w ( t ) u ( t ) 

�( � �1) 

t�[ a, b ] 

that is 

��w ( t ) � � ��u ( t ) � 

� 

b ( L1�hL2) � 

�( � �1) 

w ( t )) �u 

( t ) (3.7) 

Consequently by inequalities (3.2) and (3.7), 

� is a contraction mapping. As a consequence 

of Banach fixed point theorem and lemma 2.2, 

we deduce that � has only one fixed point 

which is a solution of the nonlinear fractional 

integro- differential equation (1.1) with 

fractional initial condition (1.2). 

CONCLUSION 

In this paper, we studied the existence and 

uniqueness of solution of nonlinear fractional 

integrodifferential equation with fractional initial 

condition. Based on the Picard approximation 

method and Banach fixed point theorem the 

results are proved. We have noticed that the 

length of the interval I depends on the Lipschitz 

constants regarding to the functions f and g and 

the value of h . 

t 

� 

a 

�


REFERENCES 

- R. El-Khazali and, S. M. Momani On the existence of 

extremal solutions of the fractional Integro- 

differential equations, J. Fractional Calculus, 

18(2000), 87-92. 

- K. M. Furati and N. Tatar, An existence result for a 

nonlocal fractional differential problem, J. Fract. 

Calc., 26(2000), 43-51. 

- K. S. Miller and B. Ross, An introduction to the 

Fractional Calculus and Fractional Differential 

Equations, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New 

York, 1993. 

- S. Momani and S. Hadid, Lyapunov stability solutions of 

fractional Integro-differential equations, Int. J. 

Math. Sci., 47(2004), 2503-2507. 

- S. Momani, Local and global existence theorems on 

fractional integro-differential equations, J. Fract. 

Calc., 18(2000), 81-86. 435-444. 

- S. Momani, Some existence theorems on fractional 

Integro-differential equations, Abhath Al-Yarmouk 

Journal, 10:2B(2001), 

- I. Podlubny, Fractional Differential Equations, 

Academic Press, New York, 1999. 

- H. J. Zekry, Some existence and stability theorems for 

fractional differential and integro-differential 

equation, M.Sc Thesis, College of Education, Duhok 

Unv, (2008). 

111


112 

SPECTROPHOTOMETRIC DETERMINATION OF PHENYLEPHRINE 

HYDROCHLORIDE IN PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATIONS 

FIRAS MUHSEN AL-ESAWATI 

Dept. of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Zakho, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

(Received: July 21, 2010; Accepted for publication: February 3, 2011) 

ABSTRACT 

A simple, rapid and sensitive spectrophotometric method for determination of phenylephrine hydrochloride 

(PPH) in pure form as well as dosage forms is described. The method is based on the oxidative coupling of PPH with 

N,N-Diethyl-p-phenylenediamine monohydrochloride (N,N-DE-PPD) in present of N-Bromosuccinimide as oxidizing 

agent in sodium hydroxide medium. Beer's law is obeyed in the concentration range of 0.5 - 16 μg ml −1 for PPH with 

a molar absorptivity of 11381 L.mol -1 .cm -1 , the accuracy is 100.38% and the relative standard deviation was less than 

2.76%. The method was successfully applied for the determination of PPH in pharmaceutical preparations and the 

results agree favorably with the official and reported methods. Common excipients used as additives in 

pharmaceuticals do not interfere in the proposed method. The method offers the advantages of simplicity, rapidity 

and sensitivity without the need for extraction or heating. 

KEYWORDRS: Spectrophotometric, Oxidative Coupling, Phenylephrine Hydrochloride, Pharmaceutical Preparation 

P 

INTRODUCTION 

henylephrine hydrochloride (alphaadrenergic, 

sympathomimetic agent) is a 

useful vasoconstrictor of sustained action with 

little effect on the myocardium or the central 

nervous system. It is available in the following 

dosage forms: nasal drops, nasal spray, eye 

drops and phenylephrine injection (1) . 

Many analytical methods have been proposed 

for the determination of phenylephrine 

hydrochloride in pharmaceutical formulations (2,3) 

and biological samples (4,5) . 

Numerous methods have been reported for 

the determination of phenylephrine 

hydrochloride including spectrophotometry (6-12) , 

fluorometry 

(13) , chemiluminescence (14) , 

colorimetry (15) flow injection analysis (16) and 

chromatographic methods (17-20) . 

In this paper, We have tried to develop a 

method for determination of phenylephrine 

hydrochloride in nasal drops as pharmaceutical 

preparations which coupling with N,N-Diethylp-phenylenediamine 

monohydrochloride (N,N- 

DE-PPD) in present of N-Bromosuccinimide as 

oxidizing agent in sodium hydroxide medium. 

The method offers the advantages of simplicity, 

rapidity and sensitivity without the need for 

extraction. 

EXPERIMENTAL 

1- Apparatus 

A shimadzu model (UV-160A) double beam 

UV_VIS spectrometer with 1.0-cm matches 

silica cells was used to carry out all spectral 

measurements. 

A electo. mag (M 96K) water bath, HANNA 

model (pH 211) microprocessor pH-meter and 

AND model (HF-400) sensitive balance were 

used. 

2- Reagents 

All chemicals used were of analytical reagent 

grade standard. PPH was supplied by S.D.I. 

(Iraq), N,N-DE-PPD by Fluka, Nbromosuccinimide 

by Fluka, Sodium hydroxide 

by BDH, Hydrochloric acid by Fluka. 

- A stock solution of PPH (1000µg/ml) was 

prepared by dissolving 1.0 gm of pure PPH in 

1000 ml distilled water. 

- Working solution of DE-PPD (5×10 -3 M) was 

prepared by dissolving 0.1094 gm in 100ml 

distilled water. 

- N-Bromosuccinimide solution (3×10 -3 ) was 

prepared by dissolving gm in ml distilled water. 

- Sodium hydroxide solution (1.0M) was 

prepared by dissolving 1 gm in 250ml distilled 

water. 

3- General procedure 

Aliquots of working standard solution of PPH 

(0.25 – 4 mL of 100µg mL -1 ) were transferred 

into 25-mL calibrated flasks followed by 1.0 mL


N,N-DE-PPD (5×10 -3 M), 3.0 mL of Nbromosuccinimide 

(3×10 -3 M), 0.1mL of sodium 

hydroxide. The solution was made up to the 

mark with distilled water, mixed thoroughly and 

the absorbance was measured at 500 nm against 

a reagent blank, and the calibration graph was 

constructed. 

Sample preparation 

4- Pharmaceutical preparations 

Nasal drops. – The following nasal drop 

formulations were purchased from local sources 

and used for the analysis: samsphrine (S.D.I., 

Iraq) containing 0.25% PPH 10 mL –1 , 

nasophrine (S.D.I., Iraq) containing 0.25% PPH 

10 mL –1 . A volume of 10 mL of nasal drops 

(equivalent to 25 mg of PPH) was diluted to 50 

mL with distilled water. The general procedure 

was then followed. 


1- Spectral characteristics 

The method involves the oxidation of PPH, 

followed by the coupling of DE-PPD in alkaline 

medium. The absorption spectra of the reaction 

product formed have absorption maxima at 685 

nm (Figure 1). 

Absorbance 

0.9 

0.8 

0.7 

0.6 

0.5 

0.4 

0.3 

0.2 

0.1 

0 

C 

400 500 600 700 800 

w avelength (nm) 

Fig (1): Absorption spectrum of (A): reaction product 

of PPH (8 μg mL -1 ) with DE-PPD (1 mL of 5×10 -5 

M), N-Bromosuccinimide ( 3 mL of 3×10 -3 M), and 

sodium hydroxide (0.3 mL of 0.1M). vs. blank. (B): 

Blank vs. D.W. 

B 

A 

2- Study of the optimum reaction conditions 

The effects of various parameters on the 

absorption intensity of the dye were studied and 

the reaction conditions were optimized. 

2.1- Effect of time and temperature 

The effect of time (5-60 min.) and 

temperature (0-60 o C) on the reaction of PPH 

and DE-PPD were studied. As (Figure 2) shows 

by increasing temperature the absorbance of 

reactions decreased with the time. Therefore, the 

absorbance of the reaction product measured 

directly at room temperature. 

Fig (2): Effect of time and temperature on absorbance 

of reaction product. a, b, c, d, and e are 0°C, room 

temp., 40°C, 50°C, and 60°C, respectively. 

2.2- Effect of pH 

In order to study the effect of pH on reaction 

product, buffer solutions covering the alkaline 

range (pH 8-12 were prepared by mixing 

different volumes of both 0.1M sodium 

hydroxide and 0.1 M hydrochloric acid ) were 

tried . The optimum pH was found to be higher 

alkaline media (pH ≥ 12) by adding 0.1 M of 

sodium hydroxide (Table.1). 

Table (1): effect of pH on the absorbance of 

reaction product. 

pH λ max(nm) Absorbance 

Sample vs. 

blank 

Blank vs. 

D.W. 

8 570 0.142 0.312 

9 570 0.131 0.321 

10 570 0.146 0.352 

11 570 0.175 0.381 

12 685 0.691 0.047 

≈ 13, 0.1 

M NaOH 

685 0.720 0.033 

113

Absorbance 


Influence of an other buffer solutions were 

studied with the time, but best results were 

obtained by using sodium hydroxide (Figure 3). 

Fig (3): Effect of buffer solutions (pH=12) on the 

absorbance of reaction product with the time. a, b, c, 

and d are NaOH solution, (NaOH+KCl, pH=12), 

(NaH2PO4+NaOH, pH=12), and (Na2HPO4+NaOH, 

pH=12) respectively. 

The effect of sodium hydroxide mL of 0.1M 

sodium hydroxide solutions were examined. The 

investigations showed that 0.3mL of 0.1M 

sodium hydroxide gave maximum 

absorbance(Figure 4.). 

0.9 

0.8 

0.7 

0.6 

0.5 

0.4 

0.3 

0.2 

0.1 

114 

0 

0 0.5 1 1.5 

ml of 0.1 M NaOH 

Fig (4): Effect of volume of 0.1M of sodium 

hydroxide on the reaction product. 

2.3- Effect of N-Bromosuccinimide 

The effect of different concentrations of working 

solution of N-Bromosuccinimide was studied, 

and constant absorbance values were obtained at 

3×10 -3 M. Above this concentration, a decrease in 

the absorbance was observed. Different volumes 

of this concentration were studied, 3.0 mL gave 

a maximum absorbance (Figure 5). 

Absorbance 

0.9 

0.8 

0.7 

0.6 

0.5 

0.4 

0.3 

0.2 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 

ml of N-Bromosuccinimide 

Fig (5): Effect of volume of 3×10 -3 M of NBS 

on the reaction product 

2.4- Effect of coupling agent 

The effect of various concentration of 

coupling agent was studied using the proposed 

procedure, which found that 5×10 -3 M was the 

best for determination PPH. The influence of the 

volume of DE-PPD was studied. It was observed 

that 1.0 mL was the best volume (Figure 6). 

Absorbance 

0.9 

0.8 

0.7 

0.6 

0.5 

0.4 

0.3 

0.2 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 

ml of DE-PPD 

Fig (6): Effect of volume of 5x10 -5 M of DE-PPD on 

the reaction product.


3- Calibration curve 

Under the above optimum conditions, the 

linear calibration curve (Figure 7) for PPH was 

obtained. Optical characteristics such as Beer’s 

law range, molar absorptivity, slope, intercept, 

of the method are presented in Table 2. 

Fig (7): Calibration curve for determination of PPH 

Compound Amount present 

(µg mL -1 ) 

Phenylephrine 

Hydrochloride 

Table ( 2): Optical characteristics 

Parameters / 

Characteristics 

Color Blue 

ג max (nm) 685 nm 

Beer's law range (µg ml −1 ) 0.5-16 

Molar absorptivity (l mol −1 

cm −1 ) 

Regression equation (Y = 

ax + b, where x is the 

concentration in µg ml −1 ) 

Table (3): Accuracy and precision of the method. 

Amount added 

(µg mL -1 ) 

11381 

Slope (a) 0.0559 

Intercept (b) 0.3603 

Correlation coefficient (r) 0.999 

4- Accuracy and precision 

The precision and accuracy of the proposed 

methods were evaluated by analysis of pure 

samples of PPH. The results are shown in Table 

3 indicate that satisfactory precision and 

accuracy could be attained with the proposed 

method. 

Recovery * 

(%) 

RSD ** 

(%) 

2 2.07 103.50 1.69 

6 5.8 96.66 2.76 

10 10.1 101.00 1.99 

* Average of three determinations. 

** Average of six determinations 

115

Absorbance 


5- The nature of reaction product 

The composition of the reaction product was 

established by the continuous variations method 

and the mole ratio method (21) . These methods 

showed that a 1:1 reaction product of PPH and DE- 

PPD was formed (Figures. 8,9) 

116 

0.35 

0.3 

0.25 

0.2 

0.15 

0.1 

0.05 

0 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 

Mole Ratio of [mL DE-PPD/ mL PPH] 

Fig (8): Mole ratio method. 

Absorbance 

0.4 

0.35 

0.3 

0.25 

0.2 

0.15 

0.1 

0.05 

0 

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 

Fig (9): The continuous variations method 

6- Reaction sequence 

[PPH]/[PPH]+[DE-PPD] 

DE-PPD was oxidized by using Nbromosuccinimide 

to p-benzoquinone diimine in 

alkaline medium at pH 9-10, and then analyzed to 

p-benzoquinone monoamine at pH ≥ 12, the later 

coupled rapidly with PPH to form blue color of 

indophenol dye, which have a maximum 

absorbance at 680nm.


7- Analysis of pharmaceutical preparations 

Application of the proposed methods to the 

determination of PPH in its dosage forms was 

successfully made; the results are presented in 

Table 4 and compare favorably with those of the 

standard addition method. The excellent 

recoveries obtained indicated the absence of any 

interference from the excipients 

Table (4): Determination of phenylephrine hydrochloride in pharmaceutical preparation. 

Pharmaceutical 

Preparation 

Certified value 

(mg/10 ml) 

Present 

amount* 

(mg/10 ml) 

Standard addition 

method (mg/10 ml) 

RE1** (%) RE2*** (%) 

Samaphrine 0.02500 0.02535 0.02498 +1.40 +1.48 

nasophrine 0.02500 0.02519 0.02541 +0.76 -0.86 

* Average of three determinations 

** RE1= Oxidative coupling versus certified value 

*** RE2 = Oxidative coupling versus standard addition value. 

8- Interference 

The extent of interference by common ions 

was determined by measuring the absorbance of 

a solution containing 10.0 μg/mL of PPH and 

various amounts of diverse species. The 

common ions do not interfere and the common 

excipients which often accompany the 

pharmaceutical preparations do not interfere in 

the present method. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The proposed methods were found to be 

simple, economical, selective and sensitive. The 

statistical parameters and recovery study data 

clearly indicate the reproducibility and accuracy 

of the methods. Hence, these methods could be 

considered for the determination of PPH in the 

quality control laboratories. 

REFERENCES 

� Goth, A. (1981). Medical Pharmacology Principle and 

Concepts. 10th ed., The Mosby C.V. Company. 

� Palabıyık, I. M., and Onur, F. (2007). The 

Simultaneous Determination of Phenylephrine 

Hydrochloride, Paracetamol, Chlorpheniramine 

Maleate and Dextromethorphan Hydrobromide in 

Pharmaceutical Preparations. Chromatographia, 66, 

93-96. 

� Beyene, N. W., and Van Staden, J. F. (2004). 

Sequential injection spectrophotometric 

determination ofphenylephrine hydrochloride in 

pharmaceutical preparations. Talanta, 63(3), 599- 

604. 

� Ptáček, P., and Macek, J. (2007). Development and 

validation of a liquid chromatography–tandem mass 

spectrometry method for the determination of 

phenylephrine in human plasma and its application 

to a pharmacokinetic study. J. of chromatography 

B., 858(1-2), 263-268. 

� Galmier, M. J., A. M. Frasey, A. M., Meski, S., 

Beyssac, E., J. Petit , J., J. M. Aiache, J. M., and C. 

Lartigue, C. (2000). High-performance liquid 

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and tropicamide in human aqueous humor. 

Biomedical chromatography, 14(3), 202-204. 

� Ivana Savić, Goran Nikolić, Ivan Savić, Vladimir 

Banković. (2008). The Simultaneous 

Spectrophotometric Determination Of Trimazolin 

And Phenylephrine Hydrochloride In Nasal 

Preparations. Chemical Industry & Chemical 

Engineering Quarterly 14 (4) 261−264. 

� Abbas, M. N, and Mostafa, G. A. E. (2001). 

Spectrophotometric Determination Of 

Phenylephrine Using P-Aminophenol And 

Potassium Periodate. Egyptian J. Chemistry, 44, 

141-149. 

� Shama S.A., (2002). Spectrophotometric Determination Of 

Phenylephrine Hcl And Orphenadrine Citrate In Pure And In 

Dosage Forms. Journal of Pharmaceutical and 

Biomedical Analysis. 30(4), 1385-1392. 

� Muszalska, I., Zajac, M., Wróbel, G., and Nogowska, 

M. (2000). Uv/vis Spectrophotometric Methods For 

Determination Of Caffeine And Phenylephrine 

Hydrochloride In Complex Pharmaceutical 

Preparations. Acta Pol Pharm. 57(4), 247-52. 

� Kazemipour, M., and Ansari, M. (2005). Derivative 

Spectrophotometry for Simultaneous Analysis of 

Chlorpheniramine Maleate, Phenylephrine HCl, and 

Phenylpropanolamine HCl in Ternary Mixtures and 

Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms. Iranian Journal of 

Pharmaceutical Research, 3, 147-153. 

� AHMED Ibrahim S. ; AMIN Alaa S. (2007). 

Spectrophotometric microdetermination of 

phenylephrine hydrochloride in pure and in 

pharmaceutical formulations using haematoxylin. 

Journal of molecular liquids, 130(1-3), 84-87. 

� José R.C. Rocha | Cristiane X. Galhardo | Maria 

Auxiliadora E. Natividade | Jorge C. Masini . 

(2002). Spectrophotometric Determination of 

117


Phenylephrine Hydrochloride in Pharmaceuticals by 

Flow Injection Analysis Exploiting the Reaction 

with Potassium Ferricyanide and 4- 

Aminoantipyrine. J AOAC Int., 85(4), 875-878. 

� Chien, D. S., and Schoenwald, R. D. (1985). 

Fluorometric Determination Of Phenylephrine 

Hydrochloride By Liquid Chromatography In 

Human Plasma. J Pharm Sci. 1985 May ;74 

(5):562-564 

� Mestre, Y., F. Zamora, L., L., and Calatayud, J. M. 

(2001). Determination Of Phenylephrine 

Hydrochloride By Flow Injection Analysis With 

Chemiluminescence Detection. J AOAC Int., 84(1), 

13-18. 

� Yehia M. Dessouky and Laila N. Gad El Rub. (1976). 

Colorimetric Determination Of Phenylephrine 

Hydrochloride In Pharmaceutical Preparations. 

Analyst, 101, 717 – 719. 

� Moisés Knochen, and Javier Giglio . (2004). Flowinjection 

determination of phenylephrine 

hydrochloride in pharmaceutical dosage forms with 

on-line solid-phase extraction and 

spectrophotometric detection. Talanta, 64(5), 1226- 

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(2003). Determination of prednisolone, 

naphazoline, and phenylephrine in local 

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A.; Ali, Nahed M. (2008). Simultaneous 

Determination Of Phenylephrine Hydrochloride, 

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Edition, Singapore, p. 498-504. 

ةينلاديصلا تارضحتسملا نم ددع يف ديرولكورديه نيرفلينفلل يفيطلا ريدقتلا 

وملحملا يمف دميرولكورديه نيرمفلينفلا ر مقع نمم ةلينمل ت ميمك ريدمقتل ةمس سيو ةليرمسو ةلعمس ةميفيق ةمقيرق رمصو مت 

ميثأ يئ منث – 

N,N 

مم منارقأو 


ديمنيمسكسومورا- 

N ةطمساوا دميرولكورديه نيرمفلينفلا ةدسكأ ىلع ةقيرطلا دمتلت . يئ ملا 

ملتميو مملا يمف ومئام اريا بت من نيومكتل ويدومصلا ديمسكورديه دوميوا دميرولكوردي علا هد ميأ نيمميا يئ منث نيملينف-ار 

ما 

مغلاو 

. رمتللم/ 

ارروركي مم 65 ىملإ 0.6 نمم نميكرتلا ادمم نممل قبطني 

ريا نون ق نأ ديو . رتمون ن 586 دنع ص صتما ىصقأ 

6- 

م نا ةمقيرطلا مقبقو دمقلملا نيومكتل ىمل ملا لورمولا ةمسارد متو . 

6- 

مس. 

ومم. 

رتل 66386 ةيرلاوملا 

ةيص 

صتملااةميق 

ريث مممت لا نأ دممميو ممممك ةينلاديمممصلا تارمممضحتسملا نمممم ددمممع يمممفو ةممميقنلا مممتل ي يمممف دممميرولكورديه نيرمممفلينفلا ريدمممقت يمممف 

. 

ةيرتقملا ةقيرطلا يف ةيئاودلا ت ف ضملل


USE OF WATER QUALITY INDEX AND DISSOLVED OXYGEN 

SATURATION AS INDICATORS OF WATER POLLUTION OF ERBIL 

WASTEWATER CHANNEL AND GREATER ZAB RIVER. * 

YAHYA A. SHEKHA * and JAMAL K. AL-ABAYCHI ** 

* Dept.of Environmental Science, College of Science, University of Salahaddin, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

** Dept. of Biology, College of Science, University of Baghdad-Iraq 

(Received: August 1, 2010; Accepted for publication: June 4, 2011) 

ABSTRACT 

The present investigation was conducted on Erbil wastewater channel to evaluate water quality and pollution 

strength by using water quality index and oxygen saturation percentage. Seven sites were chosen for the present 

survey, three of them were within Erbil wastewater channel and the other four sites located in Greater Zab River. 

Water samples were collected at regular monthly interval periods beginning at May 2006 to April 2007. Some water 

parameters were analyzed in both water ecosystems including, water temperature, pH, EC, turbidity, DO, BOD 5, 

COD, NH4, NO2, NO3, and total dissolved phosphate. 

Water quality index was varied from 47, 53.7 to 55.4% for Erbil wastewater channel sites respectively, which 

classified as bad to medium type of water or as marginal type of water, while for Greater Zab River sites was varied 

from 71.8% at site 4 then decreased to 68% at site 5 and increased gradually from 71.1 and 71.3% at last two sites of 

river respectively, which classified as medium to good type according to European Union classification and as fair 

type water depending on Canadian classification. The variation of oxygen saturation appeared to be directly 

proportional to the water quality index. 

KEY WORDS: Water quality index, Dissolved oxygen saturation, Water pollution. 

Q 

INTRODUCTION 

uality of surface waters is a very 

sensitive issue. Anthropogenic 

influences as well as natural processes degrade 

surface waters and impair their use for drinking, 

industry, agriculture, recreation and other 

purposes(Simeonov et al., 2003). 

A water quality index has been considered as an 

important criterion for surface water 

classification (Hernandez-Romero et al., 2004). 

(Jonnalagadda and Mhere, 2001) Showed that 

this index provides a single number of that 

expresses overall water quality at a certain 

location and time based on several water quality 

monitoring. An index is a useful tool for 

describing the state of water column, sediments and 

aquatic life and for ranking the suitability of water for 

use by humans, aquatic life, wildlife, etc. 

( CCME, 2001). 

The determination of WQI requires a 

normalization step where each parameter is 

transformed into a 0- 100 scale, where 100 represents 

the maximum quality. The next step is to apply a 

weighting factor in accordance with the importance 

of the parameter as an indicator of water quality 

(Nives, 1999). 

Dissolved oxygen (DO) and Oxygen saturation 

(OS %) are parameters frequently used to evaluate the 

water quality on different water bodies. These 

parameters are strongly influenced by a combination 

of physical, chemical, and biological characteristics 

* Part of Ph.D.Sc. thesis of the first author. 

of stream of oxygen demanding substances, including 

algal biomass, dissolved organic matter, ammonia, 

volatile suspended solids, and sediment oxygen 

demand (Mullholand et al., 2005). 

The objective of the present work was to the use 

of WQI and OS % as indicators of the environmental 

quality of Erbil wastewater channel and Greater Zab 

River watershed to compare between both water 

bodies. For the determination of the WQI, Canadian 

standard (4) as shown in (Table, 1) and European 

Standard (EU, 1975) as shown in (Table, 2), for clean 

water were used as references in each case. 

Cited from PhD Dissertation 


Sampling for water variables was performed from 

seven sites at monthly intervals during May 2006 to 

April 2007. Three sites have been chosen along Erbil 

wastewater channel (Tooraq village, Qadria village 

and Gameshtapa bridge respectively) and four sites 

selected in distal part of Greater Zab River 

( Near Gameshtapa 

village, Unkown , Kaparan village and Guwer 

subdistrict respectively) (Figure, 1). 

Field determinations of pH, conductivity, and 

temperature were carried out using portable 

equipments pH meter (Philips PW 9414) and 

conductivity meter (Philips PW 9525) respectively. 

Turbidity by using turbidity meter (HF Scientific, inc. 

model BRF- 15 CE). 

Laboratory analyses were carried out for the 

determination of BOD5, COD, NH4, NO2, NO3 

according to methods described in (APHA, 1998). 

111


While for total dissolved phosphate (TDP) as 

recommended in (Lind, 1979) and total dissolved 

nitrogen as described in (Mackereth et al., 1978). As 

well as, dissolved oxygen concentration (DO) was 

determined using azid modification of winkler 

method as described in (APHA, 1998), and oxygen 

saturation calculated from the following formula: 

Where: 

C = dissolved oxygen concentration obtain from 

laboratory analysis. 

Cs= saturation concentration of pure water at a 

similar temperature and pressure. 

For the determination of water quality index 

(WQI), the following empirical equation was used 

(Sanchez et al., 2007): 

Where: 

K= is a subjective constant, Ci= is the 

normalized value of the parameter 

Pi= is the relative weight assigned to each 

parameter. 

Table (3) shows the values suggested for 

parameters Ci and Pi, used in the calculation of 

WQI, which were based on European Union 

standards (EU, 1975). 

121 


In order to evaluate the feasibility of the WQI 

and oxygen saturation (OS %) as an indicator of 

water pollution level in water sample analyzed 

the values of these parameters were determined 

in the different sampling sites. 

Figures 2-5 show, the plots of the variation of 

WQI and OS % values for both studied water 

ecosystems. The values of WQI increased 

throughout the Erbil wastewater channel from 47 

to 53.7 then to 55.4% respectively which was 

coincided with the increase in OS % from 7.8 % 

to 27 % then to 43.2% respectively. The reason 

of this result was related to the characteristics of 

the polluted channel. As can be seen, the mean 

values of EC decreased from site 1 to site 3. 

Also, ammonium concentration decreased, while 

the concentration of NO3 increased in site 2 but 

decreased in site 3 (Table, 4), which showing that the 

nitrification process took place (Dodson et al., 1998). 

Moreover, the values of BOD5 and COD decreased 

from (89.3 to 38.3 mg.l -1 ) and (474 to 192 mg.l -1 ) 

respectively, accompanied by an increase of DO 

level, as an indication of relatively self-purification 

(Hynes, 1960). According to (EU, 1975) the water 

can be classified as bad for site 1 and as medium for 

site 2 and 3, while depending on (CCME, 2001) 

classification, all sites were regarded as poor or 

marginal type (Grade D). That was considered as 

impaired water, condition often depart from natural or 

desirable levels. 

On the other hand, the water quality improved 

considerably downstream of Greater Zab River, the 

values of WQI were 71.8% in site 4 then decreased to 

68% in site 5 which coincided with effluent from 

Erbil wastewater channel, then increased to 71.1% 

and 71.3% respectively (Figure 5). Taking into 

account all the points sampled, the water from 

Greater Zab River may be classified as fair (Grade C) 

depending of the classification of (CCME, 2001), 

meanwhile according to (EU, 1975) classification the 

water of site 4 can be regarded as good to medium in 

site 5 then good in sites 6 and 7. The water quality 

index increased through the sampling sites 4-7, 

showing a certain self-purification capacity of Greater 

Zab River (Figure 5). 

The variation of OS % appeared to be directly 

proportional to the WQI, the maximum value being at 

site 3 in Erbil wastewater channel and in site 7 in 

Greater Zab River. However, the values of OS% 

improved the above results in which the OS value in 

site 4 was 73.74% decreased to 71.48% then 

increased to 74.14% and 81.33% respectively (Table 

4). According to (Key, 1956) based on OS% content 

the water quality of polluted channel was regarded as 

badly polluted, while Greater Zab River can be 

classified as doubtful for all sites except site 7 that 

was considered as a fair type. (Klein, 1959) Stated 

that OS % levels below 60-80% can be harmful to 

many aquatic animals. 

Generally, there is directly proportional relationship 

between water organic matter load with OS% in 

water bodies. Therefore, WQI well be affected by 

increasing and decreasing of OS%.


Table (1):- Grading scale and rationale used for the all Water Quality indicators (WQI), (4): 

Indicator 

(100- point 

scale) 

Ecological condition Grade 

point 

Grade 

95- 100 Excellent: water quality is protected with virtual absence of threat or 

impairment; conditions very close to natural or pristine levels 

4 A 

80- 94 Good: water quality is protected with only minor degree of threat or 

impairment; conditions rarely depart from natural or desirable 

levels 

3 B 

65- 79 Fair: water quality is usually protected but occasionally threatened or 

impaired; conditions some-times depart from natural or 

desirable levels 

2 C 

45- 64 Poor (marginal): water quality is frequently threatened or impaired; 

conditions often depart from natural or desirable levels 

1 D 

0-44 Very Poor: water quality is almost always threatened or impaired; 

conditions usually depart from natural or desirable levels 

0 F 

Note: Canadian water quality guidelines for the protection of aquatic life ( After Canadian Council of Ministers of the 

Environment, 2001) 

Table (2):- WQI values according to European standard (7). 

Range Quality 

0-25 Very Bad 

25-50 Bad 

51-70 Medium 

71-90 Good 

91-100 Excellent 

Note: European Union (1975). 

Table (3): Values of Ci and Pi for different parameters of water quality. 

Parameter Pi Ci 

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 

Range of 

analytical value 

pH 1 7 7-8 7-8.5 7-9 6.5-7 6-9.5 5-10 4-11 3-12 2-13 1-14 

EC 2


122 

Fig. (1):- Map of: 

A- Northern part of Iraq. 

B- Studied sites. 

Table (4): Water characteristics of Erbil water channel and Greater Zab river, data represented as mean ± S.E., 

during studied period. 

Variables 

Water 

temperature (ºC) 

pH 

EC (µS.cm -1 ) 

( at 25ºC) 

Turbidity (NTU) 

DO (mg.l -1 ) 

BOD5 (mg.l -1 ) 

COD (mg.l -1 ) 

NH4 (µg NH4-N.l - 

1 

) 

NO2 (µg NO2-N.l - 

1 

) 

NO3 (µg NO3-N.l - 

1 

) 

TDP (µg.l -1 ) 

OS (%) 

A 

1 

20.8± 1.96 

7.15± 0.08 

630± 28.7 

49.8± 15.3 

0.75± 0.32 

89.3± 16.2 

474± 84.2 

12.7± 1.29 

116± 46.3 

677± 373 

989± 134 

7.78±3.34 

Erbil channel 

2 

19.1±2.12 

7.38± 0.06 

655± 40.9 

8.61± 1.44 

2.67±0.39 

33.2± 10.0 

287± 61.5 

17.4± 1.51 

80.3± 13.1 

1006± 749 

1044± 77.6 

26.95±3.96 

3 

19.1± 2.11 

7.58± 0.1 

722± 49.4 

22.8± 4.26 

4.36± 0.55 

38.3± 13.0 

192± 54.2 

12.4± 1.10 

772± 168 

940± 221 

945± 105 

43.17±4.83 

4 

17.7± 2.34 

7.7 ± 0.09 

389± 26.8 

61.7± 22 

7.01± 0.44 

4.60± 2.41 

128± 31.7 

1.00± 0.09 

51.8± 3.69 

854± 233 

108± 39 

73.74±2.73 

Greater Zab river 

5 

6 

17± 1.82 17.5± 2.11 

7.77± 0.08 

464± 36.9 

61.1± 21.9 

6.84± 0.43 

5.69± 2.16 

236± 127 

1.68± 0.17 

86.7± 8.69 

963± 241 

132± 16.2 

71.48±2.72 

7.84± 0.09 

410± 29.8 

62.9± 20.3 

7.04± 0.38 

3.63± 1.92 

107± 23.3 

1.04± 0.07 

46.7± 16.6 

916± 204 

74.2± 12.4 

74.14±1.67 

7 

17.7± 1.89 

7.83± 0.08 

402± 25.5 

66.6± 23.4 

7.59± 0.63 

5.97± 3.00 

104± 25.9 

1.00± 0.08 

44.4± 4.98 

948± 219 

68.8± 12.4 

81.33±6.53


WQI (%) 

60 

55 

50 

45 

40 

site 1 site 2 site 3 

Fig. (2):- Water quality Figure(2): index and Water oxygen quality saturation index and in oxygen Erbil saturation wastewater in channel Erbil (values as mean± SE), water 

wastewater channel classified (values according as mean±SE), to (Eu, water 1975). classified 

according to (7). 

WQI (%) 

80 

75 

70 

65 

60 

55 

50 

45 

40 

47 

WQI OS 

Medium 

Fig. (3):- Water quality index 

Figure(3): 

in Erbil 

Water 

wastewater 

quality index 

channel 

in Erbil 

(values 

wastewater 

as mean± 

channel 

SE), water classified according to 

(CCME, 2001). 

( values as mean), water classified according to (4) 

Bad 

53.7 

Fair 

55.4 

Marginal 

0 1 2 3 4 

Sites 

C 

D 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

OS (%) 

123


124 

WQI (%) 

Fig. (4):- Water quality index and oxygen saturation in Greater Zab river (values as mean± SE), 

Greater water Zab classified river (values according as to mean (EU, ± 1975). SE), water 

WQI (%) 

75 

70 

65 

60 

74 

72 

70 

68 

66 

64 

71.8 

Good 

WQI OS 

Medium 

site 4 site 5 site 6 site 7 

Figure(4): Water quality index and oxygen saturation in 

classified according to (7). 

68 

Fig. (5):- Water quality index Figure(5): in Greater Water Zab river quality (values index as mean± in Greater SE), zab water river classified according to (CCME, 

(values as mean), water 2001). classified according to (4). 

71.1 

71.3 

Fair C 

0 4 1 5 2 6 3 47 Sites 

5 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

OS (%)


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125


126 

ىوائ زةس ةل ينحسكؤئ ىنووبسَيت ىةرَيز و وائ ىت ةيزؤج ىزةوَيث ىناهَيي زاكةب 

. ةزوةط ى َىش وسَيلوةي ىؤزةوائ لىانةك 

, وائ ىزَوج ىهيناش َوب ةزوةط ى َىش ىزابووز و سَيلوةي ىزاش ىَوزةوائ لىانةك زةسةلازدمانجةئ ةيةوةهيرََيوت 

مةئ 

َوب اسك ىزايد ةطتسَيو توةح . ينحسكَوئ ةب ىنووبسَيت ىزةوَيث و وائ ىت ةيزؤج ىزةوَيث 

ةتخوث 

ىناهَييزاكةبةب ىنوبسيث ىةمث 

. ةزوةتط ى َىش ىزاتبووز زةتسةل ةطتتسَيو زاوض و سَيلوةي ىَوزةوائ لىانةك ىيارَيزدةب ىاي َىس ةك ةوةهيرَيوت مةئ 

. 6002 ىناسين 

ؤب 

6002 

ىزاشائ ىطنام ىكَيجتسةد ةل ةناطنام ىكةيةوَيش ةب ىايرطزةو ىاكةنونم 

, وائ ىمَيل , ابةزاك ىندنايةط ىاناوت , ىهيجَوزدياي ىةزامذ , وائ ىامزةط ىةمث ؤخ ةتسط ىةنازةوَيث مةئ ةكةوةهيريوت 

ىتافسَوف , تاترين , تيترين , اينَومةئ , ينحسكَوئ ىياينيك ىتسيوَيث , ينحسكَوئ ىطةدهيش ىتسيوَيث , وةواوت ىهيحسكَوئ 

ىناكةطتسَيو ؤب كةي ىاودةب كةي % 7737 وكةوات 7.32 و72 

: ةوةزاوخ ىةمةل ةوةتَيسكب تزوك ىاكةمانجةئ 

َىسناوتةد ةو . ىتشط ىةواوت 

ىاوَين ةل اسك ىزايد وائ ىت ةيزؤج ىزةوَيث ىايةب 

ىةطتسَيو وود ةل دنةوان مام ؤب مةكةي ىةطتسَيو ةل ثاسخ ةل َىسكب وَيلؤث َىسناوتةد ةك سَيلوةي ىؤزةوائ لىانةك 

َىسطةدؤخةل مةزاوض ىةطتسَيو ةل % 2.37 

ةل ةزوةط ى َىش ىناكةطتسَيو ةل ةزةوَيث مةئ ادكَيتاك ةل مةَيس و مةوود 

ةل % 2.3. و 2.3. ةل ةمث ةب ةمث ىةوةنووبشزةب لةطةل مةحهَيث ىةطتسَيو ةل % 27 

ؤب َىشةبةداد ةزةوَيث مةئ ىاشاث 

ىةسَيوط ةب شاب ؤب دنةوان مام ىتةيزؤج ىاوَين ةل اسك وَيلؤث زابووز ىوائ ةو , كةي ىاود ةل كةي ىياود ىةطتسَيو وود 

ىةوام ةل ينحسكؤئ ىنووب سَيت ىةرَيز و وائ ىزؤج ىاوَين ةل ةيةي ةناوةتساز ىكةيدنةويةث ةو , ىثوزوةئ ىتَيكةي ىهيلؤث 

. ةوةهيرَيوت مةئ 

. ىلعلاا بازلا رهنو ليبرا يراجم ةانق هايملا ثولتل رشؤمك نيجسكولاا عابشا ةبسن و هايملا ةيعون 

رشؤم لامعتسا 


لامعتةس ب اةه ولا ةةجرب و هاةيملا ةةيعون ةةارعمل ىةلعرا بازةلا رةهنو لةيبرأ ةةنيدم يراةجم ةاةنق ىةلع ةةساردلا هذه تيرجأ 

ةاةنق نرةجم لوةو ىةلع اهنم ة لا ،ةيلاحلا ةساردلل تاطحم ةعبس رايتخإ ما . نيجسكولاا عابشأ ةبسن و هايملا ةيعون رشؤم 

اةةسين رهةةش ىةةتح 6002 راةةيا رهةةش نةةم اا ادةةتبإ ايرهةةش هاةةيملا جلاةةمن تذةةخأ . ىةةلعرا بازةةلا رةةهن زةةا اةةقاوم اةةبرأو لةةيبرأ 

. 6002 

نيجةةةسكورا ،ةروةةة 

علا ،ز اةةةبره لا ليةةةصوتلا ،زنيجوردةةةهلا را ، اةةةملا ةرارةةةح ةةةةجرب نةةةم الاةةةك اةةةيق ةةةةساردلا تلمةةةش 

تافةةةسوفلا ، تارةةةتنلا ،تةةةيرتنلا ،اةةةينومرا ،نيجةةةسكوال يواةةةيمي لا وةةةلطتملا ،نيجةةةسكوال يوةةةيحلا وةةةلطتملا ،باذةةةملا 

: زلي امك ج اتنلا صيخلا ن ميو . زل لا باذملا 

نة مي زةتلاو لةيبرأ يراةجم ةاةنق تاةطحمل ،زلاوتلا ىلع 7737 % ىلا ،7.32، 

72 نم هايملا ةيعون رشؤم ميق تحوارا 

تاةطحم زةا مية لا هذةه تةحوارا اةمنيب . ةةالاالا و ةةيناالا نيةتطحملا زةا ةطةسوتم ىةلا ىةلولاا ةةطحملا زةا زةس نم اهفينصا 

زجيردةتلا عاةفارلاا اةم ةةسماخلا ةةطحملا زةا % 27 ىةلا تة فخنا مة ةةعبارلا ةطحملا زا % 2.37 نم ىلعرا بازلا رهنو 

ةدةيجلا ىةلا ةطةسوتملا ةةيعون نيباةم رةهنلا هاةيملا تفنةص دةقو . زلاوةتلا ىةلع نيارةيخلاا نيةتطحملا زةا % 2.3. و 2.3. نةم 

ةرةتا للاةخ نيجةسكولاا عابةشأ ةبةسن و هاةيملا ةةيعون رشؤم نيبام ةيبرو ةقلاع تدجو امك . زبرولاا باحالاا فينصا وسح 

. 

ةساردلا


FLEXURAL ANALYSIS OF FIBROUS CONCRETE 

GROUND SQUARE SLAB 

AZAD A. MOHAMMED 

Dept. of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Sulaimani , Kurdistan Region, Iraq 

(Received: August 29, 2010; Accepted for publication: February 27, 2011) 

ABSTRACT 

In this paper, flexural analysis of ground square slab made of normal strength fibrous concrete subjected to 

central concentrated load is presented. Two models were proposed for analysis, one without the effect of stress 

concentration due to punching circular area under the load and the other with consideration of such effect. The 

proposed model is based on deriving moment-curvature relationship combined with the deflection behavior of the 

elastic plate. The second model can predict reasonably the cracking load , ultimate load and the load-deflection 

relationship. Comparison with the previous test data indicates that the ratio of test/ calculated ultimate load using 

model ( 1 ) is 2.48 and using Model ( 2 ) is 1.1. The effect of important parameters affecting the load-deflection 

response of fibrous concrete ground slab were studied. 

KEYWARDS: Curvature, Deflection, Fibrous Concrete, Ground Slab, Moment, Subgrade, 

U 

1-NTRODUCTION 

sing fiber reinforced concrete instead of 

normal reinforced concrete gained 

extensive applications in the case of concrete 

slabs on grade. This change is due to the 

acceptable crack control characteristics of 

distributed fibers inside the concrete especially 

in the zones of high stress concentration. Due to 

high truck loads, the slab is considered to be 

loaded with concentrated loads and there are 

locations of high stress concentration. In 

reinforced concrete slabs, there are zones 

between steel bars without reinforcement may 

subjected to cracking as a result of such high 

stress concentration. For this purpose the 

addition of fibers to concrete is quite necessary. 

Tests were reported by Beckett ( 1990 ) 

indicate that the load carrying capacity of 3 x 3 

m slab tested on grade by central point load and 

separated by a membrane polythene from ground 

surface were increased by 45 – 90 % as a result 

of reinforcing the plain concrete with steel 

fibers. Other tests carried out by Chen ( 2004 ) 

showed that there is a chance for using low 

amount of fiber ( lower than the minimum ratio 

indicated by Chinese construction practice ) and 

the load capacity can be effectively increased 

using different types of steel fibers. 

The analysis of continuous slabs is different 

compared with the separated square or 

rectangular one due to elastic geometrical 

deformations and the previous methods usually 

proposed for analysis and design of continuous 

slabsmay not applied directly in the case of 

separated slabs on grade. Previous works in this 

context indicated that the load capacity of 

ground slab can be predicted reasonably by 

assuming an ideally plastic concrete slab on 

elastic subgrade. Works by Westergaard ( 1948 ) 

and Meyerhof ( 1962 ) may be a source for many 

specifications discusses the strength of slab on 

grade. Concrete Society: Concrete Industrial 

Ground Floors [ Concrete Society 1994) ] offers 

a design guide for SFRC ground slabs. 

It is observed from observation of cracking 

pattern of many tested square slabs on subgrade 

that there is a punching circular area under the 

point load formed at later stages of loading 

subjects to high cracking damage due to stress 

concentration. Studying the complete load- 

deflection relationship was not attempted 

extensively by previous investigations in the best 

of the author's idea. 

The present research is an attempt to draw 

the complete load- deflection response from 

which the cracking load, ultimate load and the 

nonlinear load-deflection behavior of fibrous 

concrete ground slab can be predicted. The 

analysis is based on calculating the momentcurvature 

relationship for a slab section then 

drawing the load-deflection response from the 

properties of elastic plate. The effect of tensile 

membrane action occurred after the slab section 

is fully cracked at the critical section was 

included in the analysis. 

2-ANALYSIS 

The idealized tensile and compressive stressstrain 

relationships used by Lim, Paramasivam, 

and Lee ( 1987 ) for the analysis of fibrous 

127


concrete beams shown in Fig.( 1 ) are adopted in 

the present analysis. Calculating moment – 

curvature relationship is based on the 

equilibrium of forces and compatibility of 

strains. According to the compressive stress- 

strain and tensile stressstrain relationships 

128 

different cracking stages will exist [ Fig.(2) ] and 

as a result nonlinear response is obtained. Hence, 

the material nonlinearity is included in the 

present analysis. It is assumed here that there is 

linear strain distribution and the load is applied 

statically without any shock or impact. 

Fig. (1):- Idealized Stress-strain Relationship for Fibrous Concrete r Lime, paramasivm , and Lee (1987) 

Fig.(2):- Stress and Strain Distribution Acting on Fibrous Concrete Section 

2-1 Moment-Curvature Relationship 

2-1-1 Elastic Stage 

Stress and strain distributions for this stage 

are shown in Fig. (2-a). Depth of the 

compression zone 

( c ) is calculated from equilibrium of 

compressive and tensile forces acting on the 

section, or 

C-T = 0 ------ ( 1 ) 

Where C and T are the compressive and 

tensile forces acting on the slab section, 

respectively. 

It is assumed that the elastic modulus in 

compression and in tension are the same. As a 

result, the depth of compression zone for the 

elastic stage is equal to that in tension zone and


equal to h/2. On the basis of neglecting the 

effect of Poisson's ratio of concrete, the moment 

– curvature relationship per unit width becomes 

3 

Ech 

Me � -------- ( 2a ) 

12 

Where Me is the moment of the elastic stage. 

Ec is the elastic modulus of fibrous concrete. In 

the absence of the test data, Ec can be 

approximately calculated from the ACI 318 

Code [ ACI ( 2005 ) ] as follows 

Ec = 4730 f ' cf ( in MPa ) ----- ( 2b ) 

Where f'cf is the compressive strength of 

fibrous concrete ( MPa ). f'cf can be calculated 

from the equation given by Soroushian and Lee 

( 1991 ) as follows 

V flf 

f'cf = f'c + 3.6 

------ ( 2c ) 

df 

Where f'c is the compressive strength of plain 

concrete ( MPa ), Vf is the fiber ratio, lf is the 

fiber length and df is the fiber diameter. 

This stage is valid until the matrix cracks, in 

which the corresponding curvature becomes 

2�cr 

�e 

� ------ ( 3a ) 

h 

Where Фe is the limiting curvature for elastic 

stage and εcr is the cracking strain given by 

fr 

εcr = 

Ec 

----- ( 3b ) 

where fr is the modulus of rupture for fibrous 

concrete. At the absence of test results fr can be 

calculated by the equation of ACI 318 Code [ 

ACI ( 2005 ) ] as follows 

fr = 0.62 f ' cf ---- ( 3c ) 

2-1-2 Elastic-Plastic Stage ( 1 ) 


are shown in Figure ( 2-b ). Taking the 

integration of the small value of force over the 

area and using equilibrium of forces, for this 

stage the depth of compression zone is given by 

2 

ftu ftu 2 2 ftu�cr 

Ec�cr 

c � � � ( ) � ( � � ftuh 

Ec� 

Ec� 

Ec� 

� 2� 

---(4) 

Where Φ is the curvature in general, and ftu 

is the post cracking residual stress for fibrous 

concrete. It is convenient here to use ftu = fe,3 

in which fe,3 is the equivalent flexural strength 

of fibrous concrete suggested to be used by the 

Japan Society of Civil Engineers standard 

method [ Japan ( 1984 ) ] which based on test 

results of beam specimen is given by 

fe,3 = 

TL 

------- ( 5a ) 

2 

3bh 

where T is the area under the load – deflection 

curve for a fibrous concrete beam specimen, 

L is the span between supports, 

b is the beam width, and 

h is the beam depth. 

At the absence of test data for beam 

specimen, ftu can be calculated from the 

equation given by Hannant ( 1978 ) as follows 

1 

ftu = τ 

2 

V flf 

------- ( 5b ) 

df 

Where τ is the interfacial bond stress between 

fiber and concrete. 

M 

ep 

2 

2 

�f 

' cf�o 

Ec�cr 

ftu�cr 

Ec�o 

� � � ftuh 

� 

� 2� 

� 2� 

� 

�f 

' cf � ftu 

-----(6a) 

Where α is the compressive stress reduction 

factor equal to 0.9 [ Lim, Paramasivam, and Lee 

( 1987 ) ] 

and 

�f 

' cf 

εo = ------ ( 6b ) 

Ec 

This stage is valid until the curvature becomes 

�f 

' cf 

�ep � ------- ( 7 ) 

Ecc 

2-1-3 Elastic- Plastic Stage ( 2 ) 


are shown in Fig.( 2-c ). Equilibrium of forces 

indicates that for this stage the depth of 

compression zone is given by 

129


Mp 

130 

2 2 

Ec( 

�o 

� �cr 

) � 2�ftuh 

� 2 ftu�cr 

� 2�f 

'cf�o 

c � 

2�( 

�f 

'cf 

� ftu) 

For the plastic stage the moment per unit width is given by 

2 3 

3 

3 

ftu �f 

' cf 3 ftu�cr 

Ec�o 

�f 

' cf�o 

Ec�cr 

ftuh 

� ( � ) c � ftuhc 

� � � � � 

2 2 

2 

2 

2 2 

2� 

3� 

2� 

3� 

2 

The terminating point for this stage is that 

curvature makes the cross section to undergo 

fully cracking and the analysis stopped here for a 

depth c to be 0.02 times the slab thickness. 

Later the tensile membrane action starts and the 

analysis for such stage is done approximately as 

discussed later. 

2 

-----(8) 

-----(9) 

2-2 Load-Deflection Relationship 

2-2-1 Case of square slab//////From the results 

of classical plate theory the deflection of 

rectangular elastic plate on subgrade subjected 

to central point load is given by [Timoshenko 

and Woinowsky- Krtege ( 1959 ) ] 

m�� 

n�� 

Sin Sin 

4P 

� � 

m x n y 

w 

a b � � 

� � � 

Sin Sin 

------- ( 10 ) 

ab 

2 2 

m�1, 

3,.. 

n�1, 

3,.. 

4 m n 2 a b 

� D( 

� ) 

2 2 

a b 

Taking the integration between the limits 0 and 

a and between 0 and b then taking the second 

derivatives of the deflection with respect to x , 

the load curvature relationship becomes 

P � 

4� 

� 

� � 

2 

� � 4 2 2 4 

m�1 , 3,.. 

n�1, 3,.. 

� D( 

m � n ) � kb 

For a square plate, the deflection equation is 

given by 

2 � � 

1 

w � 4Pb 

� � 

------ (12) 

m�1 , 3,.. 

n�1, 3,.. 

4 2 2 4 

� D( 

m � n ) � kb 

2-2-2 Case of circular slab 

The load- moment relationship for a rigid 

slab on elastic foundation derived by Meyerhof 

( 1962 ) is used here for elastic-plastic and 

plastic stages and has a following form 

a 

Pc = 6 ( 1+ 2 ) Mo ----- ( 13a ) 

l 

1 

Where l is the diameter of the relative 

stiffness given by 

D 0.25 

l = ( ) ------- ( 13b ) 

k 

------ ( 11 ) 

and a is the equivalent radius of the area under 

the point load. Mo is the moment in elasticplastic 

and plastic stages. 

The deflection equation for the circular plate 

on grade is given by [Timoshenko and 

Woinowsky- Krteger (1959)] 

Pc 

wc = ------ ( 14 ) 

8 kD


2-2-3 Range of tensile membrane action 

The analysis presented above is accurate only 

when the value of the depth of compression zone 

( c ) remains realistic, otherwise there is another 

stage after that the section is fully cracked (value 

of c become too small ) . This stage is the stage 

of tensile membrane action occurred in the 

critical zone under the load. 

Using the stress distribution for fibrous 

concrete for ultimate moment capacity given by 

Hannant ( 1978 ) [ Model A ), a yield criterion 

for the enhanced moment due to the existence of 

tensile force acting at the mid-depth of the 

section to the moment without such force was 

drawn. The values of parameters α and β was 

calculated and found to be α = 0.66 and β = 

0.11. 

Using the equation given by Morley ( 1967 ) 

for the case of polygonal slab the load 

enhancement factor is as follows 

� 

For ≤ 

h 

2 

� 

� 

� 

2 

------- ( 15a ) 

P � � 2 

=1+ ( + 2 ) ( 

Po 12 � h 

� ) 2 -------(15b) 

Substituting the above ratios for α and β 

� 

For ≤ 0.25 

h 

P = 1 + 4.1 x 10 -5 h 

Po 

� 

Where P is the enhance load, Po is the control 

load to be enhanced, and Δ is the deflection for 

the tensile membrane action stage . Eq. ( 15b ) 

offer approximate value of load enhancement 

because it is derived basically for simply 

supported slabs without subgrade. It should be 

noted that the load enhancement is effective only 

when the value of deflection Δ is too large . In 

the present study the stage on membrane action 

is useful for drawing the range of plastic portion 

of the load-deflection relationship and the load 

enhancement is not of considerable importance. 

2-3 Procedure for Analysis 

Two models are presented for analysis. In 

Model (1) the load-deflection for the slab is 

obtained by using the deflection equation for 

square plate for all cracking stages without 

considering the effect of circular area under the 

central point load. In Model ( 2 ) the deflection 

equation for the square plate is used only for the 

elastic stage. For other stages the calculated load 

and deflection are for a circular plate. 

Calculation steps for Model ( 2 ) are given 

below. 

1- calculate the moment for elastic stage from 

Eq. ( 2a ) and check the curvature limit from 

Eq. ( 3a ). 

2- calculate the flexural rigidity from dividing 

the moment by the curvature. 

3- calculate the load from Eq. ( 11 ) and later the 

deflection from Eq. ( 12 ). 

4- increase the curvature and calculate the depth 

of compression zone from Eq. ( 4 ) and the 

moment from Eq. ( 6 ) for elasticplastic stage. 

Calculate the flexural rigidity from dividing the 

moment by the curvature. 

5- calculate the load from Eq.( 13a ) and the 

deflection from Eq. ( 14 ) for the circular area. 

6- check the curvature limit of elastic-plastic 

stage from Eq. ( 7 ). Repeat steps ( 4 ) to ( 6 ). 

7- for the curvature value larger than the limit of 

Eq. ( 7 ), increase the curvature and calculate the 

depth of compression zone from Eq. ( 8 ) and the 

moment from Eq. ( 9 ) for plastic stage. 

Calculate the flexural rigidity from dividing the 

moment by the curvature. 

8- repeat step ( 5 ). 

9-for any depth of compression zone of 0.02 

times the slab thickness, calculate the load 

enhancement factor from Eq. ( 15b ) and then 

the enhanced load by multiplying the factor by 

the final load obtained from step ( 8 ). 

3- COMPARISON BETWEEN TEST AND 

ANALYSIS 

It is necessary here to check the accuracy of 

the predicted loads and load-deflection 

relationship through a comparison with the test 

data for fibrous concrete slab on grade. Four 

slabs were cast and tested by Chen( 2004 ), three 

of them were reinforced with steel fiber. The 

tested slabs were reinforced with steel fiber with 

ratios of 0.38% and 0.26% and were tested on 

subrade of stiffness equal to 0.055 N/mm 3 . The 

slab dimensions were 2000 x 2000 x 120 mm 

and the cube compressive strength were 27.4 

MPa , 26.3 MPa and 26.5 MPa. Table ( 1 ) 

contains the values of cracking and ultimate 

loads obtained by Chen ( 2004 ). The ultimate 

131


load ( Pu ) is the central load when cracks 

develop through the full depth of the slab at the 

center. Values of calculated cracking and 

ultimate loads using Models ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) are 

also shown in the table in addition to the test / 

calculated loads. Both models offer the same 

cracking load. Because the cracking load is that 

for the square slab and the difference between 

the two models begins after elastic stage. The 

ratio of test / calculated cracking load is high 

because the test cracking load given by Chen 

( 2004 ) is that load related to visible cracks that 

appeared at the slab edges and cached by the 

tester, while the calculated one is the load 

produces firs crack at the tension face under the 

load which is invisible. The test / calculated 

ultimate load is 1.46 for Model ( 1 ) and 1.1 for 

Slab 

Code 

DS1 

DS2 

HS 

Mean 

132 

Model ( 2 ). It is obvious that the Model ( 2 ) 

gives better prediction. Therefore it is necessary 

to incorporate the effect of stress concentration 

occurred in the punching zone under the 

concentrated load. It is useful to note that the 

Model ( 1 ) offers accurate prediction for the 

case of fibrous concrete ground slab subjected to 

uniformly distributed load. Fig. ( 3 ) to ( 5 ) 

shows the load-deflection relationship 

for tested slabs in addition to load- 

deflection relationship obtained from the 

calculation steps presented above. It is shown 

that Model ( 2 ) offers better prediction for the 

most entire range of load – deflection 

relationship. Accordingly the load-deflection 

relationship can be predicted reasonably using 

the present analytical procedure. 

Table ( 1 ):- Comparison between test and calculated cracking and ultimate loads 

Test Load ( kN ) Calculated Load (kN) Calculated Load (kN) 

Test / Calculated Load 

[Model (1)] 

[Model (2)] 

Pcr Pu Pcr Pu Pcr Pu Pcr Pu 

Pu 

[ Model (1)] [ Model (2)] 

151 

151 

- 

276.5 

278.8 

217 

50.98 

55.3 

44.95 

188.5 

209.6 

137.5 

4- EFFECT OF SOME PARAMETERS 

It is convenient here to study the role of the 

available parameters affecting the strength and 

deformations of fibrous concrete ground slab 

through observing the shape of load- deflection 

response and measuring the ultimate load. The 

parameters truckled here are the fiber ratio ( Vf ), 

slab thickness ( h ), concrete compressive 

strength ( f'c ), subgrade stiffness ( k ), and slab 

dimensions ( a and b ). The control slab has the 

following properties , Vf = 1 %, h = 150 mm, f'c 

= 30 MPa, k = 0.04 N/mm 3 , a = b = 3 m . Fig. 

( 6 ) to Fig.( 10 ) show the load-deflection 

relationship variation with the parameters 

variation. The shape of load-deflection 

relationship is slightly changed due to increasing 

the ultimate load in Fig. ( 6 ) and Fig.( 7 ) and 

not changed for other cases. The ultimate load 

band is high in Fig.( 6 ) and Fig.( 7 ) indicates 

50.98 

55.3 

44.95 

246.1 

285.9 

181.6 

2.96 

2.73 

- 

1.47 

1.33 

1.58 

1.12 

0.98 

1.19 

2.85 1.46 1.1 

that the role of changing the parameter is 

important. To take a more clear view of the 

influence of each parameter Fig.( 11 ) was 

constructed. In the figure the slope of a given 

line indicates the role of the parameter on the 

ultimate load capacity. It is clear that the most 

important parameter is the slab thickness 

followed by the fiber ratio in the concrete. The 

parameters of subgrade stiffness and slab 

dimensions have a small effect and the concrete 

compressive strength has no effect on the 

ultimate load capacity of the slab. Based on the 

present analysis result it is important to note that 

fibrous concrete separated slab must be 

constructed with higher thickness from a 

concrete mix contains high fiber ratio. The 

effect of other slab properties and subgrade type 

has a small influence on the slab strength.


Fig. (3):- Test and calculated load-deflection relationship for slab DS1 

Fig. (4):- Test and calculated load – deflection relationship for slab DS2 

Fig.(5):- Test and calculated load – deflection relationship for slab Hs 

133


134 

Fig.(6):- Variation of load – Deflection Relationship for Fibrous concrete Slab with Fiber Ratio 

Fig.(7):- Variation of load –Deflection Relationship for Filbrous Concrete Slab with Slab Thickness 

Fig. (8):- Variation of Load – Deflection Relationship for Fibrous Concrete Slab 

with concrete compressive Strength


Fig.(9):- variation of load – Deflection Relationship for Fibrous Concrete Slab with Subgrade Stiffness 

Fig. (10):- variation of Load – Deflection Relationships for Fibrous Concrete Slab with Slab Dimensions 

Fig.(11):-Percentage of Ultimate load with Parameter Weight Variation 

135


136 

5- CONCLUSIONS 

Based on the results of the present analytical 

method presented above the following 

conclusions can be drawn 

1- The cracking load, ultimate load and the 

load-deflection relationship of fibrous concrete 

ground slab subjected to concentrated load can 

be predicted reasonably based on deriving 

moment-curvature relationship combining with 

elastic plate theory results. 

2- To obtain an accurate prediction it is 

necessary to incorporate the effect of stress 

concentration produced by the concentrated load 

in the analysis. As this done the ratio of test / 

calculated ultimate load can be changed from 

1.46 to 1.1. 

3- Those parameters affecting the ultimate load 

capacity of the ground slab is slab thickness 

followed by fiber ratio. Other parameters like 

slab dimensions, concrete compressive strength 

and subgrade type has no considerable 

importance on the ultimate load capacity of the 

slab. 

REFERENCES 

- ACI ( 2005 ) ,Building code requirements., ACI 318M- 

05 , American Concrete Institute, Detroit, USA 

- Beckett, D., ( 1990 ) , Comparative tests on plain, fabric 

reinforced and steel fiber reinforced ground slabs. 

Concrete, 24, 3, 43-45 

- Chen, S. , ( 2004 ), Strength of steel fiber reinforced 

concrete ground slabs. Structures and Building, 

SB2, 157-163 

- Concrete Society: Concrete industrial ground floors, 

(1994), A guide to their design and construction. 

Slough, Technical report, 34 

- Hannant, D.J.,( 1978 ), Fiber cements and fiber 

concretes. John Wiley and Sons. 

- Japan Society of Civil Engineers, ( 1984 ), Method of 

tests for flexural strength and flexural toughness of 

steel fiber reinforced concrete, JSCE-SF4 

- Lim, T. Y. , Paramasivam, P. and Lee, S.L. ( 1987 ), 

Bending behavior of steel fiber concrete beams. 

ACI Structural Journal, 84, 6 , 524-536 

- Meyerhof, G.G., ( 1962 ), Load carrying capacity of 

concrete pavements. Journal of Soil mechanics and 

foundations division, ASCE, 88, SM3, 89-116 

- Morley , C.T. ( 1967 ), Yield line theory for reinforced 

concrete slabs at moderately large deflection. 

Magazine of Concrete Research , 19 , 61 , 211-222 

- Soroushian, P. and Lee, C.D.,( 1991 ), Constitutive 

modeling of steel fiber reinforced concrete under 

direct tension and compression. Fiber reinforced 

cements and concretes, R.N. Swamy and Barr Eds., 

Elsivier applied science, New York, 363-377 

- Timoshenko ,S.P. and Woinowsky- Krteger, S., ( 1959 ), 

Theory of plates and shells. New York, McGraw- 

Hill 

- Wesrergaard, H. M., ( 1948 ), New formulas for stresses 

in concrete pavement of airfields. Transactions of the 

American Society of Civil Engineers, 113, 425-444 

ىتَيسكنؤك ةل واسك تضوزد ىوةشزةض ىناب ىةوةنامةض ىزاكيش ؤب ةواسك شةكشَيث كةياطَيِز ادةيةوةهيَلؤكَيل مةل 

ىتزوك 

ةةل ىزاكيةش ؤةب ةواسةك شةكةشَيث ةةنونم وود . كات ىياضزوق ةب واسك زاب ينهضائ ىَلاشيِزةب واسك صَيهةب و ةداض 

ةل و ةوازدةن َىث ى َىوط تادةدووِز ةكةي ىياضزوق سَيذ ىةييةنشاب 

ةشةب و ةل زاشف ىةوةنوبِسض ىزاكؤه ادنايمةكةي 

شةكشَيث ةي ىزاكيش ةنونم وةئ . ةواسك َلى ىضاب ادمةوود ىةنونم 

ىتَيمث ىةشَيكواه َلةطةل ىنادَيسط و ةوةناِزوض -سبةش 

ىيةوامةض ىدنةويةث ةب تنضةب تشث ةب ةواسن دايهب ةواسك 

ىدنةويةث ةو , ىياضزوق اتؤك, 

ندسب شزد ىياضزوق ىهيبشَيث تَيسناوتةد ىزاكيشؤب مةوود 

ىةنونم ىناهَيهزاكةب ةب . ادمزةن 

ىمانجةةئ َلةطةل ىزاكيش ىمانجةئ ىندسك دزوازةبةب 

. تَيسكب شاب ىكةيةوَيش ةب ىوةشزةض ىناب ىهيشةباد-ىياضزوق 

و مةكةي ىمَيدؤم ىناهَيه زاكةب ةب 84.2 ةب ةناطكةي واسك ىهيبشَيث/ 

تطَيت ىياضزوق اتؤك ىةرَيِز ةك اسهيب ادناكةتطَيت 

ةيةه نايَلؤِز ةك طنسط ىزاكؤه كَيدنةه زةضةل ةواسك ةوةهيَلؤكَيل . مةوود ىمَيدؤم ىناهَيهزاكةب ةب141 

ةب ةناطكةي 

. 

ينهضائ ىَلاشيِزةب واسك صَيهةب و ةداض ىتَيسكنؤك ةل واسك تضوزد ىوةشزةض ىناب ىهيشةباد -ىياضزوق 

ىدنةويةث ةل


ةحلةحقلام ةةمماققلا ةةيداع ةناسرخلا نم ةعونصم ةيضرلاا تاطلابلل ءانحنلاا ليلحت ةقيرط ميدقت مت ىلاحلا ثحبلا ىف 

ىةةف داةة نلاا ةةي رت ريا ةةت لاةةثدا ملةةي مةةل لملاا ىةةف , لةةيلحللل نينيوةةقن 

ميدةةقت مةةت . 

ةة رقلا لةةقحلا ريا ةةت تةةحت 


ىةلع دةقلمي يرةلققلا لةيلحللا. 

راةبلعلاا رةتنب ريا ةللا أةثا مةت ىناةنلا ىةفم ة رقلا 

لةقحلا تةحت ةةطلابلا ىف ةيرئادلا ةحاحقلا 

لةةيلحللل ىناةنلا ثيوةةقنلا لاقملةساب . ةةنرقلا ائائةةصلل دملاا ةةلدامم لةةم ةعبر م ووةقللا- 

ئاةلنلا لةم ةةنراققلا مت امدنع . دملاا-لقحلا 

ة لاع م ىص لاا لقحلا 

ادخلةةةسابم 84.2 ىةةةه لملاا ثيوةةةقنلا ادخلةةةساب رةةةتنلا/ 

اةةيللااب 

ةةملل ةةيعخلا رةةيا ةة لاملا ااقلةشا 

, ققشللل ببحقلا لقحلاب دين لكشب ؤبنللا نكقي 

رةةةبلخقلا ىةةص لاا لةةةقحلا ةبةةةحن ةةةب دةةةنم ةقباةةةحلا ةةةيربلخقلا 

ةناةسرخلا نةم ةيةضرلاا تاةطلابلل دملاا-لةقحلا 

ةة لاع ىةلع راؤةت ىةللا ةةق قلا لةماوملا ةةسارد مت 

. 

4141 

ىه ىنانلا ثيوقنلا 

ايللااب ةحلحقلام ةمماققلا ةيداع 

137


838 

TESTS ON AXIALLY RESTRAINED FERROCEMENT SLAB STRIPS 

AZAD ABDULKADR MOHAMMED * and YAMAN SAMI SHAREEF ** 

* Dept. of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Sulaimani, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

** School of Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Duhok, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

(Received: August 30, 2010; Accepted for publication: June 20, 2011) 

ABSTRACT 

Flexural strength and deformation of axially restrained ferrocement slabs and thin reinforced slabs were studied 

through laboratory tests on 36 slab strips. Special steel frame was fabricated to furnish axial restraint for preventing 

outward movement of the strip at supports. Test results indicate that due to existence of axial restraints, properties of 

cracking load, ultimate load, corresponding deflections as well as load-deflection relationship were considerably 

changed. Due to existence of end restraints cracking load was increased slightly, however, as a result of produced 

compressive membrane action the ultimate load was increased significantly which found to be higher for thinner 

slabs. Such load increase can be obtained without reduction in ductility compared with unrestrained slabs. The role of 

slab thickness on ductility was found to be not important for all types of tested slabs. Ferrocement slabs showed better 

load capacity compared with those slabs reinforced with steel bars but the ductility was reduced to about one half. 

T 

1- INTRODUCTION 

he application of ferrocement can be 

observed in the case of boat hulls, 

floating marine structures, silos, water tanks, 

folded plate and shell roofs, wind tunnels, pipes, 

in repairing of damaged structures and in 

architectural or decoration purposes. According 

to ACI 549R-01 Committee [1] ferrocement is 

defined as a type of thin reinforced concrete 

element commonly constructed of cement-sand 

mortar reinforced with closely spaced layers of 

continuous and relatively small diameter wire 

meshes. The mesh may be made of metallic or 

other suitable materials. 

Many tests were carried out on flexural 

behavior and ultimate flexural strength of 

ferrocement sections as done by Rao and 

Gowdar [2] and Balaguru et al [3] and others. 

Ferrocement slab roofs are usually used in low 

cost housing projects in the form of pre-cast unit 

erected one beside another. If there is no gap 

between them or the existing gap is to be filled 

with a cementitious material, the given slab has 

axially restrained ends against outward 

movement. As a result, membrane forces will be 

produced and the phenomenon of arch action 

will occur. The effect of membrane action was 

found to increase the load carrying capacity of 

the conventionally reinforced concrete slab [4]. 

A few number of published researches are 

available that deal with behavior of slabs made 

from non-conventional concrete like fibrous 

concrete and ferrocement, subjected to both inplane 

force and flexural moment. Taylor and 

Mullin [5] extended the existing knowledge of 

arching action in laterally restrained slabs to 

analyze glass fiber reinforced plastics (GFRP) 

type of slab. The results of laboratory tests on 

six one-way spanning slabs with varying 

concrete strengths, reinforcement type (steel or 

GFRP) and slab boundary condition were tested. 

The deflection was higher in the (GFRP) 

reinforced slab compared to the steel reinforced 

slab. This increase in deflection was attributable 

to the low modulus of elasticity of GFRP. In the 

laterally restrained slabs, the deflections were 

less in the slabs reinforced with GFRP compared 

to the equivalent slabs reinforced with steel. 

In the best of authors idea, there is a 

shortcoming in knowledge about the flexural 

strength and deformation of ferrocement slabs 

and reinforced concrete thin slabs having axially 

restrained edges. In the present paper the flexural 

behavior of ferrocement slab strips were studied 

through experimental laboratory tests. The 

effects of end restraint, slab thickness, 

reinforcement ratio and span length on the 

flexural strength and deformation were 

illustrated and discussed. 

2- EXPERIMENTAL WORKS 

2-1 Materials 

For casting concrete slab strips ordinary 

Portland cement (OPC) [Type (I) ASTM] 

manufactured by Kurtlen factory / Turkey was 

used. The chemical composition and physical 

properties are shown in Table (1). It is shown 

that the cement used conforms to the Iraqi 

standard limits. Clean, Natural River sand of


normal weight type prepared from Fishkhaboor / 

Zakho pit was used in the experimental works. 

The fine aggregate used passes 100 % through 

sieve No. 8 (2.36 mm). The specific gravity was 

2.68. Results of sieve analysis indicated that the 

sand grading falls within ASTM-C33 [6] limits 

as shown also in Table (2). Commercially 

available square welded galvanized wire mesh 

(SWGM) was used with the average diameter of 

0.6 mm and of 12 mm spacing between wires. 

Two types of skeletal smooth steel of 2.48 mm 

diameter and deformed steel of 4.5 mm diameter 

were also used. Properties and results of yield 

and ultimate stresses are shown in Table (3) and 

the stress-strain relationship for reinforcements 

used is shown in Figure (1). 

Table (1): Chemical composition and Physical properties of cement used in the present work 

Chemical component Projects cement 

% 

CaO 63.17 

SiO2 19.56 

Ai2O3 5.31 

Fe2O3 3.56 

Iraqi standards No.5 (1984) limits 

SO3 1.83 1 - 3 

MgO 2.37 5 % max. 

Loss of ignition 2.55 4 % max. 

Insoluble residue 0.39 1.5 % max. 

L.S.F. 0.97 0.66 - 1.02 

C3S 62.46 

C2S 9.04 

C3A 8.05 

C4AF 10.82 

Physical Test Results IQS 5 limits 

Fineness (Blaine Air Permeability) 3124 cm 2 /g Min. 2250 

Initial setting time 2.46 hr Min. 1 hr 

Final setting time 3.53 hr Max. 10 hr 

Compressive strength (3 days) 404 kg / cm 2 Min. 160 

Compressive strength (7 days) 474 kg / cm 2 Min. 240 

Soundness (Le Chatelier) 1.5 mm Max. 10 mm 

Specific Gravity 3.15 

Table (2): Sieve analysis of fine aggregate 

Sieve size Limit of percentage passing ASTM- 

Total percentage passing (by 

No. 8 (2.36 mm) C33-03[6] 80 - 100 weight) 100 

No. 16 (1.18 mm) 50 - 85 72 

No. 30 (0.60 mm) 25 - 60 47 

No. 50 (0.30 mm) 5 – 30 22 

No. 100 (0.15 mm) 0 - 10 5 

Table (3): Yield and ultimate strengths of wire mesh and steel reinforcement 

Properties Wire mesh Steel reinforcement 

Type of reinforcement SWGM Smooth Deformed 

Diameter (mm) 0.6 2.48 4.5 

Yield stress, fy ( MPa) 458 393 440 

Ultimate strength, fu( MPa) 481 455.5 593 

839


841 

Fig. (1): Stress-Strain relationship for wire mesh and skeletal reinforcements 

2-2 Description of Slab Strips 

The slab strips can be classified into two 

main types. The first type is axially restrained 

slabs, while the second one includes those slabs 

that axially unrestrained at ends. For this 

purpose a total of 36 slab strips were cast. All 

slab strips were 475 mm width, with 1575 mm in 

length, and variable thicknesses of 25, 37 and 50 

mm. Clear span for all strips was 1450 mm 

except for strips S4-5 and S4-6 the clear span was 

1000 mm. Accordingly slab aspect ratios were 

58, 38.7 and 29 for thicknesses 25 mm, 37 mm 

and 50 mm, respectively . For slab S4-5 the aspect 

ratio was 26.7 and for slab S4-6 was 20. A 

constant mix proportion of 1: 2: 0.45 (cement: 

sand: water / cement ratio) was used throughout 

the experimental works. According to ACI 549R 

-01 specification [1], ratio of sand/cement is 

limited between 1 and 3. Test variables can be 

summarized to the following parameters: end 

restraint conditions, thickness, number of wire 

Fig. (2): General view of slab mould 

mesh layers, and type of reinforcement. 

Properties of strips in detail can be found in 

Table (4). 

2-3 Detail of the Moulds 

Two steel moulds were used for casting slab 

strips. The base of moulds was steel of 550 mm 

width and 1700 mm length. Edge strips of equalleg 

angle cross-section were provided with three 

different leg widths of 25, 37, and 50 mm in 

order to obtain variable thickness of the strip. 

According to ACI 549R specification [1] the 

ferrocement section should be not smaller than 

6mm and not more than 50mm. The angle strips 

were tightly connected to the steel base by mean 

of 8 mm diameter screws spaced at 150 mm c/c 

to prevent any leakage of mortar during 

compaction. Figure (2) illustrates the view of the 

steel mould for slab strips and steel cubes (100 × 

100 × 100 mm) used for casting cube specimens 

to measure the compressive strength of mortar.


2-4 Mixing and Casting Processes 

The wire mesh and steel reinforcement were 

cut to an appropriate size and the wire mesh 

layers were well straightened, then they were 

oriented in longitudinal direction along the span. 

Sand and cement were first mixed by hand for 

about five minutes, and then water was added 

and mixed for other two minutes in order to 

obtain a homogeneous mixture. The layers were 

distributed either in the form of single layer or 

pair of layers according to the required 

reinforcement ratio. First, the mortar was spread 

inside the mold homogeneously and well leveled 

to obtain about 3 to 5 mm thickness cover and 

the wire mesh was then put on the mortar layer. 

The new batch of mortar was then spread and 

well leveled and the process was repeated until 

all layers of wire meshes were provided. The 

surface of slab strip was well leveled by mean of 

trowel for obtaining a constant thickness of the 

slab. With each slab, three (100 × 100 × 100 

mm) cubes were cast to measure the mortar 

compressive strength. Concrete cubes and slab 

strips were left inside the mould for one day, and 

2-6 Instrumentation and Testing 

All slabs were tested by applying two central 

point line loads spaced 300 mm at top surface of 

the slab and gradually until failure. Universal 

computerized testing machine of (Walter + Bai 

AG/ Switzerland / 08 - 2003) type was used for 

testing slab strips and concrete cubes. The 

general view of the testing machine can be seen 

in Figure (4). For the axially restrained slabs, the 

slab was put and erected in order to fit with the 

support ends of the steel frame to surround them 

and to provide an axial restraint. This is done in 

order to prevent the lateral displacements due to 

Fig. (3): Schematic view of test frame 

later they were marked and removed from the 

moulds and immersed in water for 28 days. 

Finally, the slab strips were taken out of the 

water tank and kept in the laboratory at room 

temperature before testing for 7 days. Before 

testing, all slab strips were painted white to show 

the pattern of cracks after testing. 

2-5 Details of the Test Frame 

A steel frame was fabricated especially for 

testing axially restrained slab strips. The test 

frame essentially consisted of three different 

parts. The first part consisted of two C-section 

channels with 700 mm length, 100 mm width 

and 10 mm thickness and contained two holes in 

each side in order to provide space for solid steel 

bars to enter. The second part consisted of two 

solid steel bars with 1700 mm length and 26 mm 

in diameter, one edge of the solid steel bars has a 

sprocket to provide connection with screws. The 

last part of the steel frame was two nuts of 25 

mm internal diameter to connect the two steel 

channels to provide end restraints. Figure (3) 

shows the schematic view of the test frame. 

the produced compressive membrane action 

during testing. Two rubber pads were placed 

under the two line loads in order to diminish the 

effect of local stress concentration. For the 

purpose of observing any possible lateral 

movement at the end of slabs strips, dial gage 

was erected at the center of end restraint 

channels. The position of dial gage is illustrated 

in Figure (5). The load was applied in 

increments of 0.6 kN/min and a careful search 

was made for initial cracks of the slab by the 

mean of hand microscope. The measurements 

for the outward lateral displacement was then 

848


taken from the dial gage readings and loading 

continued until failure of slabs. All cubes were 

tested by the 3000 kN capacity machine at a rate 

of loading equal to 0.6 N/mm 2 /sec. The load 

increment and corresponding deflection were 

taken from the measurements of the device 

841 

which had a plotter to draw the load-deflection 

curve automatically [Figure (4)]. Figure (6) 

illustrate the general view of the slab strip inside 

the testing frame after testing. 

Fig. (4): Machine used for testing slab strips and concrete cubes 

Top view channels Side view channels 

Fig. (5): Dial gage position erected at the center of end restraint channels


3- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

Observation of load-deflection relationship 

obtained from test results indicates that the 

response is linear up to first cracking load. In the 

later stages of loading, the slope of load-central 

deflection curves is decreased which may 

attribute to the decrease in the composite 

stiffness and continuing to decreases with the 

load increase. After the peak load, there is a 

descending part for the axially restrained slabs 

only. 

In order to study the important parameters 

affecting the behavior of axially restrained slab 

strips, it is better to classify the slab strips to the 

following groups: "Ferrocement Slabs (F)” is 

those slabs reinforced with wire mesh only. 

"Reinforced Ferrocement Slabs (RF) “refers to 

those slabs reinforced with steel reinforcement 

(skeletal steel) in addition to wire meshes, while 

"Reinforced Slabs (R)" are those slabs 

containing steel reinforcement only. Table (4) 

contains the test results of load and deflections 

for slab strips. Results of compressive strength 

of concrete cubes are also presented. N is the 

number of ferrocement wire meshes, Vf is the 

ratio of wire mesh in the section and ρs is the 

percentage of steel wire or deformed bar 

Fig. (6): General view of a slab strip after testing 

reinforcements. In the following paragraphs the 

effect of test parameters on the strength and 

deformation of slab strips are studied through the 

discussion of test results. 

843

144 

Slab Code 

S1-1 

S1-2 

S1-3 

S1-4 

S1-5 

S1-6 

S1-7 

S1-8 

S1-9 

S1-10 

S1-11 

S1-12 

S1-13 

S1-14 

S1-15 

S1-16 

S1-17 

S1-18 

S1-19 

S1-20 

S2-1 

S2-2 

S2-3 

S2-4 

S2-5 

S2-6 

Slab 

Type 

AR 

( F ) 

(G1) 

AU 

(F) 

(G2) 

AR 

( F ) 

(G3) 

AU 

(F) 

(G4) 

AR 

( R ) 

(G5) 

f 'c 

(MPa) d 

26.8 

29.2 

24.8 

28.0 

24.4 

25.2 

29.2 

28.0 

32.4 

26.8 

26.8 

24.4 

28.0 

27.2 

32.4 

36.4 

27.6 

29.6 

30.4 

25.6 

27.2 

24.4 

30.8 

29.2 

25.6 

26.4 

Table (4): Properties of Strips and Test results of the load and mid-span defection for slab strips 

h 

(mm) 

25 

25 

37 

37 

50 

50 

25 

25 

50 

50 

25 

25 

37 

37 

50 

50 

25 

25 

50 

50 

25 

25 

37 

37 

50 

50 

Reinforcement 

N 

(Vf) 

3 

(0.271) 

4 

(0.241) 

5 

(0.226) 

3 

(0.271) 

5 

(0.226) 

6 

(0.543) 

8 

(0.482) 

10 

(0.452) 

6 

(0.543) 

10 

(0.452) 

- 

- 

- 

Ratio 

ρs 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

0.98 a 

0.98 

0.98 

Act. 

- 

- 

1.3 

1.38 

2.98 

2.6 

0.45 

0.45 

2.78 

2.53 

1.46 

- 

- 

- 

3.65 

- 

0.2 

- 

3.5 

3.4 

0.6 

0.3 

2.37 

1.95 

4 

5.4 

Pcr 

(kN) 

Avg. 

- 

1.34 

2.79 

0.45 

2.7 

1.46 

- 

3.65 

0.2 

3.45 

0.45 

2.16 

4.77 

Act. 

- 

- 

1.2 

1.3 

3.2 

2.4 

9.4 

11 

6.3 

5.5 

4.2 

- 

- 

- 

4 

- 

3.5 

5 

6 

13.2 

5 

3.7 

4.7 

4.3 

8.9 

σcr 

(mm) 

Avg 

- 

1.25 

2.8 

10.2 

5.9 

4.2 

4 

3.5 

5.5 

9.1 

4.2 

6.6 

Act 

1.4 

1.4 

2.7 

2.9 

3.9 

4.1 

0.8 

0.75 

3.3 

3.4 

2.1 

1.75 

4.4 

4.6 

7.7 

7.9 

1.3 

1.4 

6.1 

6 

1.4 

1.5 

4.2 

3.9 

8.4 

8.8 

Pu 

(kN) 

Avg 

1.4 

2.8 

4 

0.78 

3.35 

1.93 

4.5 

7.8 

1.35 

6.05 

1.45 

4.05 

8.6 

Act. 

24 

24.5 

23 

23.4 

11.6 

14.7 

20 

19.3 

15 

16 

35.4 

37.8 

34.1 

40.1 

33.9 

34.6 

54.2 

50.2 

33.8 

35 

73.4 

69.9 

87.3 

89.8 

58.1 

60 

σp 

(mm) 

Avg 

24.3 

23.2 

13.2 

19.7 

15.5 

36.6 

37.1 

34.3 

52.3 

34.4 

71.7 

88.5 

59.1 

Act. 

25.4 

26.5 

24.1 

24.7 

13.5 

15.7 

20 

19.3 

15 

16 

37.4 

38.4 

34.4 

41.1 

36.4 

35.1 

54.2 

50.2 

33.8 

35 

73.9 

73.0 

90 

90 

76.1 

80 

σmax 

(mm) 

Avg 

26 

24.4 

14.6 

19.7 

15.5 

37.9 

37.8 

35.5 

52.3 

34.4 

73.5 

90 

78.1 

J. Duhok Univ., Vol.14, No.1 (Pure and Eng. Sciences), Pp 138-155, 2011

145 

S3-1 

S3-2 

S3-3 

S3-4 

S4-1 

S4-2 

S4-3 

S4-4 

S4-5 

S4-6 

AR 

(RF) 

(G6) 

AR 

( R ) 

(G7) 

AR 

(R) 

(G8) 

30.4 

29.2 

27.2 

28.8 

25.2 

26.8 

26.0 

26.0 

26.0 

27.6 

25 

25 

37 

37 

25 

25 

37 

50 

37 

3 

(0.271) 

4 

(0.271) 

- 

- 

- 

- 

0.98 

0.98 

0.643 b 

0.643 c 

0.643 c 

0.643 c 

0.643 b 

h=slab thickness 

a= Ø2.48 mm smooth wire @ 2.5 cm c/c 

b= Ø 4.5 mm deformed bars @ 15 cm c/c 

c= Ø 4.5 mm deformed bars @ 15 cm c/c+ Ø 4.5 mm deformed bars @ 10 cm c/c 

d= f’c = fcu × 0.8 

AR= axially restrained 

AU= axially unrestrained 

50 

- 

2 

2.07 

2.17 

2.05 

0.75 

0.59 

1.54 

2.45 

3.36 

3.41 

2.03 

2.11 

0.67 

25 

22.5 

6.8 

2.9 

1.45 

- 

8 

2.5 

2.1 

1.0 

23.8 

4.85 

1.45 

2.4 

2.4 

6.4 

6.2 

2.2 

2.1 

5.3 

11.4 

8.8 

18.9 

2.4 

6.3 

2.15 

57 

59.7 

75.2 

70 

65.2 

63.3 

63.4 

61.1 

28.3 

27.0 

58.4 

72.6 

64.3 

57 

60 

81.3 

81.2 

66.6 

63.3 

67.3 

66.6 

35.0 

27.9 

58.5 

81.2 

67.9 

J. Duhok Univ., Vol.14, No.1 (Pure and Eng. Sciences), Pp 138-155, 2011


3-1 Outward Lateral Movement 

For all slab strips having 25 mm and 37 mm 

thickness no reading of dial gage indicating the 

lateral outward movement was observed, for all 

loading history. It is mean that the lateral support 

is stiff enough. For slab strips of 50 mm 

thickness the maximum outward movement was 

0.15 mm. Such movement is too small and on 

neglecting, one can decide that there is a stiff 

surround and the slab has fully restrained edges 

and the phenomenon of membrane action is 

expected to occur. 

3.2 Effect of End Restraint on Cracking Load 

(Pcr) 

The measured load at which first crack occurs 

at bottom surface of the slab at mid-span for 

most of the slab strips is shown in Table (4). The 

effect of end restraints on cracking load can be 

known by making a comparison between group 

(1) slabs with group (2) and between group (3) 

with group (4) for ferrocement slabs of 25 mm 

Slab Symbol Cracking Load 

(Pcr) 

846 

and 50 mm thickness respectively. Table (5) 

shows the percentage of cracking load (Pcr), 

deflection at cracking load (δcr), ultimate load 

(Pu), deflection at ultimate or peak load (δp) and 

maximum deflection (δmax) for restrained to 

unrestrained ferrocement slab strips. 

The result of Pcr for slabs (S1-11 and S1-17) 

seems to be inaccurate and makes the ratio to be 

730 percent increase. This result is neglected and 

not used for discussing the effect of end restraint 

on Pcr. Therefore, as an average the ratio of 

cracking load for restrained to unrestrained slabs 

is 104.5 percent and the role of slab thickness 

here is not important. This small increase in 

cracking load is regarded to prevent outward 

movement of the slab strip at initial stage of 

loading. Such prevent made from supports does 

not rotate freely and as a result reduces the 

elastic curvature that leads to some increase in 

cracking load. 

Table (5): Percentage of restrained / unrestrained load and deflection results 

Mid-Span 

Deflection at 

Cracking Load 

(σcr) 

Ultimate Load 

(Pu) 

Mid-Span Deflection at 

Ultimate Load 

(σp) 

Maximum 

Deflection 

(σmax) 

Act. Avg. Act. Avg. Act. Avg. Act. Avg. Act. Avg. 

S1-1 & S1-7 - - - - 175 181 120 123 127 133 

S1-2 & S1-8 - - 187 127 139 

S1-5 & S1-9 107 105 51 47 118 119 77 85 90 94 

S1-6 & S1-10 103 44 121 92 98 

S1-11 & S1-17 730 730 120 120 162 144 65 70 69 72 

S1-12 & S1-18 - - 125 75 76 

S1-15 & S1-19 104 104 80 80 126 129 100 100 108 104 

S1-16 & S1-20 - - 132 99 100 

3.3 Effect of End Restraint on Deflection at 

Cracking Load (δcr) 

Table (4) shows the results of deflection 

corresponding to cracking load (δcr) for most of 

the tested slabs. Table (5) contains the ratio of 

restrained to unrestrained slab deflection at 

cracking load (δcr). The deflection (δcr) is 

reduced for slab S1-5, S1-6 and S1-15 and increased 

for S1-11 by 20 %. The later result can be 

considered inaccurate and on neglecting it, the 

ratio varies from 47 % to 80 %. As an average 

the existence of end restraints reduces the 

deflection at cracking load by 53 % for lightly 

reinforced slab with ferrocement wires and by 20 

% for ferrocement slabs moderately reinforced 

with wire meshes. On considering all results the 

deflection at cracking load is reduced by 18% 

due to end restraints. 

3.4 Effect of End Restraints on the Ultimate 

Load (Pu) 

When the geometrical deformation of 

ferrocement slab, namely deflection and rotation, 

are controlled within the allowable limits, the 

ultimate load carried by the slab is the important 

factor that indicates the usefulness of the slab in 

service. Table (4) contains the results of ultimate 

load for all tested slab strips. The possible 

effects of end restraints of ultimate load (Pu) are 

well illustrated in Table (5). For all slabs the 

ultimate load is higher for restrained slabs as 

compared with unrestrained ones. From a 

comparison between restrained and unrestrained 

slabs having the same properties, it is concluded 

that the effect of membrane action in 

ferrocement one-way slabs exists and causes an 

increase in load carrying capacity. The 

percentage of increase in ultimate load is 81 % 

for slabs which contain 3 layers of ferrocement 

mesh, while for those slabs reinforced with 6 

layers the percentage of increase is 44 % for 

slabs of 25 mm thickness. From the results 

shown in Table (5), one can find that the


percentage of increase for the 50 mm slabs is 

lower as compared with the 25 mm slabs. The 

percentage of increase is 19 % and 29 % for the 

slab strips reinforced with 5 layers and 10 layers, 

respectively. Therefore, the effect of membrane 

action on increasing the ultimate load is 

important, especially in lightly reinforced thin 

sections. So the behavior of ferrocement thin 

slabs is different as compared with conventional 

reinforced concrete slabs at which the effect of 

compressive membrane action exists only in 

lightly reinforced concrete sections. Such 

difference between the two cases can be argued 

due to controlling the large deflection and 

instability occurred in thin sections like 

ferrocement sections due to the existence of end 

restraints preventing the support to rotate freely. 

3.5 Effect of End Restraints on Deflection at 

Ultimate Load (δp) and Maximum Deflection 

(δmax) 

Table (4) shows results of deflection 

corresponding to ultimate load (δp) and 

maximum deflection (δmax) for the tested slabs. 

Table (3) contains the ratio of restrained to 

unrestrained slab deflection at ultimate load (δp) 

and maximum defection (δmax). The deflection 

(δp) is increased only for slab S1-1, S1-2 and has no 

effect for S1-15, S1-16 and there is a reduction in 

(δp) for other slabs occurred due to end 

restraints. The ratio varies from 70 % to 85 % 

or the deflection (δp) is decreased for S1-5, S1-6 

and S1-11, S1-12 by 15 % and 30 % respectively. 

The deflection (δp) is increased for slab S1-1, S1-2 

and S1-15, S1-16, and such results can be 

considered inaccurate, and as conclusion there is 

a reduction in (δp) of about 15 % to 30 % for 

axially restrained slabs compared with 

unrestrained slabs. 

Figures (7) and (8) show the load-deflection 

relationships for those slabs identical in 

properties except the end condition. The effect 

of end restraint or membrane action is obvious 

via increasing the ultimate load and changing the 

shape of the load-deflection relationship. 

In axially restrained slab strips, the deflection 

at all stages of cracking was found to be lower 

than that of axially unrestrained slab strips, 

while the corresponding load was higher. From 

Figures (6) and (7) one can observe that the 

increase in ultimate load is accompanied with no 

reduction in ductility which is considered a 

shortcoming in structural performance if 

occurred. Even in very thin ferrocement slabs 

lightly reinforced (i.e. slabs S1-1 and S1-2) there 

is an increase in ductility beside the increase 

in ultimate load indicating the positive effect 

of compressive membrane action in such 

slabs due to end restraints. 

Fig. (7): Load-deflection relationship of axially restrained and axially unrestrained 

ferrocement slabs [Group (1)&(2)] 

847


Fig. (8): Load-deflection relationship of axially restrained and axially unrestrained ferrocement slabs [Group (3&4)] 

3-6 Effect of Wire Mesh 

The effect of wire mesh layer on the loaddeflection 

response can be known from a 

comparison between relationships shown in 

Figure (9). It is observed that the ductility 

increased considerably when the wire mesh ratio 

increases twice times. In order to illustrate the 

role of slab thickness and reinforcement ratio on 

ultimate load Figure (10) was drawn. It is shown 

848 

that with increasing the ratio of wire meshes, the 

effect of slab thickness in axially unrestrained 

slabs on ultimate load is low (the ratio increases 

from 173% to 181%). For axially restrained 

slabs there is a steady increase in ultimate load 

with increasing slab thickness. This indicates the 

important role of slab thickness on ultimate load 

when the ratio of wire mesh increases. 

Fig. (9): Load-deflection relationship of axially restrained slabs for Group (1) & (3)


Fig.(10) Variation of Ultimate load of ferrocement slab strips when the ratio of wire meshes 

increased (twice times) 

3-7 Effect of Reinforcement Type 

Figure (11) shows the load-deflection 

relationship for Group (5) slabs. For this group 

instead of wire mesh layers a constant ratio of 

smooth steel bar (0.98%) was used as 

reinforcement and therefore the unique variable 

is the slab thickness. In general, the load-central 

deflection curves are linear up to first cracking 

load. In the cracked stage, the slope of the loadcentral 

deflection curve was small for slab strips 

having 25 mm thickness compared with 37 mm 

or 50 mm thickness. The stiffness is reduced 

slowly and gradually with the deflection increase 

and the response is somewhat a smooth curve 

in which the cracking stages can not be 

defined well. For other slab strips different 

cracking stages can be easily observed and each 

stage has a different flexural stiffness. It is 

clearly shown that the plastic stage (last stage) 

for all slabs initiates nearly at the same 

deflection value, or the slab thickness does not 

affect the deflection at which the plastic stage 

commences. Making a comparison with Figure 

(9) which illustrates the load-deflection relation 

of ferrocement slabs, one can observe that there 

is a similarity in ductility between the two 

groups in which the ductility is independent on 

slab thickness. Figure (12) shows the loaddeflection 

relationship of reinforced concrete 

slabs [Group (5)] in addition to ferrocement 

slabs [Group (3)], all axially restrained. 

Although the reinforcement ratio for Group ( 3 ) 

slabs is about one half of that provided for 

reinforced concrete slabs [ Group( 5 )] nearly 

the same ultimate load (or even higher ) can be 

obtained, indicating the superiority of 

25 

25 

37 

50 

50 

ferrocement slabs over reinforced thin slabs. For 

obtaining a better comparison between 

reinforced and ferrocement slab strips Figure 

(13) was drawn which illustrates the percentage 

of ultimate load for ferrocement strips to that of 

reinforced slab strips. It is shown that the ratio is 

higher than 100% for 25 mm and 37 mm 

thickness slabs. Therefore, for ferrocement slabs 

of 25 mm and 37 mm thicknesses ( or thin slab 

strips ) if the ductility is not considered as an 

effective parameter governing the design of thin 

slabs, it is better from economical view point to 

use ferrocement slabs instead of reinforced 

concrete slabs having ends axially restrained 

against lateral movement. In Group (6) the slabs 

were reinforced by both skeletal steel 

reinforcement and ferrocement mesh wires. 

Figure (14) shows the load-central deflection of 

reinforced slab strips in addition to those 

reinforced with both reinforcement and wire 

meshes. The effect of wire mesh layers addition 

to the slab section containing steel reinforcement 

is important to increase the ultimate load but 

reduces the ductility slightly. Therefore the 

existence of skeletal steel reinforcement is 

important to restore the lost ductility occurred 

due to providing wire mesh to the slab section. 

Figure (15) illustrates the percentage of 

ultimate load for reinforced ferrocement slabs 

[Group (6)] to that of ferrocement slabs [Group 

(3)] and reinforced slabs [Group (5)]. It is shown 

that if the reinforcement ratio increased from 

0.98% to 1.21% due to the addition of wire mesh 

layers the percentage increase in ultimate load is 

66%, while due to addition of skeletal steel 

(reinforcement ratio changed from 0.54% to 

849


1.21%) the percentage increase in ultimate load 

is only 24%. Such comparison indicates the 

important role of wire mesh addition to 

reinforced concrete slab strips having restrained 

ends on the load carrying capacity. 

Figure (16) shows the load-deflection 

relationship for reinforced slabs [Group (7)] and 

reinforced slabs [Group (5)]. The difference 

between the two groups is that in group (7) slabs 

deformed bars of 4.5 mm diameter were used as 

reinforcement while in the other group 2.48 mm 

diameter smooth bars was used. It is concluded 

that the strength performance of strips reinforced 

851 

with deformed bars is better than that of slabs 

reinforced with smooth bars. This result can be 

attributed to the effect of good bond between the 

mortar and deformed bar. Figure (17) shows the 

results of load-deflection of reinforced slabs of 

Group (7) and ferrocement slabs Group (3). The 

ductility for reinforced slabs is always higher 

than that of ferrocement slabs regardless of slab 

thickness. The ultimate load of reinforced slabs 

is higher only for slabs of higher thickness, but it 

is not changed considerably for thin slabs of 25 

mm and 37 mm thickness. 

Fig. (11): Load-deflection relationship of axially restrained reinforced concrete slabs for Group (5) 

Fig. (12): Load-deflection relationship of slab strips [Group (3) and Group (5)]


25 

37 

Fig. (13): Percentage of ultimate load for axially restrained ferrocement slab strips 

[Group (3)] to that of axially restrained reinforced slab [Group (5)] 

Fig. (14): Load-deflection relationship of reinforced ferrocement slabs Group (6) 

and reinforced concrete slabs Group (5) 

50 

858


851 

25 

25 

37 

Fig. (15): Percentage of ultimate load for group (6) to group (3) and group (6) to group (5) slabs 

Fig. (16): Load-deflection relationship of axially restrained slabs for Group (5) and Group (7) 

Fig. (17): Load-deflection relationship of reinforced slab Group (7) and ferrocement slab Group (3) 

37


3-8 Effect of Span Length 

Figure (18) shows the results of loaddeflection 

relationship for reinforced slabs of 

Group (7) and Group (8). The main variable here 

is the span length (or span / depth ratio). Based 

on test results shown in Table (2), decreasing the 

span length from 1450 mm to 1000 mm tends to 

increase the cracking loads by 118.2 % and 

39.2 % and ultimate loads by 66 % 

and 65.8 % for 37 mm and 50 mm slab 

thickness, respectively. It is also observed that 

decreasing the span length from 1450 mm to 

1000 mm tends to decrease the deflection at 

cracking load by 73.75 % and 60% for 37 mm 

and 50 mm slab thickness respectively. 

Fig. (18): Load-deflection relationship of reinforced slabs [Group (7) and Group (8)] 

3-9 Cracking Pattern 

It is observed from the test results that the 

ferrocement and reinforced this slabs undergo 

large deflections before failure and both types of 

membrane action (compressive and tensile) are 

expected to develop due to their thin crosssections. 

Figures (19) show the pattern of cracks 

for some of the tested slabs. It is obvious that 

increasing number of wire mesh layers increases 

the number of cracks and reduces their spacing. 

It means that wire mesh layers have an effective 

role in distributing of the stresses within the 

crack tips. By increasing thickness of the slab 

strips of axially restrained slab strips, the 

cracked area in the tension face is increased, and 

in general such area is higher as compared with 

unrestrained slabs. The number of extension 

cracks is higher for axially restrained slabs 

compared with unrestrained ferrocement slabs. 

In comparison with the ferrocement slabs, the 

number of cracks is reduced for reinforced 

concrete slabs, especially when the diameter of 

bars is increased and the span length is reduced. 

In this type of slabs when the first crack occurs 

in the central part of slab, the load then carried 

by the steel reinforced bars and due to 

concentration of stress the slab undergoes large 

plastic rotation. But in ferrocement slabs due to 

large flexibility the crack extends and covers 

higher area in tension face due to distribution of 

stresses. 

853


854 

4- CONCLUSSIONS 

From the experimental test results presented 

in this study, the following conclusions may be 

drawn: 

1. The existence of axial restraint at supports 

responsible for preventing outward movement, 

affects the overall properties of ferrocement and 

thin reinforced slabs, like cracking load, ultimate 

load, the corresponding deflections as well as the 

load-deflection response. 

2. The average percentage increase in cracking 

load was 4.5% and reduction in deflection at 

cracking load was 18%, while the ultimate load 

increased by 81% and 44% for 25 mm thickness 

ferrocement slabs reinforced with 3 and 6 layers 

of wire mesh, respectively. The percentage of 

increase was found to be 19% and 29% for 50 

mm thickness slab. The average reduction in 

deflection corresponding to ultimate load was 

found to vary from 15% t0 30%. 

3. The increase in ultimate load occurs due to 

axial restraints can be obtained without 

scarifying the ductility of the slab strip. 

4. Nearly the same ultimate load of axially 

restrained ferrocement slabs can be obtained by 

providing reinforcement of about one half of that 

provided to slabs reinforced with steel wires or 

Fig. (19): Cracking pattern for some of tested slab strips 

bars, but the ductility is reduced to about one 

half. If the ductility is not considered an 

effective parameter governing the design of thin 

slabs of axially restrained ends, it is suggested to 

use ferrocement slabs instead of thin slabs 

reinforced with single grid of reinforcement 

provided to tension zone . 

5. Ductility of ferrocement slabs, reinforced 

slabs and reinforced ferrocement slabs was 

found not to be affected by the existence of end 

restraint and slab thickness but considerably 

changed with the variation of wire mesh layers, 

amount of steel reinforcement, and type of 

skeletal steel reinforcement. The performance of 

deformed bar grid was found to be better than 

that of smooth wire reinforcement. 

6. It is observed from the test results that the 

axially restrained ferrocement elements undergo 

large deflections before failure due to their thin 

cross-section.


5- REFERENCES 

- ACI Committee 549R-01(2001). State of the Art 

Reports on Ferrocement. Manual of Concrete 

Practice, Part 5. 

- Rao, A.K. and Gowdar, C.S.K. (1971). A Study of the 

Behavior of Ferrocement in Flexure. Indian 

Concrete Journal, 45(4), 178-183. 

- Balaguru, P.N., Naaman, A.E., and Shah, S.P. (1977). 

Analysis and Behavior of Ferrocement in Flexure. 

Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, 

103(ST10), 1937-1951. 

- Ocklestone (1958). Arching Action in Reinforced 

Concrete Slabs. The Structural Engineer, 36, 197- 

201. 

- Taylor, S. E. and Mullin, B. (2006). Arching Action in 

FRP Reinforced Concrete Slabs. Construction and 

Building Materials, 71-80. 

- ASTM-C33 (2003). American Society for Testing 

and Materials. 

ىناضينهب و ىتهسمويرف ىضينهب ةل ىاكةواركناروط لةط ةل ىاكش ىهترطار ىةشاريد اداتصَيئ ىةوةهَيلَوكَيل مةل 

. 

( One-way ) 

وةِراِر كةي ىتهسمَويرف ىضينهب 

36 

ةتخوث 

رةش ةل ادروبلا لىوش ةل تيبةي وترطاِر ىياتَوكةك كنةت ىرادشيش 

ىنووب اوةك توةكرةد وتوةكتشةد ىمانجةئةل . ةواركتشورد وترطاِر ىياتَوك وب تةبيات ىكةلةكيةي شةتشةبةم وةئ َوب 

اتَوك, 

ىدربزرد ىياشروق ىهيِرَوط ىضئاضخ رةش ةل واركنور ىكةيةوَيش ةب 

ىاكةي ىياتَوك ىيرطاِر ىنووب 

. ويزةباد 

– 

(End restraint) 

ىياشروق ىدنةويةث و ىدربزرد 

ىهيزةباد و 

ىاكةي ىياتَوك ىيرطاِر 

(Ultimate Load) 

اتَوك ىيةدرةث ىراكَوي ىنوبةي ةب مَلاةب مةك ىِربةب ىدربزرد ىياشروق ىنووبدايز ىَوي ةتَيبةد 

. تيبةي مةك ىزرةب 

ىناضينهب ةل وبرتايز ةدايز مةئ و واركنور ىكةيةوَيش ةب تيبةد دايز 

(Ultimate Load) 

ىياشروق 

(End restraint) 

ىياشروق 

ةك توةكرةد . ىدربزرد ىهيزةباد ىدربزرد ىهيزةباد ىةوةنووب مةك ىبةب تَيوةكةد تشةد ىياشروقاتؤك ىنوبدايز 

وبرت شاب ىتهسمؤيرف ىضينهب ىفرةصةت . ىاكةضينهب ىناكةروج ومةي ةل ةطنرط ةن ويزةباد ى رةشةل ةضينهب ىناث لىور 

. وين وب ةووب مةك ويزوباد ملاةب ىهشائ ىشيش ةب ىاكةوارك سَيي ةب ةضينهب 

دروارةب ىياشروق اتَوك ىنوبدايز ةل 

ةديقملا ةقيقرلا ةحلسملا تاطلابلاو تنمسوريفلا تاطلابل تاىوشتلا و ءانثنلاا ةمواقم ةسارد مت يلاحلا ثحبلا يف 

عنم فدهب صاخ يديدح لكيى عينصت مت 

. ) ةحيرش( 

دحاو هاجتاب فقس 

63 


ىلع يربتخم لمع للاخ نم بناوجلا 

ببسملا لمحلا صئاصخ ظوحلم لكشب ريغي بناوجلا دييقت دوجو نأب دكءوت ةلصاحلا جئاتنلا . ةطلابلل ةيبناجلا ةكرحلا 

دادزا بناوجلا دييقت دوجو ببسب 

. دولاا-لمحلا 

ةقلاع ىلا ةفاضلااب 

ول بحاصملا دولااو ىصقلاا لمحلا 

, 

ققشتلل 

ناك ةدايزلاو ظوحلم لكشب ىصقلاا لمحلا دادزا يئاشغلا لعفلا دوجو ببسب نكل ةليلق ةبسنب ققشتلل ببسملا لمحلا 

كمس رود نأب دجو . ةنودللا يف ناصقن نودب ويلع لوصحلا 

نكمي لمحلا يف ةدايزلا 

. ليلق كمس تاذ فقسلل ربكا 

ةنراقم لمحلا ةدايزل نسحا لكشب تفرصت ةيتنمسوريفلا 

تاطلابلا نا . تاطلابلا عاونا لكل مهم ريغ ةنودللا 

ىلع ةطلابلا 

. 

ةميقلا فصن ىلا تضفخنا ةنودللا 

نكل 

ةحلسملا تاطلابلاب 

855


651 

SOME NEW SEPARATION AXIOMS 

ZANYAR A. AMEEN AND RAMADHAN A. MUHAMMED 

Dept. of Mathematics, Faculty of Science, University of Duhok, Kurdistan-region-Iraq 

(Received: September 6, 2010; Accepted for publication: June 4, 2011) 

ABSTRACT 

In this paper sc-open sets [6] are used to define some new separation axioms and study some of their basic properties. 

The implications of these axioms among themselves, some strong types of separation axioms and semi-separation axioms are 

investigated. 

KEYWORDS: strongly semi-Ti, sc-Ti and semi-Ti spaces for i = 0, 1, 2 

I 


n 1963, Levine [7] introduced and 

investigated the notions of semi-open sets 

and semi-continuity in topological spaces. Since 

then many separation axioms and mappings have 

been studied using semi-open sets. In [8], some 

new separation axioms, namely, semi-T0, semi– 

T1 and semi-T2 are introduced and studied. 

Khalaf [5] introduced and investigated then 

notion of strongly semi-separation axioms. The 

purpose of this paper is to introduce and 

investigate some more separation axioms called 

sc-Ti spaces for i = 0, 1, 2. These spaces lie 

strictly between strongly semi-Ti and semi-Ti. 


Throughout the present paper spaces X, Y 

etc., will denote topological spaces. The closure 

and interior of A � X are denoted by Cl(A) and 

Int(A) respectively. A subset A of a space X is 

said to be semi-open [7] (resp., preopen [9] and 

regular open [11]) if A � Cl(Int(A)) (resp., A � 

Int(Cl(A)) and A = Int(Cl(A))). The complement 

of a semi-open (resp., preopen and regular open) 

set is said to be semi-closed [3] (resp., preclosed 

[9] and regular closed [11]). Joseph and Kwack 

[4], introduced that a subset A of a space X is 

said to be θ-semi-open if for each x � A, there 

exists a semi-open set G such that x � G � 

Cl(G) � A. A peropen (resp. semi-open) subset 

A of a space X is said to be pc-open [2] (resp. 

sc-open [6]) if for each x � A, there exists a 

closed set F such that x � F � A. The family of 

all pc-open (resp. sc-open, semi-open and 

clopen) subsets of a space X is denoted by 

PCO(X) (resp. SCO(X), SO(X) and CO(X)). It is 

proven that the family of pc-open (resp. sc-open) 

sets forms a supra topology. A subset N of X is 

said to be sc-neighborhood of x, if there exists 

an sc-open set U in X such that x � U � N. A 

point x � X is said to be in the sc-closure [6] of 

A if for each sc-pen set U containing x, U � A ≠ 

�. A subset 

A of X is said to be sc-closed if A = sc-Cl(A). 

It worth mentioning that the class of sc-open sets 

lies between the class of θ-semi-open sets and 

the class of semi-open sets. 

Definition 2.1. A topological space X is semi- 

T0-space [8] (resp., strongly semi-T0-space [5]) 

if to each pair of distinct points x, y of X, there 

exists a semi-open (resp., �-semi-open) set 

containing one but not the other. 




exists a pair of semi-open (resp., �-semi-open) 

sets, one containing x but not y, and the other 

containing y but not x. 




exists a pair of disjoint semi-open (resp., �-semiopen) 

sets, one containing x and the other 

containing y. 

Definition 2.4. A space X is said to be 

Alexandroff [1], if arbitrary intersections of the 

family of open sets are open, equivalently, any 

union of closed sets is closed. 

Lemma 2.5 [6] Let (X, �) be a space. Then 

SCO(X, �) = SCO(X, �α ). 

Lemma 2.6. Let (X, �) be a topological space. 

(1) If A � CO(X) and B � SCO(X), then A � 

B � SCO(A) [6]. 

(2) If A � PCO(X) and B � SCO(X), then A 

� B � SCO(A)[2]. 

Lemma 2.7. [6] If a space X is T1-space, then 

the families SO(X) and SCO(X) are equal. 

Lemma 2.8. [6] If a topological space (X, τ) is 

Alenxandroff, then θSO(X) = SCO(X).


Lemma 2.9. [6] Let X and Y be two topological 

spaces and X × Y be the product topology. Let A 

� SCO(X) and B � SCO(Y). Then A × B � 

SCO(X × Y). 

3. SC-T0-SPACES 

Definition 3.1. A topological space X is sc-T0space 

if to each pair of distinct points x, y of X, 

there exists an sc-open set containing one of 

them but not the other. 

It is evident that strongly semi-T0-space implies 

sc-T0-space, and sc-T0-space implies semi-T0space. 

But the converses may not be true as 

shown in the following examples: 

Example 3.2. Clearly an infinite set X with the 

cofinite topology is sc-T0 but not strongly semi- 

T0, because the only non-empty regular closed 

subset of X is X itself. 

Example 3.3. Let X = {a, b, c}, and � = {�, {a}, 

X} be a topology on X. Then X is 

semi-T0 but not sc-T0. 

Theorem 3.4. A topological space X is sc-T0space 

if and only if sc-Cl{x} � sc-Cl{y} for 

every pair of distinct points x, y of X. 

Proof. Let X be an sc-T0-space and x, y be any 

two distinct points of X. There exists an sc-open 

U containing x or y, say, x but not y. Then X-U 

is an sc-closed set which does not contain x but 

contains y. Since sc-Cl{y} is the smallest scclosed 

set containing y, sc-Cl{y}� X-U, and so 

x � sc-Cl{y}. Consequently sc-Cl{x} 

� sc-Cl{y}. 

Conversely, suppose for any x, y � X with x � y 

, sc-Cl{x} � sc-Cl{y}. Now, let z � X such that 

z � sc-Cl{x}but z � sc-Cl{y}. Now, we claim 

that x � sc-Cl{y}. For if x � sc-Cl{y}, then 

{x}� sc-Cl{y} which implies that sc-Cl{x} � 

sc-Cl{y}. This is contradiction to the fact that z 

� sc-Cl{y}. Consequently x belongs to the scopen 

set X- sc-Cl{y} to which y does not 

belong. It gives that X is sc-T0-space. 

Theorem 3.5. Every clopen (pc-open) subspace 

of an sc-T0-space is sc-T0-space. 

Proof. Let Y be a clopen (pc-open) subspace of 

an sc-T0-space X and x, y be two distinct points 

of Y. Then there exists an sc-open set U 

containing x or y, say, x but not y. Now by 

Lemma 2.6, U � Y is an sc-open set in Y 

containing x but not y. Hence Y is sc-T0-space. 

Definition 3.6. A function f: X�Y is said to be 

a point-sc-closure 1-1 if x, y � X such that sc- 

Cl{x} � sc-Cl{y}, then sc-Cl{f(x)} � sc- 

Cl{f(y)}. 

Theorem 3.7. If f : X � Y is a point-sc-closure 

1-1 function and X is sc-T0-space, 

then f is 1-1. 

Proof. Let x, y �X with x � y. Since X is sc-T0space, 

then by Theorem 3.4, sc-Cl{x} � sc- 

Cl{y}. But f is point-sc-closure 1-1 implies that 

sc-Cl{f(x)} � sc-Cl{f(y)}. Hence f(x) � f(y). 

Thus, f is 1-1. 

Theorem 3.8. If a topological space X is sc-T0, 

then it is T0. 

Proof. Let X be an sc-T0-space and x, y be any 

two distinct points of X. There exists an sc-open 

U containing x or y, say, x but not y. Then there 

exists a closed set F such that x � F � U, so X-F 

is an open set containing y, and it is obvious that 

x � X-F. Therefore, X is T0-space. 

4. SC-T1- SPACES 

Definition 4.1. A topological space X is sc-T1 if 

to each pair of distinct points x, y of X, there 

exists a pair of sc-open sets, one containing x but 

not y, and the other containing y but not x. 

Remark 4.2. Obviously, every strongly semi-T1space 

is sc-T1, but the converse is not always 

true, as in Example 3.2, the space X is sc-T1 but 

not strongly semi-T1. 

Remark 4.3. Every sc-T1-space is semi-T1, but 

the following example shows that the converse is 

not always true. 


{b}, {a, b}, X} be a topology on X. Then X is 

semi-T1 but not sc-T1. 

Remark 4.5. Every sc-T1-space is sc-T0, but the 

converse is not always true as shown in the 

following example. 


{b}, {a, b}, {b, c}, X} be a topology on X. Then 

X is sc-T0 but not sc-T1. 

Theorem 4.7. For a topological space X, each of 

the following statement are equivalent: 

(1) X is sc- T1. 

(2) Each singleton set {x} is sc-closed. 

(3) Each subset of X is the intersection of all 

sc-open sets containing it. 

(4) The intersection of all sc-open sets 

containing the point x � X is the set {x}. 

Proof. (1) � (2) Suppose (1). Let x � X. Then 

for any y � X, x � y, there exists an sc-open sets 

U containing y but not x. Hence y � U � {x} c . 

This implies that {x} c = �{U: y � {x} c }. So 

{x} c being a union of sc-open sets. Hence {x} is 

sc-closed. 

651


(2) � (1) Suppose (2). Let x, y � X and x � y. 

Then {x} and {y} are sc-closed sets. Hence {x} c 

is an sc-open set containing y but not x and {y} c 

is an sc-open set containing x but not y. 

Therefore X is sc-T1. 

(2) � (3) Suppose (2). If A � X, then for each 

point y � A, there exists a set {y} c such that A � 

{y} c and each of these sets is sc-open. Hence A 

= �{{y} c : y � A c } so that the intersection of all 

sc-open sets containing A is the sets A itself. 

(3) � (4) Obvious. 


Hence there exists an sc-open set Ux such that x 

� Ux and y � Ux. Similarly, there exists an scopen 

set Uy such that y � Uy and x � Uy. Hence 

X is sc- T1. 



Proof. Let A be a clopen (pc-open) subspace of 

an sc-T1-space X. Let x � A. Since A is sc-T1, 

X-{x} is sc-open in X. Now, A being clopen (pcopen), 

A � (X-{x}) = A-{x} is sc-open in A, by 

lemma 2.6. Consequently, {x} is sc-closed in A. 

Hence by Theorem 4.3, A is sc-T1-space. 

651 

5. SC-T2- SPACES 

Definition 5.1. topological space X is sc-T2 if 


exists a pair of disjoint sc-open sets, one 

containing x and the other containing y. 

Remark 5.2. Since every �-semi-open set is scopen, 

then every strongly semi-T2-space is sc-T2, 

but the converse is not always true as shown in 

the following example. 

Example 5.3 Consider the prime integer 

topology [see 10, page 83]. Then the space is 

both T1and semi-T2 and consequently it is sc-T2 

but not strongly semi-T2, since the open set 

containing the prime number p = 2 is dense. 

Remark 5.4. Every sc-T2-space is semi-T2, but 

the following example shows that the converse is 


Example 5.5. Consider the space X given in 

Example 4.4. Then X is semi-T1 but not sc-T1. 

Remark 5.6. Every sc-T2-space is sc-T1, but the 

converse need not be true in general, as in 

Example 3.2, the space X is sc-T1 but not sc-T2 

Theorem 5.7. For a topological space X, the 


(1) X is sc-T2. 

(2) If x � X, then there exists an scneighborhood 

N(x) of x such that 

y � sc-Cl(N(x)). 

(3) For each x � X, �{sc-Cl(N) : N is an scneighborhood 

of x} = {x}. 


there exist disjoint sc-open sets U and V such 

that x � U, x � V. Then x � U � X-V, so that 

X-V is an sc-neighborhood of x. We write N(x) 

= X-V. Then N(x) is sc-closed and y � sc- 

Cl(N(x)). Hence y � sc-Cl(N(x)). 

(2) � (3) Straight forward. 


Then by hypothesis there exists an sc-closed scneighborhood 

N of x such that y � N. Now there 

is an sc-open set U such that x � U � N. Thus U 

and X-N are disjoint sc-open sets containing x 

and y respectively. Hence 

X is sc-T2. 



Proof: It is analogous to Theorem 3.5. 

Theorem 5.9. A space is sc-T2 if and only if (X, 

��) is sc-T2. 

Proof. Let x, y � X with x � y . Since X is sc-T2, 

there exist disjoint sc-open sets U and V in X 

such that x � U and y � V. Then by Lemma 2.5, 

U, V � SCO(X,��). Thus, (X,��) is sc-T2. 

Converse follows similarly since 

SCO(X,�) = SCO(X,��). 

Theorem 5.10. Let X be a T1-space. Then X is 

sc-Ti if and only it is semi-Ti for i = 0,1,2. 

Proof. Directly follows from Lemma 2.7. 

Corollary 5.11. Let X be an Alexandroff space. 

Then X is strongly semi-Ti if and only it is 

sc-Ti for i = 0,1,2. 

Proof. Follows from Lemma 2.8. 

Theorem 5.12. The product of two sc-T2 

spaces is sc-T2. 

Proof. Let X, Y be semi-T2 spaces and let x, y � 

X � Y with x ≠ y. Let x = (a, b) and y = (c, d). 

Without any loss of generality suppose that a ≠ c 

and b ≠ d. Since a and c are distinct points of X, 

there exist disjoint sc-open sets U and V of X 

such that a � U and c � V. Similarly let G and H 

are disjoint sc-open sets in Y such that b � G 

and b � H. Then by Lemma 2.9, U � G and V � 

H are sc-open sets X � Y containing 

x and y respectively. 

Also, 

(U � G) � (V � H) = (U � V) � (G � H) = �. 

Hence X � Y is sc-T2. 

The following diagram indicates the 

implications between the separation axioms that 

we have come across in this paper and examples


show that no other implications hold between 

them. 

strongly semi-T2 sc-T2 semi-T2 



Diagram (1) 

REFERENCE 

- P. Alexandroff, Diskrete Räume, Rec.[math Sbornik] 

(1937) (501-518). 

- Z. A. Ameen, pc-open sets and pc-continuity in 

topological spaces, Journal of Advanced Research 

in Pure Mathematics, Vol. 3(1) (2011) 123 - 134. 

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Texas J. Sci., 22 (1971), 99-112. 

- J. E. Joseph and M. H. Kwack, On S-closed spaces, Proc. 

Amer. Math. Soc., 80 (2) (1980), 341-348. 

- A. B. Khalaf, Some strong types of separation axioms, 

Journal of Dohuk Univ., 3(2) (2000) (76-79). 

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in topological spaces, Journal of 

Advanced Research in Pure Mathematics, 

2(3) (2010), 87-101. 

- N. Levine, Semi-open sets and semi-continuity in 

topological spaces, Amer. Math. Monthly, 70 (1) 

(1963), 36-41. 

- S. N. Maheshwari and R. Prasad, Some new separation 

axioms, Ann. Soc. Sci. Bruxelles, Ser. I., 89 (1975), 

395-402. 

- A. S. Mashhour, M. E. Abd El-Monsef and S. N. El- 

Deeb, On precontinuous and week precontinuous 

mappings, Proc. Math. Phys. Soc. Egypt, 53 

(1982), 47-53. 

- L. A. Steen and J. A. Seebach, Counterexamples in 

Topology, Springer Verlag New York Heidelberg 

Berlin, 1978. 

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rings to topology, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc., 

41(1937), 375-481. 

651


061 

SOME NEW SEPARATION AXIOMS 

ZANYAR A. AMEEN * and BARAVAN A. ASAAD ** 

* Dept. of Mathematics, Faculty of Science, University of Duhok, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

** Dept. of Mathematics, Faculty of Science, University of Zakho, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

(Received: September 6, 2010; Accepted for publication: May 2, 2011) 

ABSTRACT 

In this paper ps-open sets [8] are used to define some new separation axioms and study some of their basic 

properties. The implications of these axioms among themselves, �-Ti and pre-Ti for i = 0, 1, 2 are investigated. 

KEYWORDS: �-Ti, ps-Ti and pre-Ti spaces for i = 0, 1, 2 

I 


n 1982, Mashhour et. al. [13] introduced 

and investigated the notions of preopen 

sets and pre-continuity in topological spaces. 

Since then many separation axioms and 

mappings have been studied using preopen sets. 

In [6], some weak separation axioms, namely, 

pre-T0, pre-T1 and pre-T2 spaces are introduced 

and studied. In 1980, Jain [5] introduced and 

investigated the new classes of separation 

axioms called �-T0, �-T1 and �-T2. The purpose 

of this paper is to introduced and investigated 

some more separation axioms called ps-Ti 

spaces, for i = 0, 1, 2. These spaces lie strictly 

between �-Ti and pre-Ti spaces, for i = 0, 1, 2. 


Throughout the present paper, spaces X, 

Y etc., will be denoting topological spaces. The 

closure and interior of A � X are denoted by 

Cl(A) and Int(A), respectively. A subset A of a 

space X is said to be preopen [13] (resp., semiopen 

[10], �-open [14], regular open [16] and 

semi-regular [1]) if A � Int(Cl(A)) (resp., A � 

Cl(Int(A)), A � Int(Cl(Int(A))), A = Int(Cl(A)) 

and A = sInt(sCl(A))). The complement of a 

preopen (resp., semi-open and regular open) sets 

is said to be preclosed [3] (resp., semi-closed [2] 

and regular closed [16]). Velicko [17], 

introduced that a subset A of a space X is said to 

be �-open if for each x � A, there exists an open 

set G such that x � G � Int(Cl(G)) � A. A 

peropen subset A of a space X is said to be psopen 

[8] if for each x � A, there exists a semiclosed 

set F such that x � F � A. The family of 

all ps-open (resp., preopen and regular-semi) 

subsets of a space X is denoted by PSO(X) 

(resp., PO(X) and RS(X)). It is proven that the 

family of ps-open sets forms a supra topology. A 

subset N of X is said to be ps-neighborhood [8] 

of x, if there exists a ps-open set U in X such 

that x � U � N. A point x � X is said to be in 

the ps-closure [8] of A if for each ps-open set U 

containing x, U � A ≠ �. A subset A of X is said 

to be ps-closed [8] if A = ps-Cl(A). It worth 

mentioning that the class of ps-open sets lies 

between the class of �-open sets and the class of 

preopen sets. A function f : X � Y is said to be 

almost ps-continuous [7] (resp., weakly pscontinuous 

[9]) if for each x � X and each open 

set V of Y containing f (x), there exists a PS-open 

set U of X containing x such that f(U) � 

Int(Cl(V)) (resp., f(U) � Cl(V)). 

Definition 2.1. A topological space X is pre-T0 

[6] (resp., semi-T0 [11] and �-T0 [5]) space if to 

each pair of distinct points x, y of X, there exists 

a preopen (resp., semi-open and �-open) set 

containing one, but not the other. 


[6] (resp., semi-T1 [11] and �-T1 [5]) space if to 

each pair of distinct points x, y of X, there exists 

a pair of preopen (resp., semi-open and �-open) 

sets, one containing x but not y, and the other 

containing y, but not x. 


[6] (resp., �-T2 [5]) if to each pair of distinct 

points x, y of X, there exists a pair of disjoint 

preopen (resp., �-open) sets, one containing x 

and the other containing y. 

Definition 2.4. [4] A space X is called locally 

indiscrete if every open subset of X is closed. 

Definition 2.5. [12] A space X is s-regular if and 

only if for each x � X and each open set G 

containing x, there exists a semi-open set H such 

that x � H � sCl(H) � G. 

Lemma 2.6. [8] Let (X, �) be a space. Then 

PSO(X, �) = PSO(X, �α).


Lemma 2.7. Let (X, �) be a topological space. 

Then: 

(1) If A � � and B � PSO(X), then A � B � 

PSO(A) [8]. 

(2) If A � RS(X) and B � PSO(X), then A � B 

� PSO(A)[8]. 

Lemma 2.8. [8] If a space X is semi-T1, then 

PO(X) = PSO(X). 

Lemma 2.9. [8] If a topological space (X, �) is 

locally indiscrete, then PSO(X) = �. 

Lemma 2.10. [8] If a topological space (X, �) is 

s-regular, then � � PSO(X). 

Lemma 2.11. [8] Let X and Y be two 

topological spaces and X × Y be the product 

topology. Let A � PSO(X) and B � PSO(Y). 

Then A × B � PSO(X × Y). 

Lemma 2.12. [8] If f : X � Y is a continuous 

and open function and U is a ps-open set of Y, 

then f −1 (U) is a ps-open set in X. 

3. PS-T0 SPACES 

In this section, we introduce a new type 

of separation axioms called ps-T0 space, this 

space lies strictly between �-T0 and pre-T0 space, 

and we give some properties of ps-T0 space. 

Definition 3.1. A topological space X is ps-T0 if 


exists a ps-open set containing one, but not the 

other. 

It is evident that strongly �-T0 space implies 

ps-T0, and ps-T0 space implies pre-T0. But the 

converses may not be true as shown in the 

following examples: 

Example 3.2. Let X = {a, b, c, d}, and � = {�, 

{a}, {b}, {a, b}, X} be a topology on X, then X 

is ps-T0 but not �-T0, since c ≠ d, there is no �open 

set containing one of them, but not the 

other. 


X} be a topology on X. Then X is pre-T0 but not 

ps-T0, since for every two distinct points in X, 

there is no ps-open set containing one of them, 

but not the other. 

Theorem 3.4. A topological space X is ps-T0 

space if and only if ps-Cl{x} � ps-Cl{y}, for 

every pair of distinct points x, y of X. 

Proof. Let X be a ps-T0 space and x, y be any 

two distinct points of X. There exists a ps-open 

set U containing x or y, say x, but not y. Then 

X\U is a ps-closed set, which does not contain x, 

but contains y. Since ps-Cl{y} is the smallest psclosed 

set containing y, ps-Cl{y}� X\U, and so 

x � ps-Cl{y}. Consequently ps-Cl{x} � ps- 

Cl{y}. 

Conversely, suppose for any x, y � X with x � 

y, ps-Cl{x} � ps-Cl{y}. Now, let z � X such that 

z � ps-Cl{x}, but z � ps-Cl{y}. Now, we claim 

that x � ps-Cl{y}. For if x � ps-Cl{y}, then {x} 

� ps-Cl{y}, which implies that ps-Cl{x} � ps- 

Cl{y}. This is contradiction to the fact that z � 

ps-Cl{y}. Consequently x belongs to the ps-open 

set X\ps-Cl{y} to which y does not belong. It 

gives that X is ps-T0 space. 

Theorem 3.5. Every open (or semi-regular) 

subspace of a ps-T0 space is ps-T0 space. 

Proof. Let Y be an open (or semi-regular) 

subspace of a ps-T0 space X and x, y be two 

distinct points of Y. Then there exists a ps-open 

set U containing x or y, say, x but not y. Now by 

Lemma 2.7, U � Y is a ps-open set in Y 

containing x but not y. Hence Y is ps-T0 space. 

Definition 3.6. A function f: X � Y is said to be 

a point-ps-closure 1-1 if x, y � X such that ps- 

Cl{x} � ps-Cl{y}, then ps-Cl{f(x)} � ps- 

Cl{f(y)}. 

Theorem 3.7. If f : X � Y is a point-ps-closure 

1-1 function and X is ps-T0 space, then f is 1-1. 

Proof. Let x, y �X with x � y. Since X is a ps-T0 

space, then by Theorem 3.4, ps-Cl{x} � ps- 

Cl{y}. But f is point-ps-closure 1-1 implies that 

ps-Cl{f(x)} � ps-Cl{f(y)}. Hence f(x) � f(y). 

Thus, f is 1-1. 

Theorem 3.8. Let f : X � Y be a mapping from 

ps-T0 space X into ps-T0 space Y. Then f is 

point-ps-closure 1-1 if and only if f is 1-1. 

Proof. Follows from Theorem 3.7. 

Theorem 3.9. Let f : X � Y be an injective, 

continuous and open function. If Y is ps-T0, then 

X is ps-T0. 

Proof. Let x, y � X with x ≠ y. Since f is 

injective and Y is ps-T0, there exists a ps-open 

set Ux in Y such that f(x) � Ux and f(y) � Ux or 

there exists a ps-open set Uy in Y such that f(y) 

� Uy and f(x) � Uy with f(x) ≠ f(y). Since f is 

continuous and open function, then by Lemma 

2.12, f −1 (Ux) is ps-open set in X such that x � 

f −1 (Ux) and y � f −1 (Ux) or f −1 (Uy) is ps-open set in 

X such that y � f −1 (Uy) and x � f −1 (Uy). This 

shows that X is ps-T0. 

Theorem 3.10. If a topological space X is ps-T0, 

then it is semi-T0. 

Proof. Let X be a ps-T0 space and x, y be any 

two distinct points of X. There exists a ps-open 

set U containing x or y, say, x but not y. Then 

there exists a semi-closed set F such that x � F 

060


� U, so X\F is a semi-open set containing y, and 

it is obvious that x � X\F. Therefore, X is semi- 

T0 space. 

061 


In this section, we introduce a new type of 

separation axioms called ps-T1 space, this space 

lies strictly between �-T1 and pre-T1 space, and 

we give some properties of ps-T1 space. 



exists a pair of ps-open sets, one containing x 

but not y, and the other containing y but not x. 

Remark 4.2. Obviously, every �-T1 space is ps- 

T1, but the converse is not always true, as shown 

in the following example. 

Example 4.3. Let X be any infinite set with the 

cofinite topology. Simplify the space X is T1 and 

hence it is semi-T1 and pre-T1. Then by Lemma 

2.8, X is ps-T1, but not �-T1, since for x and y in 

X, there is no �-open set containing one of them, 

but not the other. 

Remark 4.4. Every ps-T1 space is pre-T1, but the 

following example shows that the converse is 


Example 4.5. Let X = {a, b, c} with the 

indiscrete topology �. Then X is pre-T1, but not 

ps-T1. 

Remark 4.6. Every ps-T1 space is ps-T0, but the 

converse is not always true as seen in the 

Example 3.2, X is ps-T0 but not ps-T1. 



(1) X is ps-T1. 

(2) Each singleton set {x} is ps-closed. 

(3) Each subset of X is the intersection of all psopen 

sets containing it. 

(4) The intersection of all ps-open sets 

containing the point x � X is the set {x}. 


for any y � X, x � y, there exists a ps-open set U 

containing y but not x. Hence y � U � X\{x}. 

This implies that X\{x} = �{U: y � X\{x}}. So, 

X\{x} being a union of ps-open sets. Hence, {x} 

is ps-closed. 

(2) � (3) Suppose (2). If A � X, then for each 

point y � A, there exists a set X\{y} such that A 

� X\{y} and each of these sets is ps-open. 

Hence A = �{ X\{y} : y � X\A} so that the 

intersection of all ps-open sets containing A is 

the set A itself. 

(3) � (4) Obvious. 


Hence there exists a ps-open set Ux such that x � 

Ux and y � Ux. Similarly, there exists a ps-open 

set Uy such that y � Uy and x � Uy. Hence X is 

ps- T1. 


subspace of a ps-T1 space is ps-T1. 

Proof. Let A be a open (or semi-regular) 

subspace of a ps-T1 space X. Let x � A. Since X 

is ps-T1, then by Theorem 4.7, {x} is ps-closed 

set in X and hence X\{x} is ps-open set in X. 

Now, A being open (or semi-regular), A � 

X\{x} = A\{x} is ps-open in A, by Lemma 2.7. 

Consequently, {x} is ps-closed in A. Hence by 

Theorem 4.7, A is ps-T1 space. 



X is ps-T1. 

Proof. Similar to Theorem 3.9. 

Theorem 4.10. Let f : X � Y be a weakly pscontinuous 

injection. If Y is Hausdorff, then X is 

ps-T1. 

Proof. Let x1 and x2 be any distinct points in X. 

Then f(x1) ≠ f(x2) and there exist disjoint open 

sets V1 and V2 of Y such that f(x1) � V1 and f(x2) 

� V2. Then we obtain f(x1) � Cl(V2) and f(x2) � 

Cl(V1). Since f is weakly ps-continuous, there 

exists a ps-open set Ui of X containing xi such 

that f(Ui) � Cl(Vi), for i = 1,2. Hence we obtain 

x2 � U1 and x1 � U2. This shows that X is ps-T1. 


In this section, we introduce a new type of 

separation axioms called ps-T2 space, this space 

lies strictly between �-T2 and pre-T2 space, and 

we give some properties of ps-T2 space. 



exists a pair of disjoint ps-open sets, one 

containing x and the other containing y. 

Remark 5.2. Since every �-open set is ps-open, 

then every �-T2 space is ps-T2, but the converse 

is not always true as shown in the following 

example. 

Example 5.3. Consider the Prime Integer 

topology [see 15, page 83]. Then the space is 

both semi-T1and pre-T2 and consequently by 

Corollary 5.10, it is ps-T2 but not �-T2, since for 

x = 2 and y = any other number with x � y. 

There exist no �-open sets Ux and Vy such that 

Ux � Vy = �, the only �-open set containing the 

prime number p = 2 is X.


Remark 5.4. Clearly every ps-T2 space is pre-T2, 

but the converse need not be true in general, as 

in Example 4.3, the space X is pre-T2 but not ps- 

T2. 

Remark 5.5. Clearly every ps-T2 space is ps-T1, 

but the converse is not always true as shown in 

the following example. 

Example 5.6. Consider the space (X, �) given in 

Example 4.3. Then the space X is ps-T1 but not 

ps-T2, since for x and y in X, there is no pair of 

disjoint ps-open sets, one containing x and the 

other containing y. 



(1) X is ps-T2. 

(2) If x � X, then there exists a ps-neighborhood 

N(x) of x such that y � ps-Cl(N(x)). 

(3) For each x � X, �{ps-Cl(N) : N is a psneighborhood 

of x} = {x}. 

Proof. (1) � (2) Suppose (1). Let x � X. Then, 

there exist disjoint ps-open sets U, V such that x 

� U, x � V. Then x � U � X\V, so that X\V is a 

ps-neighborhood of x. We write N(x) = X\V. 

Then N(x) is ps-closed and y � ps-Cl(N(x)). 

Hence y � ps-Cl(N(x)). 

(2) � (3) Straight forward. 


Then, by hypothesis there exists a ps-closed psneighborhood 

N of x such that y � N. Now there 

is a ps-open set U such that x � U � N. Thus U 

and X\N are disjoint ps-open sets containing x 

and y respectively. Hence, X is ps-T2. 


subspace of a ps-T2 space is ps-T2. 

Proof: It is analogous to Theorem 3.5. 

Theorem 5.9. A space (X, �) is ps-T2 if and only 

if (X, ��) is ps-T2. 

Proof. Let x, y � X with x � y . Since X is ps-T2, 

there exist disjoint ps-open sets U and V in X 

such that x � U and y � V. Then by Lemma 2.6, 

U, V � PSO(X, ��). Thus, (X, ��) is ps-T2. 

Converse follows similarly since PSO(X, �) = 

PSO(X, ��). 

Corollary 5.10. Let X be a semi-T1 space. Then 

X is ps-Ti if and only if is pre-Ti for i = 0,1,2. 


Corollary 5.11. Let X be an indiscrete space. 

Then X is Ti if and only if is ps-Ti for i = 0,1,2. 


Corollary 5.12. Every s-regular Ti space is ps-Ti 

for i = 0,1,2. 


Theorem 5.13. The product of two ps-T2 spaces 

is ps-T2. 

Proof. Let X, Y be ps-T2 spaces and let x, y � X 

� Y with x ≠ y. Let x = (a, b) and y = (c, d). 

Without any loss of generality suppose that a ≠ c 

and b ≠ d. Since a and c are distinct points of X, 

there exist disjoint ps-open sets U and V of X 

such that a � U and c � V. Similarly let G and H 

be disjoint ps-open sets in Y such that b � G and 

d � H. Then by Lemma 2.11, U � G and V � H 

are ps-open sets in X � Y containing x and y 

respectively. Also, 

(U � G) � (V � H) = (U � V) � (G � H) = 

�. 

Hence X � Y is ps-T2. 



X is ps-T2. 

Proof. Similar to Theorem 3.9. 

Theorem 5.15. If for each pair of distinct points 

x1 and x2 in a space X, there exist a function f of 

X into a Urysohn space Y such that f(x1) ≠ f(x2) 

and f is weakly ps-continuous at x1 and x2, then 

X is ps-T2. 

Proof. Let x1 and x2 be any distinct points in X. 

Then there exists a function f : X � Y such that 

Y is Urysohn, f(x1) ≠ f(x2) and f is weakly pscontinuous 

at x1 and x2. Let yi = f(xi) for i = 1; 2. 

We have y1 ≠ y2. Since Y is Urysohn, then there 

exist open sets V1 and V2 containing y1 and y2, 

respectively, such that Cl(V1) � Cl(V2) = �. 

Since f is weakly ps-continuous at x1 and x2, then 

there exist ps-open sets Ui for i = 1, 2 containing 

xi such that f(Ui) � Cl(Vi). This shows that U1 � 

U2 = � and hence X is ps-T2. 

Theorem 5.16. If for each pair of distinct points 

x1 and x2 in a space X, there exists a function f of 

X into a Hausdorff space Y such that (1) f(x1) ≠ 

f(x2), (2) f is almost ps-continuous at x1 and (3) f 

is weakly ps-continuous at x2, then X is ps-T2. 

Proof. Since Y is Hausdorff, there exist open 

sets V1 and V2 of Y such that f1(x1) � V1, f2(x2) 

� V2 and V1 � V2 = � implies that Int(Cl(V1)) � 

Cl(V2) = �. Since f is almost ps-continuous at x1, 

there exists a ps-open set U1 in X containing x1 

such that f(U1) � Int(Cl(V1)). Since f is weakly 

ps-continuous at x2, there exists a ps-open set U2 

in X containing x2 such that f(U2) � Cl(V2). 

Therefore, we obtain U1 � U2 = �. This shows 

that X is ps-T2. 

Corollary 5.17. Let f : X � Y be almost PScontinuous 

(resp., weakly PS-continuous) 

injection. If Y is Hausdorff (resp., Urysohn) 

space, then X is PS-T2. 

062


The following diagram indicates the 

implications between the separation axioms that 

we have come across in this paper and examples 

show that no other implications hold between 

them. 

063 

�-T2 ps-T2 pre-T2 



Diagram (1) 

REFERENCE 

- D. E. Cameron, Properties of S-closed spaces, Proc. 

Amer. Math. Soc., 72 (3) (1978), 581-586. 

- S. G. Crossley and S. K. Hildebrand, Semi-closure, 

Texas J. Sci., 22 (1971), 99-112. 

- El-Deeb S. N., Hasanein I. A., Mashhour A. S. and 

Noiri, T., On p-regular spaces, Bull. Math. Soc. Sci. 

Math. R.S. Roum., 27 (4) (1983), 311-315. 

- J. Dontchev, Survey on preopen sets, The Proceedings 

of the Yatsushiro Topological Conference, (1998), 

1-18. 

- R.C. Jain, The role of regularly open sets in general 

topology spaces, Ph.D. Thesis, Meerut Univ. Inst. 

Advance Stud. Meerut, India 1980. 

- A.Kar and P.Bhattacharyya, Some weak separation 

axioms, Bull. Cal. Math. Soc., 82 (1990),415-422. 

- A. B. Khalaf and B. A. Asaad, Almost PS-continuous 

functions, submitted. 

- A. B. Khalaf and B. A. Asaad, ps-open sets and pscontinuity 

in topological spaces, J. Duhok univ., 12 

(2) 2009, 183-192. 

- A. B. Khalaf and B. A. Asaad, Weakly PS-continuous 

functions, submitted to the J. Duhok Univ.. 

- N. Levine, Semi-open sets and semi-continuity in 

topological spaces, Amer. Math. Monthly, 70 (1) 

(1963), 36-41. 

- S. N. Maheshwari and R. Prasad, Some new separation 

axioms, Ann. Soc. Sci. Bruxelles, Ser. I., 89 (1975), 

395-402. 

- S. N. Maheshwari and R. Prasad, On s-regular spaces, 

Glasnik Mat. 10(30) (1975), 347-350. 

- A. S. Mashhour, M. E. Abd El-Monsef and S. N. El- 

Deeb, On precontinuous and week precontinuous 

mappings, Proc. Math. Phys. Soc. Egypt, 53 (1982), 

47-53. 

- Njastad O., On some classes of nearly open sets, Pacific 

J. Math., 15 (3) (1965), 961-970 

- L. A. Steen and J. A. Seebach, Counterexamples in 

Topology, Springer Verlag New York Heidelberg 

Berlin, 1978. 

- M. H. Stone, Applications of the theory of boolean 

rings to topology, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc., 

41(1937), 375-481. 

- N. V. Velicko, H-closed topological spaces, Amer. 

Math. Soc. Transl., 78 (2) (1968), 103-118.


GAMMA – RAY AND ANNEALING EFFECTS ON 

THE ENERGY GAP OF GALSS 

AHMAD KHALAF MEHEEMEED * and SULAIMAN HUSSEIN AL-SADOON ** 

* Dept. of Physics, College of Education, University of Mosul-Iraq 

** Dept. of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Zakho, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

(Received: September 6, 2010; Accepted for publication: June 28, 2011) 

ABSTRACT 

This study deals with the effect of gamma rays and heat treatment on the absorption coefficient and energy gap of 

the glass and the times of irradiation (10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 70, 80)hrs treated thermally at temperatures (20, 

50,100,150,200,250,300,350) o C for period time 15 min. We found that the absorption coefficient increases with 

increasing the gamma rays and decreases with the temperature increases. It was found that the values of the energy 

gap of the glass decreased with the increase of irradiation time at the range 40-50 hrs, and then increases when the 

irradiation time increasing, but it has been found that the thermal treatment will increases the values of the energy 

gap of the glass. These increases and decreases in the values of the energy gap are may be related to formation of Fcenter 

or coloration center as a result of exposure to the radiation, while heating repairing the glass damage. 

I 

1- INTRODUCTION 

onizing radiation (charged particles, 

neutrons, gamma rays, X-ray and other) 

has observed effects on the transparent materials 

such as glass and polymer, it affects on the 

electrical conductivity, hardness, and other 

mechanical properties [Pye et. al., 1972]. When 

ionizing radiation incident on the glass, the kind 

of coloration centers will be prevalent and can 

lead to the darkness of the glass. Darkness of the 

glass took place when the impact of radiation 

increase in the optical absorbance is almost 

identical in the visible spectrum. Optical 

absorbance is of great importance in the 

diagnosis of physical and chemical changes that 

occur on the glass and also used the optical 

absorbance as ameasur of the radiation dose [Al 

Sadoon, 2004]. There are many studies on the 

effect of gamma radiation and heat treatment on 

the optical properties of the glass. Brekhovaskish 

confirmed a simple glass crystallized boron- 

Lead-barium after an absorbed dose (108 rad) of 

gamma rays [Brekhovaskish, 1959]. Friebele et 

al, found the appearance of the absorption bands 

in the high-purity silica glass after gamma-ray or 

x-ray irradiated. They concluded that the 

appearing of these bands due to damage in the 

glass lattice in the absence of any added ions or 

impurities in high-purity silica glass [Friebele et. 

al., 1985]. Sharma et. al. studied effects of 

gamma-ray irradiation on some optical 

properties of xZnO· 2xPbO· (1–3x)B2O3 

glasses in the wavelength range 300–800 nm. 

Decrease in transmittance indicated the 

formation of color-center defects. Values for the 

energy-band gap, the width of the energy tail 

above the mobility gap and the cut-off 

wavelength have been measured before and after 

irradiation. Changes in the optical properties are 

explained in terms of radiation-induced 

structural defects and the composition of the 

glass [Sharma et. al., 2006]. Baccaro et. al., have 

been studied gamma ray effects on the some 

optical band gap of PbO–B2O3 glasses in the 

wavelength (200-1200) nm, absorption of 

glasses in near UV-visible have been used to 

calculate the optical mobility gap and width of 

tail before and after irradiation. They found that 

the decreasing in transmission due to irradiation, 

which indicates to the formation of color centers 

and structural changes in glass[Baccaro et. al., 

2008]. Yuwen et. al., found that the variations: 

absorption coefficient (�),the optical mobility 

gap (E0), and the width of the energy tail above 

the gap (ΔE) changed due to irradiation and for 

this the structure of glass will be changes[Yuwen 

et. al., 2009]. 

The current study aims to study the effect of 

gamma rays and heat treatment on both the 

absorption coefficient and energy gap of the 

glass, as well as to find a comprehensive 

empirical equation between the energy gap and 

both of the irradiation time and heating 

temperatures in the range of the present study. 

2- THE THEORETICAL PART 

2-1- Optical Absorbance In The Glass: 

When passing electromagnetic radiation 

(light) through a layer of transparent material, 

561


the intensity of irradiance (Io) in general is 

greater than the intensity of the radiation force 

(I) because some of the photons of certain 

frequencies may be absorbed. The intensity of 

the radiation absorbed is directly proportional to 

the number of molecules absorbing This is the 

basis of the Beer - Lambert Law [Soulignac 

and Lamotte,1987, Urbano et. al., 1999]. 

x 

oe I I 

�� 

� …(1) 

Where: x: thickness of absorbent material, �: 

absorption coefficient 

� I 0 � �x 

log�� 

� 

I 

�� 

…(2) 

� � 2. 

303 

�x 

A � …(3) 

2. 

303 

Known as log (Io / I) absorbance A 

� 2. 

303 � 

� � � �A 

…(4) 

� x � 

The amount of radiation absorbed depends on 

the type and thickness of the absorbent material. 

The relationship between the energy gap 

(Eopt) and the absorption coefficient (�) and 

incident photon energy (E) are given by the 

following relationship[Tauc et. al., 1966]: 

1 / 2 

� E � const E � E …(5) 

� � � � 

566 

opt 

2-2- Radiation Damage In The Glass: 

There are two types of radiation damages, a 

damage resulting from direct collisions between 

the ionizing radiation (charged particles such as 

proton (p), (�) and neutral particles such as 

neutrons (n)) and the targeted atoms where 

permanent displacement of the atoms occurs 

when receiving a higher energy level of the 

energy threshold. If less energy than that of the 

threshold is received by the atoms no 

displacement exists or simple displacement 

could take place and atoms will quickly return to 

their original place [Wong, 1998, Norgett et.al., 

1975]. The second type is the damage caused by 

the ionization reactions as a result of beta 

particles and gamma rays interactions with glass 

resulting in covalent bonding break, changes of 

the parity, the disintegration of H2O and OH 

(water content atoms), and the disintegration of 

the unstable molecular ions [Wong, 1998, Burns 

et. al. ,1982, Ernisse and Norris, 1974]. 

Phenomenon of radiation damage has been 

interpreted on the basis that some sort of damage 

centers is prevalent, and changes the place of the 

electrons, when the electrons leave their 

position. These electrons are more stable in 

some areas of the gap, which are close to the 

positive ions, called the center coloration (F- 

Center) and this defect is responsible for the 

change that occurs in coloring glass so, there 

will be many levels of energy available that 

occupied by these electrons, This multiplicity of 

levels of energy absorption of light makes it 

almost identical without appearing absorption in 

a certain range of wavelength and this lead to a 

dark [Tittel and Kamel, 1967, Yamamoto et. al., 

1969, Pye et. al., 1972, Holbert, 1995 , Ghoneim 

et. al., 2006, Baccaro et. al., 2008]. Radiation 

damage were studied through measurements of 

changes in optical absorbance, density, 

mechanical strength and knowledge of the 

amount of energy stored and behavioral study of 

helium liberation, as well as microscopic studies 

of the changed composition flour and structural 

changes as disappearance transparency and 

transformation of crystal structure to the random 

structures, and the transformation of amorphous 

to crystalline structure of random structures for 

the random such as glass[Al Ameli, 1988]. The 

structural changes resulting from radiation 

damage represent a semi-permanent state but 

could restore its original state when properly 

heated for a certain time representing the 

proportion of radiation damage repair function 

of both time and temperature. When the 

temperature is constant reform time increase and 

vice versa when the time is stable reform rate 

increases with increasing temperature [Al Ameli, 

1988, Holbert, 1995]. 

3-THE PRACTICAL SIDE 

In this study, the glass used in the procession 

optical (Slides), thickness (1) mm is used. Glass 

was divided into to a number of pieces of equal 

size, each (3.75x1.25) cm2. Glass samples were 

exposed to gamma-ray irradiation using a cell 

(SPECIFICATION-1982) Gamma Cell-220, 

which is located in (the University of Mosul / 

College of Science). The irradiation cell 

containing 60 Co radioactive source with the 

effectiveness of radiation (6430) Ci at date 

manufactured (5 / 1982). The absorption dose 

rate measurements taken at the final is (0.0331) 

Mrad / hr. The time of irradiation is (10, 20, 30, 

40, 50, 70, 80) hrs. Seven samples irradiated of 

each time period of irradiation. Six samples was 

heated at temperatures (50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 

300) o C by using electric furnace (Thermoline) of 

range of thermal (30-1200) o C have been used. 

The optical absorbance was measured for all


samples irradiated and heated in addition to the 

standard sample (non-irradiated and non-heated) 

by using spectrometer (type SECIL 1021) at the 

range (300 - 540) nm. 

4- CALCULATIONS 

4-1- Absorption Coefficient (�) And Incident 

Photon Energy E (Ev): 

Absorption coefficient has been calculated by 

using the equation (4) for the samples irradiated 

at the times period irradiations (10, 20, 30, 40, 

50, 70, 80) hrs, and heated at the range of 

temperature (20.-350) o C. As well as, the incident 

photons energy have been calculated at the range 

(300-540)nm by the following relationship 

[Wong, 1998, Patel, 2006]: 

1. 

241�10 

E �eV � � 

…(6) 

� 

�nm� �6 

4-2- Energy Gap Eopt: 

Energy gap Eopt is calculated using equation 

(5) by drawing the relationship between � � 2 / 1 

� E 

and the incident photon energy (E) as shown in 

fig. 1, 2, 3. The tangent line of the curve with the 

x-axis has been determined, which represents the 

value of the optical energy gap. The previous 

procedures adopted by other authors.[Soulignac 

and Lamotte, 1987] 

5- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

Fig. 1, 2 and 3 below show examples of the 

relationship between the incident photons energy 

and for period time of irradiation (10, 40, 80)hrs 

at different temperatures. It is found that (�E) 1/2 

increases with increasing of the photon energy 

and decreasing with less heating. The tangent 

line of the curve with the x-axis (E) has been 

determined, which represents the value of the 

optical energy gap (Eopt). Table (1) shows the 

values of the energy gap at period times of 

irradiation at different temperatures. 

Fig.4 shows that the absorption coefficient is 

increasing with photon energy at the range (2.6 - 

4)eV and increases with time of irradiation, and 

decreases with the increasing of temperatures. 

Electrons in the glass samples were removed 

from the position of stability when glass is 

exposed to gamma rays. These electrons have 

centered in (color center or F-center) and these 

electrons absorb the photons incident[Sharma et. 

al., 2006]. Absorbance increases with increasing 

time of gamma-ray irradiation. The absorbance 

or optical absorption coefficient decreases with 

the increasing temperature due to the electrons 

get back to their original positions by heating. 

Table (1): The values of the energy gaps at different period time of irradiation at different temperatures. 

Time Tirr. (hrs) 

10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

70 

80 

T o C 

20 o C 50 o C 

1.685 

1.588 

1.479 

1.207 

1.108 

1.259 

1.31 

1.855 

1.899 

1.689 

1.484 

1.602 

1.580 

1.81 

100 o C 

2.107 

1.828 

1.650 

1.531 

1.609 

1.580 

1.88 

When plotting the relationship between the 

energy gap versus the time period of irradiation, 

the energy gap decreases initially to its minimum 

value and then increases with time period of 

irradiation. The minimum value is at the time 

ranges of irradiation (40-60) hrs, these are 

caused by transferring of the electrons from 

atom to another and create which is called Fcenter 

(center colorations), or transfer of the 

electron from valance band to conduction 

band[Baccaro et. al., 2008, Ghoneim et. al., 

2006, Holbert, 1995, Pye et. al., 1972, 

150 o C 

2.29 

2.231 

2.127 

2.092 

2.075 

2.093 

2.204 

200 o C 

2.378 

2.356 

2.238 

2.248 

2.324 

2.376 

2.467 

250 o C 

2.496 

2.433 

2.554 

2.321 

2.545 

2.589 

2.571 

300 o C 

2.605 

2.533 

2.561 

2.134 

2.746 

2.533 

2.668 

500 o C 

2.687 

2.584 

2.540 

2.396 

2.648 

2.559 

2.799 

Yamamoto et. al., 1969] as shown in Fig.5. 

When plotting the relationship between the 

energy gap and temperature, the energy gap 

increases with temperature, as shown in Fig.6. 

Changes in values of energy gap may be related 

to the structural changes due to gamma-ray 

irradiation (radiation damage) and these changes 

are semi-permanent and could be returned 

to original state (repair damage). By 

using sufficient heat this process is 

reversible[Holbert, 1995]. 

561


(� E) 1/2 (eV/cm) 1/2 

(� E) 1/2 (eV/cm) 1/2 

(� E) 1/2 (eV/cm) 1/2 

(� E) 1/2 (eV/cm) 1/2 

Fig. (1): The relationship between � � 2 / 1 

E 

561 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

t irrad. = 10 hrs , Room Temperature 

y = 2.1014x - 3.5419 

R 2 = 0.9792 

0 

0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

y = 2.4555x - 5.1738 

R 2 = 0.9923 

E (eV) 

0 

0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8 

5 

4.5 

4 

3.5 

3 

2.5 

2 

1.5 

1 

0.5 

0 

3.5 

3 

2.5 

2 

1.5 

1 

0.5 

t irrad. = 10 hrs , T = 100 o C 

E (eV) 

y = 2.4657x - 5.864 

R 2 = 0.9856 

0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8 

y = 2.0775x - 5.4132 

R 2 = 0.9422 

t irrad. = 10 hrs , T = 200 o C 

E (eV) 

t irrad. = 10 hrs , T = 300 o C 

0 

0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8 

E (eV) 

(� E) 1/2 (eV/cm) 1/2 

(� E) 1/2 (eV/cm) 1/2 

(� E) 1/2 (eV/cm) 1/2 

(�E) 1/2 (eV/cm) 1/2 

y = 2.1785x - 4.0419 

R 2 = 0.9677 

0 

0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8 

� and the incident photon energy for period time of irradiation 10 hrs at 

different annealing for 15 minutes of thermal heating. 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

t irrad. = 10 hrs , T = 50 o C 

E (eV) 

t irrad. = 10 hrs , T =150 o C 

y = 2.619x - 5.9977 

R 2 = 0.9761 

0 

0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8 

4.5 

4 

3.5 

3 

2.5 

2 

1.5 

1 

0.5 

E (eV) 

t irrad. = 10 hrs , T =250 o C 

y = 2.3727x - 5.9236 

R 2 = 0.9676 

0 

0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8 

3 

2.5 

2 

1.5 

1 

0.5 

E (eV) 

t irrad. = 10 hrs , T = 350 o C 

y = 1.6555x - 4.4495 

R 2 = 0.8851 

0 

0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 

E(eV)


(� E) 1/2 (eV/cm) 1/2 

(� E) 1/2 (eV/cm) 1/2 

(� E) 1/2 (eV/cm) 1/2 

(m E) 1/2 (eV/cm) 1/2 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 


y = 2.7663x - 3.3398 

R 2 = 0.9844 

0 

0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

E (eV) 

y = 2.7851x - 4.2625 

R 2 = 0.9953 

0 

0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

t irrad. = 40 hrs , T = 100 o C 

E (eV) 

y = 3.3058x - 7.4346 

R 2 = 0.9967 

0 

0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8 

4 

3.5 

3 

2.5 

2 

1.5 

1 

0.5 

t irrad. = 40 hrs , T = 200 o C 

E (eV) 

t irrad. = 40 hrs , T = 300 o C 

y = 1.856x - 3.9614 

R 2 = 0.9291 

0 

0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8 

E (eV) 

Fig. (2): The relationship between � � 2 / 1 

E 

Dose = 40 

hrs , T = 

(� E) 1/2 (eV/cm) 1/2 

(� E) 1/2 (eV/cm) 1/2 

(� E) 1/2 (eV/cm) 1/2 

(m E) 1/2 (eV/cm) 1/2 

y = 2.7696x - 4.1124 

R 2 = 0.9929 

0 

0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8 



8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

t irrad. = 40 hrs , T = 50 o C 

E (eV) 

t irrad. = 40 hrs , T = 150 o C 

y = 3.3836x - 7.0817 

R 2 = 0.9939 

0 

0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

E (eV) 

t irrad. = 40 hrs , T = 250 o C 

y = 2.7767x - 6.4432 

R 2 = 0.9937 

0 

0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8 

3.5 

3 

2.5 

2 

1.5 

1 

0.5 

E (eV) 

t irrad. = 40 hrs , T = 350 o C 

y = 1.7379x - 4.1647 

R 2 = 0.9769 

0 

0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8 

E (eV) 

561

Dose = 

80 hrs , 


(� E) 1/2 (eV/cm) 1/2 

(� E) 1/2 (eV/cm) 1/2 

(� E) 1/2 (eV/cm) 1/2 

(� E) 1/2 (eV/cm) 1/2 

Fig (3): The relationship between � � 2 / 1 

E 

511 

10 

9 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

0 


y = 3.2026x - 4.1956 

R 2 = 0.9878 

0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8 

E (eV) 

y = 3.7353x - 7.0218 

R 2 = 0.9684 

0 

0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

t irrad. = 80 hrs , T = 100 o C 

E (eV) 

y = 4.3406x - 10.706 

R 2 = 0.9776 

0 

0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

t irrad. = 80 hrs , T = 200 o C 

E (eV) 

t irrad. = 80 hrs , T = 300 o C 

y = 3.6443x - 9.7232 

R 2 = 0.9374 

0 

0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8 

E (eV) 

(� E) 1/2 (eV/cm) 1/2 

(� E) 1/2 (eV/cm) 1/2 

(� E) 1/2 (eV/cm) 1/2 

(� E) 1/2 (eV/cm) 1/2 



9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

t irrad. = 80 hrs , T = 50 o C 

y = 3.662x - 6.6279 

R 2 = 0.9653 

0 

0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

E (eV) 

t irrad. = 80 hrs , T = 150 o C 

y = 4.1098x - 9.0564 

R 2 = 0.9721 

0 

0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

E (eV) 

t irrad. = 80 hrs , T = 250 o C 

y = 3.9386x - 10.124 

R 2 = 0.9611 

0 

0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8 

5 

4.5 

4 

3.5 

3 

2.5 

2 

1.5 

1 

0.5 

0 

y = 3.4312x - 9.603 

R 2 = 0.9048 

E (eV) 

t irrad. = 80 hrs , T = 350 o C 

0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8 

E (eV)


� (1/cm) 

� (1/cm) 

� (1/cm) 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

0 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

tirrad.=10 hrs 

1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 

E(eV) 


1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 

E(eV) 


1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 

E(eV) 

without 

annealing 

T=50 oC 

T=100 oC 

T=150 oC 

T=200 oC 

T=250 oC 

T=300 oC 

T=350 oC 

without 

annealing 

T=50 oC 

T=100 oC 

T=150 oC 

T=200 oC 

T=250 oC 

T=300 oC 

T=350 oC 

without 

annealing 

T=50 oC 

T=100 oC 

T=150 oC 

T=200 oC 

T=250 oC 

T=300 oC 

T=350 oC 

Fig. (4a): The relationship between the absorption coefficient and incident photon energy for period time of 

irradiation (10, 20, 30) hrs at different annealing (20-350) o C for 15 minutes of thermal heating 

515


511 

� (1/cm) 

� (1/cm) 

� (1/cm) 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

18 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 


1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 

E(eV) 


1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 

E(eV) 


1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 

E(eV) 

without 

annealing 

T=50 oC 

T=100 oC 

T=150 oC 

T=200 oC 

T=250 oC 

T=300 oC 

T=350 oC 

without 

annealing 

T=50 oC 

T=100 oC 

T=150 oC 

T=200 oC 

T=250 oC 

T=300 oC 

T=350 oC 

without 

annealing 

T=50 oC 

T=100 oC 

T=150 oC 

T=200 oC 

T=250 oC 

T=300 oC 

T=350 oC 

Fig. (4b): The relationship between the absorption coefficient and incident photon energy for period time of 

irradiation (40, 50, 70) hrs at different annealing (20-350) o C for 15 minutes of thermal heating


Eg (eV) 

Eg (eV) 

Eg (eV) 

Eg (eV) 

� (1/cm) 

20 

18 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 


1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 

E(eV) 

without 

annealing 

T=50 oC 

T=100 oC 

T=150 oC 

T=200 oC 

T=250 oC 

T=300 oC 

T=350 oC 

Fig. (4c): The relationship between the absorption coefficient and incident photon energy for period time of 

irradiation (80) hrs at different annealing (20-350) o C for 15 minutes of thermal heating 

T = R. T. 

2 

1.8 

1.6 

1.4 

1.2 

1 

0.8 

0.6 

0.4 

0.2 

0 

0 20 40 60 80 100 

2.4 

2 

1.6 

1.2 

0.8 

0.4 

Period time of iraadiation (hrs) 

0 

0 20 40 60 80 100 

2.8 

2.4 

2 

1.6 

1.2 

0.8 

0.4 

T = 100 o C 

` 


0 

0 20 40 60 80 100 

2.8 

2.4 

2 

1.6 

1.2 

0.8 

0.4 

T = 200 o C 

` 


T = 300 o C 

` 

0 

0 20 40 60 80 100 


Eg (eV) 

Eg (eV) 

Eg (eV) 

Eg (eV) 

0 

0 20 40 60 80 100 

Fig. (5): The relationship between the energy gap (Eg) and period time of irradiation 

2 

1.5 

1 

0.5 

2.8 

2.4 

2 

1.6 

1.2 

0.8 

0.4 

T = 50 o C 


T = 150 o C 

` 

0 

0 20 40 60 80 100 

2.8 

2.4 

2 

1.6 

1.2 

0.8 

0.4 


T = 250 o C 

` 

0 

0 20 40 60 80 100 

2.8 

2.4 

2 

1.6 

1.2 

0.8 

0.4 


T = 350 o C 

` 

0 

0 20 40 60 80 100 


511


Eg (eV) 

Eg (eV) 

Eg (eV) 

Eg (eV) 

511 

3 

2.5 

2 

1.5 

1 

0.5 

tirrad. = 10 hrs 

y = 0.391Ln(x) + 0.3468 

R 2 = 0.989 

0 

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 

3 

2.5 

2 

1.5 

1 

0.5 

T o C 

y = 0.4633Ln(x) - 0.1655 

R 2 = 0.8896 

0 

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 

3 

2.5 

2 

1.5 

1 

0.5 


T o C 

y = 0.6315Ln(x) - 1.0124 

R 2 = 0.942 

0 

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 

3 

2.5 

2 

1.5 

1 

0.5 


T o C 


y = 0.5549Ln(x) - 0.5057 

R 2 = 0.9677 

0 

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 

T o C 

y = 0.3882Ln(x) + 0.2792 

R 2 = 0.9241 

0 

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 

Fig. (6): The relationship between the energy gap Eg (eV) and annealing T o C 

Eg (eV) 

Eg (eV) 

Eg (eV) 

3 

2.5 

2 

1.5 

1 

0.5 

3 

2.5 

2 

1.5 

1 

0.5 


T o C 


y = 0.4718Ln(x) - 0.3853 

R 2 = 0.9025 

0 

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 

3 

2.5 

2 

1.5 

1 

0.5 

T o C 


y = 0.5588Ln(x) - 0.6673 

R 2 = 0.9196 

0 

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 

T o C


6- CONCLUSIONS 

1. There is a change in the color of glass (or 

darkness) as a result if gamma-ray irradiation. 

The darkness increase with the increase of 

irradiation and decrease with heating. 

2. Absorption coefficient of the glass increase 

with increasing time of irradiation and decreases 

with increasing heating. 

3. Energy gap decrease and then increases with 

time of irradiation and increases with 

temperature heating. 

4. Glass can be used as a measure of radiation 

dose of gamma rays 

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F. M. (2006). Gamma-Ray Interaction with Lead 

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511


516 

َىشيوش اي ىةشوو ايايلااظ زةطل َىنسك مزةطو اماط اكشيت انسكَيتزاك 

َىشيوش ايةشوو ايتلااظو َىهيرلمةي ةكلوكظةي زةطل َىيتامزةط ايزةض 

ةزاضو اماط اكشيت انسكَيتزاك ادَيهيلوكةظ َىظد 

،001 

،011 

،01 

،01( 

وَيلث وب َىيتامزةطب ىسكةلةمامو تعةض ) 01 ،01 

،01 

،01 

،01 

،01 

،01( 

ب َىنادكشيت َىمةد انسكةدَيش ب ووبد ةديش َىهيرلمةي َىكلوكظةي وك 

ب ووبد مَيك يةشوو ايلااظ وك ووبزايد اضةوزةي 

. 

ةتخوث 

َىناداكشيت وَيمةد وب 

وبزايد اديتيلوكةظ َىظد ) 001 ،011 

،001 

،011 

َىيتاموةط وَيلب انسكةدَيش ب ووبد مَيك ويرلمةيو َىياماط اكشيت 

َىتامزةط ب ىسكةلةمام وك ووبزايد اضةوزةي ، َىنادكشيت َىمةدل سكزاموت تضائ ويترمصنو َىنادكشيت َىمةد انسكةدَيش 

انووضكَيت وب ةتيسظشد اد َىةشوو ايلااظد ىووبةدَيشو ىووب مَيك ظةئ . ىةشيوش اي َىةشوو ايلااظ انووبدَيش َىزةطةئ ةتيبد 

َىتفةك انووضكَيت انسككاض ىزةطةئ ووبد مزةط َلىةب ، زةطب َىنادكشيت انسكَيتزام َىزةطةئ ذ ىةشيوش اتاًكَيث 

جاجزلل ةقاطلا ةوجف ىلع نيخستلاو اماك ةعشأ ريثأت 

. اد ىةشيوش اتاًكَيبدةي 

ةنمزلأو جاجزلل ةقاطلا ةوجفو صاصتملاا لماعم ىلع ةيرارحلا ةجلاعملاو اماك ةعشأ ريثأت ةسارد ثحبلا اذه يف نمضتي 

ثيح ، 

(20, 50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350) o C 

ةرارح تاجردو 

(10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 70, 80) hrs 


ةوجف ميق اندجوأ امك ، ةرارحلا تاجرد ةدايزب ةيصاصتملاا هذه لقتو اماك ةعشأ ةدايزب دادزت صاصتملاا لماعم نا اندجو 

دنع دادزت كلذ دعبو 

40-50 hrs 

عيعشت 

عيعشت نمز نيب ام يأ عيعشتلا نمز ةدايزب لقت ةقاطلا ةوجف ميق نأ دجوو ، ةقاطلا 

يف ناصقنلاو ةدايزلا هذه ، جاجزلل ةقاطلا ةوجف ميق ةدايزب موقت ةيرارحلا ةجلاعملا نأ دجو نيح يف ، عيعشتلا نمز ةدايز 

. 

فلتلا حلاصإ ةيلمعب موقي نيخستلا نأ نيح يف اهيلع عاعشلإا طيلست ةجيتن فلتلا وه اهببس ةقاطلا ةوجف ميق


EFFECT OF LONG-TERM ADMINISTRATION OF MELATONIN, VITAMIN 

E, VITAMIN C AND THEIR COMBINATIONS ON SOME LIPID PROFILES 

AND RENAL FUNCTION TESTS IN RATS EXPOSED TO LEAD TOXICITY 

ALMAS M.R. MAHMUD 

Dept. of Biology, College of Science, University of Salahaddin, Kurdistan Region- Iraq 

(Received: October 16, 2010; Accepted for publication: February 27, 2011) 

ABSTRACT 

Lead (Pb) is a natural element and widespread in the environment. Lead poisoning affect numerous organ 

systems. This study was carried out to investigate long-term administration of melatonin, vitamin C, vitamin E and 

their combinations, on some serum biochemical parameters in Pb-induced toxicity. Fifty-four female albino rats were 

used in this study. Animals were divided into nine groups. The groups are: control, sodium acetate (0.1mg/L drinking 

water), Pb-acetate (0.1 mg/L in drinking water), Pb-acetae+melatonin (60 mg of melatonin/Kg diet), Pbacetate+vitamin 

E (1000 IU of vitamin E/Kg diet), Pb-acetae+vitamin C (1mg of vitamin C/ L in drinking water), 

combinations: Pb-acetae+melatonin+vitamin E, Pb-acetae+melatonin+vitamin C, and Pb-acetate+vitamin E+vitamin 

C. Results show significant increases in serum total cholesterol (TC) and triacylglycerol (TAG) in Pb-acetae group 

compared to the control rats. Administration of melatonin, vitamin E, melatonin+vitamin E and vitamins C+E 

combinations caused significant reductions in serum TC and TAG, while, serum total protein increased significantly 

in melatonin and melatonin+vitamin E groups compared with Pb-acetate treated rats. Serum creatinine, urea and 

uric acid exhibited significant increases in Pb-acetae treated rats in comparision with controls. On the other hand, 

melatonin, melatonin+vitamin E combination decreased serum creatinine, urea, uric acid, and total bilirubin in 

comparision with Pb-acetate treated rats. In conclusion, long-term lead treated rats exhibited marked elevation of 

serum TC,TAG, creatinine, urea, uric acid and total bilirubin levels. Most of these abnormal changes were 

ameliorated with melatonin+ vitamin E combination much more than with melatonin, vitamin E or C alone or 

vitamins E and C in combination. 

KEYWORDS: Melatonin, vitamin E, vitamin C, lipid profile, renal function tests, lead toxicity 

L 

INTRODUCTION 

ead is a toxic, heavy metal widely 

distributed in the environment and 

chronic exposure to low levels of this agent is a 

matter of public concern in many countries. 

Lead is frequently found in air, drinking water, 

soil, and industrial by-products. It is also found 

in lead-associated work place such as smelting, 

battery manufacture, stained glass industrial, and 

lead-based paint production (Vaglenov et al., 

2001). Lead poisoning may affect numerous 

organ systems and is associated with a number 

of morphological, biochemical and physiological 

changes, including cardiovascular, kidney 

dysfunction and impairment of liver function 

(Ghorbe et al., 2001). 

Microscopic analysis of lead-intoxicated animals 

has indicated fatty degeneration of the 

myocardium and sclerotic changes in the aortic 

and walls of the small arteries especially the 

renal, cerebral and coronary arteries (Yokoyama 

et al., 2000) and atrophy of elastic fibers in the 

aorta (Al-Ashmawy et al., 2005). 

Renal functions are altered upon lead 

exposure, serum urea and creatinine also 

increased in mice after oral administration of 

lead acetate in the diet and in rats after chronic 

lead exposure (Al-Ashmawy et al., 2005). 

In the liver tissues, lead is known to produce 

oxidative damage by enhancing peroxidation of 

membrane lipids (Chaurasia and Kar, 1997) a 

deleterious process solely carried out by free 

radicals (Halliwell et al., 1990). 

Melatonin, the main secretary product of the 

pineal gland, is known to be a powerful 

antioxidant with its high free radical scavenging 

activity and it has been reported to be more 

efficient than vitamin E in scavenging peroxy 

radicals (Karbownik and Reiter, 2001; Bettahi et 

al.,1996). Melatonin also augments production 

and regeneration of glutathione, one of the major 

intracellular antioxidant molecules, besides, 

melatonin increases the activity of catalase and 

catalyzes the formation of nitric oxide synthase 

which catalyzes the formation of nitric oxide 

(NO) (Wakatsuki and Okatani Y,2000). 

Vitamin C exerts its physiological function 

mainly through oxido-reduction (Wintergerst et 

al.,2006). Vitamin E (α-tocopherol) which is an 

important chain-breaking antioxidant in the lipid 

phase of different cell membranes (Al-Ashmawy 

et al., 2005). It scavenges peroxy radicals by 

donating to them the phenolic hydrogen. In 

addition, it is highly reactive toward singlet 

177


oxygen (Chaurasia and Kar, 1997). Considering 

the antioxidant properties of melatonin, vitamins 

C and E, the present study was undertaken to 

investigate the effects of long-term 

administration of melatonin, vitamin E, vitamin 

C and their combinations on some lipid profiles 

and renal function tests in rats exposed to lead 

toxicity. 

178 


Animals and housing 

Fifty four adult female albino rats (Rattus 

norvigicus) weighting initially 240-280 g were 

included in this study. Rats were obtained from 

the Animal House of Biology Department- 

College of Science/University of Salahaddin- 

Erbil/Iraq and maintained at 22 ± 2 ºC under a 

photoperiod of 12:12-h light-dark cycle. All 

animals had free access to tap water and standard 

rat chow. 

Experimental design 

This experiment was designed to determine 

the effects of melatonin, vitamin E, vitamin C, 

and their combinations on serum TC, TAG, total 

protein, creatinine, urea, uric acid and total 

bilirubin in rats treated with lead acetate. The 

experimental rats were divided into nine groups, 

each of six individuals and the treatments were 

continued for 10 weeks as follow: 

Group1: Control. The rats were given standard 

rat chow and tap water ad libitum. 

Group 2: Sodium acetate. The rats were given 

standard rat chow and sodium acetate at a dose 

of 0.1 mg/L drinking water. 

Group 3: Lead acetate. The rats were given 

standard rat chow and lead acetate at a dose of 

0.1 mg/L drinking water. 

Group 4: Lead acetate + Melatonin. The rats 

were supplied with standard rat chow contain 

melatonin (60 mg/kg diet) and Pb acetate (0.1 

mg/L drinking water). 

Group 5: Lead acetate + Vitamin E. the rats 

were supplied with standard rat chow contain 

vitamin E (1000 I.U/kg diet) and Pb acetate (0.1 


Group 6: Lead acetate+Vitamin C. The rats 

were given standard rat chow and Pb acetate at a 

dose of 0.1 mg/ L drinking water and vitamin C 

at a dose of 1mg/L drinking water. 

Group 7: Lead acetate + Melatonin + Vitamin 

E. The rats were supplied with standard rat chow 

contain melatonin (60 mg/kg diet) and vitamin E 

(1000 I.U /kg diet), Pb acetate (0.1 mg/L 

drinking water). 

Group 8: Lead acetate + Melatonin + Vitamin 

C. The rats were supplied with standard rat chow 

with melatonin (60 mg/kg diet), Pb acetate at a 

dose of 0.1 mg/L drinking water. 

Group 9: Lead acetate + Vitamin E + Vitamin 

C. The rats were supplied with standard rat chow 

contain vitamin E (1000 I.U/kg diet), vitamin C 

(1 mg/L drinking water) and Pb acetate (0.1 


Collection of blood samples 

At the end of the experiment, the rats were 

anesthetized with ketamine hydrochloride (50 

mg/kg body weight). Blood samples were taken 

by cardiac puncture into chilled tubes and 

centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 20 minutes; then 

sera were stored at -85 ºC until assay. 

Biochemical determination 

Serum TC, TGA, total protein, ceratinine, 

urea, uric acid and total bilirubin were 

determined by enzymatic and colorimetric 

methods (Biolabo reagents, France). 

Statistical analysis 

All data were expressed as mean ± standard 

error (SE) and statistical analysis was carried out 

using available soft ware (SPSS version 15). 

Data analysis was made using one-way analysis 

of variance (ANOVA). The comparisons among 

groups were done using Duncan post hoc 

analysis. P values < 0.05 were considered as 

significant. 

RESULTS 

As shown in Table (1), serum TC (mg/dl) 

increased significantly (P< 0.05) in Pb acetate 

group (90.114 ± 5.7025) compared to the control 

rats (60.485 ± 2.8548). 

Administration of melatonin, vitamin E, 

melatonin in combination with vitamin E or 

vitamin E in combination with vitamin C caused 

significant reductions (P< 0.05) in serum TC 

(65.942 ± 3.0039), (65.485 ± 8.0576), (68.200 ± 

4.3310) and (67.028 ± 9.8489), respectively, 

compared with Pb-acetate group. On the other 

hand, vitamin C or melatonin in combination 

with vitamin C caused non-significant reductions 

in serum TC compared with the Pb acetate 

treated rats. 

Table (1) shows that serum TAG (mg/dl) 

increased significantly (P


in serum TAG (65.818 ± 4.5846), (69.714 ± 

7.4733), (64.976 ± 7.0014) and (60.727 ± 

8.3543) respectively as compared with the lead 

acetate group. 

Table(1):- Effects of melatonin, vitamin E, vitamin C and their combinations on some serum lipid profiles 

and total protein in lead treated rats 

Treatments Serum total 

cholesterol 

( mg/dl) 

Parameters 

Serum triacylglycerol 

(mg/dl) 

Serum total protein 

(gm/dl) 

Control 60.485±2.8548 a 68.597±5.6391 a 6.3552±0.2372 ab 

Sodium acetate 66.857±3.5398 a 63.750±7.3428 a 5.0928±0.3264 a 

Pb-acetate 90.114±5.7025 b 95.480±4.5514 b 5.3808±0.1373 a 

Pb-acetate + Mel 65.942±3.0039 a 65.818±4.5846 a 8.8272±2.5387 b 

Pb-acetate + Vit E 65.485±8.0576 a 69.714±7.4733 a 7.0224±0.7045 ab 

Pb-acetate + Vit C 75.714±7.7084 ab 77.142±4.3579 ab 5.1744±0.1445 a 

Pb-acetate+Mel +Vit E 68.200±4.3310 a 64.976±7.0014 a 8.6064±0.2102 b 

Pb-acetate+ Mel +Vit C 74.457±6.6563 ab 76.005±7.4016 ab 5.5056±0.1291 a 

Pb-acetate +Vit E +Vit 

C 

67.028±9.8489 a 60.727±8.3543 a 4.8144±0.2682 a 

Similar letters indicate no significant difference. Pb=lead 



Table (2):- Effects of melatonin, vitamin E, vitamin C and their combinations on some renal function tests in 

lead treated rats. 

180 

Treatments Serum 

creatinine 

(mg/dl) 

Serum urea 

(mg/dl) 

Prameters 

Serum uric acid 

( mg/dl) 

Serum total 

bilirubin ( mg/dl) 

Control 0.480±0.1323 ab 20.309±1.9380 ab 1.241±0.0852 a 0.385±0.0765 ab 

Sodium acetate 0.300±0.0774 a 23.163±1.9315 abc 2.191±0.4627 ab 0.592±0.0815 bc 

Pb-acetate 0.733±0.0471 b 34.963±0.6163 d 4.865±0.7307 c 0.583±0.0565 bc 

Pb-acetate + Mel 0.426±0.1087 a 17.181±1.8521 a 2.934±0.1130 b 0.446±0.0975 abc 

Pb-acetate + Vit E 0.493±0.0805 ab 27.890±2.8675 bcd 2.483±0.3442 ab 0.517±0.0479 abc 

Pb-acetate + Vit C 0.500±0.1125 ab 29.272±2.2180 cd 2.560±0.1964 b 0.604±0.0734 bc 

Pb-acetate+Mel +Vit E 0.346±0.0679 a 22.763±2.2848 abc 2.121±0.2576 ab 0.364±0.0563 a 

Pb-acetate+ Mel +Vit C 0.380±0.0800 a 26.981±2.5006 bc 2.228±0.2726 ab 0.643±0.0481 c 

Pb-acetate +Vit E +Vit C 0.460±0.0266 ab 25.563±4.1510 bc 2.192±0.6017 ab 0.519±0.0469 abc 

Similar letters indicate no significant difference. Pb=lead 



or indirectly by regenerating vitamin E. It has 

been reported that vitamin C may protect lowdensity 

lipoproteins (Jialal et al.,1991) and 

plasma lipids against free-radical-mediated 

oxidation. Previous data have indicated that 

vitamin C deficiency increased CCl4- induced 

lipid peroxidation in vivo in guinea pigs and that 

vitamin C supplementation decreases lipid 

peroxidation in vivo in rats that have an iron 

overload (Harri, 1992). In man, it has been 

reported that people with low vitamin C levels 

have high amounts of lipid peroxides in plasma. 

Accordingly, vitamin C could also affect 

cholesterol metabolism through the antioxidant 

effect (Rath and Pauling, 1991). On the other 

hand, Sokoloff et al.,1966 suggested that effects 

of vitamin C on plasma levels of triglyceride 

may return to its effect on lipoprotein. Vitamin C 

also affects fatty acids metabolism through its 

effect on the transport of long-chain fatty acids 

into mitochondria. Therefore, the effects of 

melatonin, vitamin E or melatonin in 

combination with vitamin E and vitamin E with 

C combination may due to the antioxidant 

properties of the three and to the effect of 

vitamin C on the metabolism of lipoprotein 

(A) which has been proven to be linked 

with atherosclerosis (Mbewu and 

Durrington, 1990). 

Adminstration of melatonin and melatonin in 

combination with vitamin E caused significant 

increases in serum total protein compared to the 

Pb-acetate group. Melatonin adminstration 

releases growth hormone both in rats and man 

(Forsling et al.,1999). Furtheremore, Lima et 

al.,(2001) showed that melatonin, in addition to 

acting on tissue sensitivity to insulin, affects the 

secretory action of beta cells. 

Table (2) shows that serum creatinine and 

total bilirubin increased non-significantly, while 

serum urea and uric acid increased significantly 

in Pb acetate treated rats compared with the 

control animals. The observed increase in serum 

urea after Pb acetate administration is consistent 

with those reported by Hassan and Jassim, 

(2010); Wojtchak-Jaroszowa and Kubow, 

(1989). Also, elevation in uric acid is reported 

by McBride et al., (1998). The increase in uric 

acid concentration may be due to degradation of 

purines or to an increase of uric acid levels by 

either overproduction or inability of excretion 

(Wolf et al.,1972). 

Administration of melatonin, combination of 

melatonin with vitamin E and melatonin with 

vitamin C decreased significantly serum 

creatinine, urea and uric acid. In addition serum 

uric acid decreased significantly in combination 

of melatonin with vitamin E and vitamin E with 

vitamin C groups and serum total bilirubin only 

in melatonin with vitamin E combination as 

compared with the Pb acetate treated rats. The 

mechanism of improvement may be in part due 

to the melatonin’s antioxidative actions that 

reduces tissue damage (Darwish, 2007). Song et 

al,1997 concluded that the presence of melatonin 

receptors in proximate tubules suggests that it 

plays a significant role in mediating the renal 

action of melatonin. 

Vitamin C and E when used in combination 

or used in combination with melatonin decreased 

or affected the renal function tests: urea, uric 

acid and creatinine. Antioxidants are frequently 

used for different diseases e.g diabetes and their 

complicattions. Plasma vitamin C and E 

concentrations are reduced in diabetes (Murugan 

and Pari, 2006). Vitamin C plays a central role 

in the antioxidant protective system, protecting 

all lipids undergoing oxidation and diminishing 

the number of apoptotic cells (Sadi et al., 2008). 

Furthermore, vitamin C regenerates the oxidized 

vitamin E. Vitamin E, on the other hand, acts as 

a non-enzymatic antioxidant and reduces lipid 

peroxidation and glutathione (Lee et al., 2007). 

Therefore, in this study, these two vitamins 

through their antioxidant properties with 

melatonin could decrease serum urea, uric acid 

and creatinine in Pb acetate treated rats. 

Results show a non-significant increase in 

serum total bilirubin in Pb-acetate group 

compared to the control, while, it was decreased 

significantly (P


improves serum enzymes most likely is through 

its free radical scavenger effects, and its action 

on stabilizing cell membranes which assists 

them in reducing oxidative damage (Lena and 

Subramani, 2003). Additionally, Pedreanez et 

al., (2004) concluded that melatonin has antiapoptotic 

effects in part independent of the 

modulation of the oxidative damage. 

On the other hand, vitamin E acting as an 

antioxidant may increase the half life of 

melatonin because it scavenges different types of 

free radicals helping by melatonin to maintain its 

own structure without scavenging free radicals. 

Melatonin does not undergo redox cycling and, 

thus, does not promote oxidation as shown under 

a variety of experimental conditions. From this 

point of view, melatonin can be considered as a 

terminal antioxidant which distinguishes it from 

the apportunistic antioxidants like vitamins C 

and E. 

In conclusion, oral exposure of Pb-acetate 

caused alterations in serum lipid profiles and 

renal function tests and the results indicate that 

melatonin and vitamin E could be protective 

agents against Pb-toxicity in rats, most likely 

through their antioxidant and free radical 

scavenger effects. 

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183


ةميضزوط ىٌاوسف ىٌاكةتسَيت ةو ىزوةض ىكَيزؤج دٌةض زةسةل ُايٌادةوةكَيث ةو C ينواتيظ ،E 

184 

يشوقزوق ةب واسكيواسِةذ 

ىجزوج ةل 

ينواتيظ ،ينٌوتلايو ىَلؤز 

يشوقزوق ىةدداو ةب ُووب ىواسِةذ . ةيةِ ادةطٍيذ ةل ُاواسفزةب ىكةيةوَيش ةب ةو ةيتشوسس ىكةيةدداو يشوقزوق 

ىزةةطيزاك ىٍيٍكشث ةيةوةٍيرَيوت ًةل تسةبةو . تَيبةِ شةل ىٌاكةوادٌةئ ةل كيزؤش زةسةل ىزةطيزاك 

ة ة ل ك َي د ة ٌ ة ِ ز ة ة س ة ل ُ ا ي ٌ د س ك َل ة ة ك َي ت ة ة ب و ا ي ٌ ة ة ت E ةينواةتيظ ة ب ، 

C 

ةتخوث 

ةيةٌاوةل 

ينواتيظ و ينٌؤتلايو ةل كةيزةِ ىٌةياخرَيزد 

ىجزوج زاوض وانجةث . يشوقزوق ىةدداو ةب واسكىواسِةذ 

ىجزوج ةل ََيوخ ىوادزةش ةل ىٌايذ ىايىيك ىٌاكةزةتيوازاث 

ثوسط شةش زةِ ،شاوايج ىثوسط ؤٌ ؤب ُاسك شةباد ُاكةووتاِزاكةب ةجزوج تاِزاكةب ادةوةٍيرَيوت ًةل ىجس ىةيَيو 

ًةوود ىةثوسط ،) 

هؤِترٌؤك ىجزوج( 

ًةكةي ىثوسط : ةوةزاوخ ىةٌاوةئ وكةو ةتفةِ 

01 

ىةواو ؤب كَيجزوج زةِ ؤب 

ىواةئ ترل / يطمو 1.0() 

يشوقزوق ىتاتيسةئ( 

ًةيئس ىثوسط ،) 

ةوةٌدزاوخ ىوائ ترل/ 

يطمو 1.0( 

) ًؤيدؤس ىتاتيسةئ( 

ًةةحٍَيث ىةثوسط ،) 

كازؤةخ يةطك / ينٌؤةتلايو ةل يطمو 01( 

) ينٌؤتلايو + يشوقزوق( 

ًةزاوض ىثوسط ،) 

ةوةٌدزاوخ 

يطمو 0( 

) C ينواتيظ + يشوقزوق( 

ًةشةش ىثوسط ،) 

كازؤخ يطك / E ينواتيظ ةل شةب 0111( 

E ينواتيظ + يشوقزوق( 

ًةتشةِ ىثوسط ،) 

E ينواتيظ + ينٌؤتلايو + يشوقزوق ( ىيةَلةكَيت ًةتوةح ىثوسط ،) 

ةوةٌدزاوخ ىوائ ترل / ينواتيظ ةل 

.) 

C 

ينواتيظ + 

E 

ينواتيظ + 

يشوقزوق ( 

ىيةَلةكَيت ًةيؤٌ ىثوسط ، ) C 

ينواتيظ + ينٌؤتلايو + يشوقزوق ( ىةَلةكَيت 

ََيوخ ىوادزةش لىؤيرسيمط نياسةئ ىاست و هؤيرتسيلؤك ةل واضزةب ىةوةٌووبشزةب ةب ُةدةد ُاشيٌ او ُاكةوانجةئ 

) Eينواتيظ 

+ ينٌؤتلايو( 

،Eينواتيف 

،ينٌؤتلايو ىٌاٍَيِزاكةب 

نياةسةئ ىاسةت و هؤترةسيلؤك ةةل واةضزةب ىةوةةٌدسك 

ًةك ىؤِ ةووب ىيةَلةكَيت ةب 

. هؤترٌؤك ىثوسط َهةط ةل دزوازةب ةب يشوقزوق ىثوسط ةل 

) 

C ينواتيظ + E ينواتيظ( 

ىؤِةةب ،ةوؤبشزةةب واضزةب ىكةيةوَيش ةب ََيوخ ىوادزةش ىتشط ىٍيتؤسث ىةتاك وةل ،ََيوخ ىوادزةش لىؤيرسيمط 

و ينٍيتايسك . وازدَيث يشوقزوق ىتاتيسسةئ ىثوسط َهةطةل دزوازةب ةب ىيةَلةكَيت ةب 

E 

ةو 

ينواتيظ + ينٌؤتلايو و ينٌؤتلايو 

ةب ووبازدَيث ُايشموقزوق ةك ىةٌاجزوج وةل ةوةتَيببشزةب واضزةب ىكةيةوَيش ةب ةك توةكزةد او كيزوي ىشست 

و ايزوي 

و ايزوي و ينٍيتايسك ىيةَلةكَيت ةب E ينواتيظ + ينٌؤتلايو ،ينٌؤتلايو ةوةست ىكةيلاةل . هؤترٌؤك يثوسط َهةطةل دزوازةب 

ةةل 

. يةشوقزوق ةةب وازدةَيث ىجزوج َهةط ةل دزوازةب ةب ةوةدسكوةك 

ََيوخ ىوادزةش ةل ينبؤيرميب و كيزوي ىشست 

نياسةئ ىاست و هؤيرتسلؤك ىتسائ ىةوةٌووبشزةب ىؤِ ةتَيبةد يشوقزوق ىٌةياخرَيزد ىٌادَيث تَيوةكةدزةد ادوانجةزةد 

ىٌادَيث ىؤِةب 

ةوةتَيبةد ًةك ةٌاٌوضكَيت ًةئ . ًَيوخ ىوادزةش ةل ىتشط ىٍيبؤيرميب و كيزوي ىشست و ايزوي و هؤيرسيمط 

ينواتيظ ُاي اٌّةت ةب ، C ينواتيظ ،E 

ينواتيظ ،ينٌؤتلايو ةل ستايش ىكةيةوَيش ةب 

E 

ينواتيظ َهةطةل ىيةَلةكَيت ةب ينٌؤتلايو 

. 

ىيةَلةكَيتةب E وC


ناذرجلا يف ةيلكلا ةفيظو تارابتخاو موحشلا عاونا ضعب ىلع مهتلاخادتو C نيماتيف ،E 

صاصرلاب ممستلل ةضرعملا 

نيماتيف ،نينوتلايملا ءاطعا ريثأت 

صخلملا 

ءار عا نرم دريدع ىرلع رثىري نا نركمي صارصرلا ب ارمب ممرستلا نا . ةر يبلا يرف برريكب ررشترم و يرعيبع رر رع صارصرلا رربتعي 

و مهرريب خادرتلاو 

E نيمارتيف ، C نيمارتيف ،نينورتلايملا ءارطعا ريثأرت ةرفرعمل ورم ةريلاحلا ةر اردلا نرم درهلا نا . مسجلا 

و ةرعبرا مدختر ا . صارصرلاب ممرستلا ةثدحترسملا ناذررجلا يرف مدرلا مل ةيئايميكويبلا سيياقملا ضعب ىلع ةليوع بدمل 

،برطيرسلا تارناويح : يرم يمارجملا 

تاتيرر أ ،) 

ررشلا ءاررم ررتل / مررغلم 1.0( 

مررغك/ 

ةرريلو بدررحو 0111( 

رريكرتب 

+ نينورتلايم + صارصرلا تاتير أ( 

: تلاخادرتلا ،) 

E 

. 

يمارجم رست ىرلع تارناويحلا رعزو . ةر اردلا 

ريكرتب صاررصرلا تاتير 

أ ،) 

نيماررتيف + صاررصرلا تاتيرر أ ،) 

ررشلا ءام رتل/ 

مغلم 0( 

رررشلا ءارم رررتل / مرغلم0 

. 1( 

ررلع مررغك/ 

مررغلم 01( 

رم يرف هارنفا نرم اذررر نورسمخ 

رريكرتب موي ور لا تاتير أ 

رريكرتب نينوررتلايم + صاررصرلا 

يكرتب C نيماتيف + صاصرلا تاتي أ ،) 

.) C نيماتيف + E نيماتيف + صاصرلا تاتي أ( 

ةعومجم و ) C نيماتيف + نينوتلايم + صاصرلا تاتي أ( 

،) 

E 

ب اررمب ةررلماعملا ةررعومجم رر م يررف ةرريثلايلا موحررشلا و يررلكلا وورتررسلوكلا وتررسم يررف ةرريورعم تا ارريز ائاررترلا رررهظت 

و 

E 

نيمارتيف+ 

نينورتلايم نيرب خادرتلاو 

E 

نيمارتيف ،نينورتلايملا 

ءارطعا ت ا 

لع 


. برطيرسلا ةرعومجمب ةرنراقم صارصرلا تلارخ 

وتررسم ررلا رر ولا يررف ،ةرريثلايلا موحررشلاو يررلكلا وورترسلوكلا وتررسم يررف ةرريورعم تاررضافخنا ىررلا 

ريرويلا ضمارحو اريروي ،نيريتاريركلا وترسم نا 

C 

+ 

E 

نيمارتيف 

. صارصرلا تلارخب ةرلماعملا ةرعومجملا يرف اريورعم ت ا زا ىرلكلا نيتورربلا 

ةرلماعملا نارف ررخا ةرهر نرمو . برطيرسلا تارناويحب ةرنراقم صارصرلا تاتير أب ةلماعملا ناذرجلا يف ةيورعم تا ايز ترهظا 

نيبورريلبلاو ريرويلا ضمارح ،اريروي ،نيتاريركلا وترسم يرف ايورعم اضافخنا بب اعم 

E 

نيماتيف + نينوتلايم ،نينوتلايملاب 

ب ارمب ةرلماعملا ناذررجلا نأرب ةريلاحلا ة اردلا نم اترتست . صاصرلا تاتي أب ةلماعملا 

ناذرجلاب ةنراقم ملا يف يلكلا 

اررريرويلاو نيريتاررريركلاو ةررريثلايلا موحرررشلاو يرررلكلا وورترررسلوكلا وترررسم يرررف ةرررظوحلم ب اررريز تررررهظا ةرررليوع بدرررمل صارررصرلا 

ةررريعيبطلا ارررهتلاح ىررلا ت ارررع تارررريغتلا 

ررم مرررظعم نا 

دررح ىررلع ررك C 

نيماررتيف ، 

E 

نيماررتيف ،نينوررتلايم ءاررطعا يررف ررريكا 

. مدرررلا ررر م يررف يرررلكلا نيبورررريلبلا وتررسمو ررريرويلا ضماررح و 

اررعم 

E 

نيماررتيف 

+ 

نينوررتلايم ءاررطعا ةطرر اوب 

. 

اعم Cو 

Eتاريماتيفلا 

وا 

185


Hyalomma aegyptium AS A DOMINANT TICK ON CERTAIN TORTOISES 

OF THE Testudo graeca IN ERBIL PROVINCE-KURDISTAN REGION-IRAQ 

186 

QARAMAN MAMAKHIDR KOYEE 

Dept. of Biology, College of Science, University of Salahaddin, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

(Received: October 30, 2010; Accepted for publication: June 4, 2011) 

ABSTRACT 

Ticks are obligatory blood-sucking arachnid arthropods infecting mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians. 

Hyalomma aegyptium parasites tortoises and other animals. The main objective of the current study was to determine 

and identify prevalence of ticks on certain tortoises in Erbil province-Kurdistan Region, Iraq. The study was carried 

out over a four months period from the beginning of March to the beginning of July 2010. A total of 18 tortoises were 

sampled from certain places of Erbil province (Koya, Bastora, Kalak and Graw). The captured tortoises were 

inspected closely for the presence of ticks with naked eyes, magnifying lens, dissecting microscope and light 

microscope. And also, sites of tick attachment were recorded. Out of 18 examined tortoises, 14 of them were infested 

with ticks. A total of 123 ticks were collected from infested tortoises. The infestation rates and mean intensity of male 

and female tortoises was 75%, 80% and 9.5, 8.25 respectively. According to the gender of the isolated ticks, male ticks 

(71) were found from more tortoises than were females (52). Ticks were attached to the neck and axilla of fore and 

hind legs of tortoises. All ticks were determined to be H. aegyptium, it was considered as a first record on the tortoises 

in Kurdistan Region. 

KEYWORDS: Hyalomma aegyptium, Ticks, Tortoises, Kurdistan Region-Ebil-Iraq 

M 

INTRODUCTION 

any species of reptiles are prevalent in 

the Iraqi ecosystems. Which include 

many categories like lizards, snakes, tortoises 

and turtles. However, very little attention has 

been paid by Iraqi and non-Iraqi biologists to the 

parasites of any group of them (Al-Barwari and 

Saeed, 2007). 

Testudo graeca Linnaeus 1758, or the 

spurthighed tortoise, is an endangered species 

with a broad distribution range. It can be found 

in northern Africa (e.g. Morocco, Algeria, 

Tunisia and Libya), the Middle East (e.g. 

Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, and Iraq), Europe 

(Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, Greece, and 

multiple introductions into Spain and Greece), 

and in Asia (e.g. Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, 

Turkmenistan, Iran, and possibly Afghanistan) 

(Beshkov and Nanev, 2002; Boyan et al., 2003). 

Reptiles act as hosts to a variety of parasitic 

organisms. Ectoparasites in the form of ticks and 

mites are particularly conspicuous and may be 

commonly found on reptiles (Stafford and 

Meyer, 2000). 

Ticks are obligatory blood-sucking arachnid 

arthropods infecting mammals, birds, reptiles 

and amphibians. They possess tremendous 

potential for transmitting organisms that may 

cause disease in humans and other animals 

(Anderson and Harrington, 2008). 

Species of the genus Hyalomma are mediumsized 

or large ticks, with eyes and long 

mouthparts. The males have ventral plates on 

each side of the anus. They are most commonly 

found on legs, udder, and tail or perianal region. 

About 20 species are found, usually in semidesert 

lowlands of central Asia, southern Europe 

and North of Africa. They can survive 

exceptionally cold and dry conditions. Adults of 

a number of species parasitize domestic 

mammals. H. aegyptium may be introduced on 

tortoises (Wall and Shearer, 2001). 

The vast literature regarding ticks has centered 

mostly around 10% of the world tick fauna, 

which have been well recognized for their 

medical and veterinary significance (Hoogstraal, 

1985). 

Out of 77 statistically comparable tick 

collections, comprising 792 specimens were 

made from adults of the Russian spur-thighed 

tortoise, T. g. nikolskii, at 4 sites along Russia's 

Black Sea coast. The first tick collections 

reported from T. g. nikolskii. All ticks were 

determined to be Hyalomma aegyptium (Robbins 

et al., 1998). 

In the spring 2001, 6 ticks (4 male, 2 female) 

were observed and collected in 2 turtles, Testudo 

graeca in Kerman province at south part of Iran. 

This confirmed that they have been Hyalomma 

aegyptium, a common turtle parasite (Nabian 

and Mirsalimi, 2002). 

Testudo graeca tortoises were collected in the 

northern and southern Golan Heights and 

various locations in Israel and Palestine.


Hyoalomma oegyptium ticks were found only on 

Golan Height tortoises (Paperna, 2006). 

From 211 tortoises belonging to three 

species, Testudo marginata Schoepff, T. graeca 

Linnaeus, and T. hermanni Gmelin were 

sampled throughout Greece, Bulgaria, Romania 

and Croatia (Balkan countries), revealed the 

presence of four species of ixodid ticks (1327 in 

number), namely Hyalomma aegyptium 

(Linnaeus), Haemaphysalis sulcata Canestrini 

and Fanzago, H. inermis Birula and 

Rhipicephalus sanguineus (Latreille). It was 

confirmed the strong dominance of all life stages 

of H. aegyptium among ticks parasitizing west 

Palaearctic tortoises of genus Testudo Linnaeus 

(Siroký et al., 2006). 

Tavassoli et al. (2007) collected 117 ticks 

from 14 infested tortoises out of 32 examined in 

Urmia Region, Iran. 

The study of tortoises tick is a neglected field 

of zoological study in Iraq. To date as far as it is 

discernible from the review of the literature, 

there were no studies on tortoise's tick in Erbil; 

therefore the present study was aimed to record 

the incidence of ticks among tortoises in a 

certain places of the studied area (Kaya, Bastora, 

Kalak and Graw), and to determine the intensity 

of infestation. 


Total samples of 18 tortoises (Testudo graeca 

Linnaeus, 1758) were collected and classified 

according to Khalaf (1959) during the beginning 

of March to the beginning of July 2010, from 

different locations of Erbil province-Iraq. The 

selections of the samples (two sexes) were at 

randomly (10 females and 8 males), and then 

they were brought alive into the animal house of 

Science College, Biology Department for further 

examination. 

The captured tortoises were inspected closely 

for the presence of ticks with naked eyes, 

magnifying lens, dissecting microscope and light 

microscope. And also sites of tick attachment 

were recorded. 

Ticks were collected by using thin tweezers 

and immediately placed into screw–capped vials 

containing several minute holes; vials were 

properly identified and conditioned under room 

temperature few days or weeks for species 

identifications (Tavassoli et al., 2007). The ticks 

were identified using standard text by Wall and 

Shearer (2001) as follow: 

1. Gnathosoma projecting anteriorly and visible 

whene specimen seen from above: scutum 

present, covering the dorsal surface completely 

(Male); stigmata plates large; situated posteriorly 

to the coxae of the fourth pair of 

legs……………..Ixodidae. 

2. Anal groove entirely posterior to the anus. 

3. Eyes present. 

4. Palps much longer than wide. 

5. Palps with second segment less than twice as 

long as third segment, scutum without 

pattern…………….. Hyalomma sp. 


Table 1, out of 18 tortoises were collected, 14 

of them (6 males and 8 females) were infested 

with Hyalomma aegyptium (Fig. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5) 

as a first record on the tortoises in Kurdistan 

Region. The observation of H. aegyptium on 

tortoises is in agreement with Robbins et al. 

(1998) in Russia, Nabian and Mirsalimi (2002) 

in Iran, Paperna (2006) in Israel, Siroký et al. 

(2006) in Balkan countries and Tavassoli et al. 

(2007) in Iran. 

The infestation rates and mean intensity of 

male and female tortoises was 75%, 80% and 

9.5, 8.25 respectively. Statistically there were no 

significant differences between infestation rates 

of both sexes (P>0.05). This indicates that 

whatever influences the reptilian sex hormones 

exert on their parasites, they are not profoundly 

reflected on the levels of parasitization (Al- 

Barwari and Saeed, 2007). This result is in 

disagreement with those reported by Robbins et 

al. (1998), they mentioned that more ticks 

parasitized male tortoises than females. 

According to the gender of the isolated ticks 

male ticks (71) were found from more tortoises 

than were females (52). This is may be due to 

the fact that the males remain on their host and 

mate with several females; they will eventually 

drop from their host, while the female upon 

obtaining a blood meal detach and drop into the 

leaf litter to lay a single batch of eggs, they dies 

shortly after laying her eggs (Anderson and 

Harrington, 2008). 

Some factors of the host that affecting the 

ticks for seeking them, include detection of 

carbon dioxide and ammonia. The front legs of 

the ticks have specialized organs on them to 

detect carbon dioxide gradients from 

approaching hosts (Sonenshine, 1993). As it is 

obvious that the outcome of respiration and 

urination processes is carbon dioxide and 

ammonia respectively, this is explained the sites 

of tick attachments, collected ticks of the current 

study were attached to the neck and axillae of 

fore and hind legs of the tortoises, and this is in 

agreement with that revealed by Tavassoli et al. 

(2007) in Iran, that they mentioned the same tick 

infestation sites on the T. gareca. 

187


188 

Table (1):- Prevalence, mean intesity and preference sites of Hyaloma aegyptium in relation to gender of 

Testudo graeca collected from Erbil province. 

Tortoises' 

gender 

Male 

Female 

2 

No. of 

examined 

tortoises 

No. of 

positive 

tortoises 

8 6 32 25 

No. of isolated ticks Site of tick 

Male Female 

attachment 

Neck and axilla of 

fore and hind legs 

Prevalence 

(%) 

Mean 

intensity 

75 9.5 

10 8 39 27 

Neck and axilla of 

fore and hind legs 

80 8.25 

18 14 71 52 - 77.77 8.87 

1 

Fig. (1):- H. aegyptium ticks attached to axilla of hind legs. 

Fig. (2):- H. aegyptium female tick, dorsal view. Fig. (3):- H. aegyptium female tick, ventral view. 

4 5 

Fig. (4):- H. aegyptium male tick, dorsal view. Fig. (5):- H. aegyptium male tick, ventral view. 

3


REFERENCES 

-Al-Barwari, S.E. and Saeed, I. (2007). On the helminth 

founa of some Iraqi Reptiles. Türkiye Parazitoloji 

Derneği, 31 (4): 330-336. 

-Anderson, R.R. and Harrington, L.C. (2008). Tick Biology 

for the Homeowner. Entomology at Ithaca-College 

of Agriculture and Life Science at Cornell 

University. 11pp, from 

www.entomology.cornell.edu/.../TickBioFS.html; 

last updated: February 25, 2008). 

-Beshkov, V.l. and Nanev, K. (2002). Amphibians and 

Reptiles in Bulgaria.-Pensoft, p. 120. 

-Boyan, P.; Vladimir, P.; Popgeorgiev, B.G. and Plachyiski, 

D. (2003). National Action Plan for Tortoises 

Conservation in Bulgaria, Vers.1, BSPB, NMNHS- 

BAS, Sofia. 

-Hoogstraal, H. (1985). Argasid and Nuttalliellid ticks 

as parasites and vectors. Advance Parasitology, 

24: 135-138. 

-Khalaf, K.T. (1959). Reptiles of Iraq with some notes on 

the Amphibians. Published by a Grant from the 

Ministry of Education of Iraq. Ar-Rabitta Press. 

Baghdad. 96pp (87p). 

-Nabian, S. and Mirsalimi, S.M. (2002). First Report of 

Presence of Hyaloma aegyptium Tick From Testudo 

graeca Turtle In Iran. Journal of Veternary 

Research; 57 (3): 61-63. 

-Paperna, I. (2006). Hemolivia mauritanica 

(Haemogregarinidae: Apicomplexa) infection in the 

tortoise Testudo graeca in the Near East with data 

on sporogonous development in the tick vector 

Hyalomna aegyptium. Parasite, 13 (4): 267-73. 

-Robbins, R.G., Karesh, W.B., Calle, P.P., Leontyeva, 

O.A., Pereshkolnik, S.L. and Rosenberg, S. (1998). 

First records of Hyalomma aegyptium (Acari: 

Ixodida: Ixodidae) from the Russian spur-thighed 

tortoise, Testudo graeca nikolskii, with an analysis 

of tick population dynamics. Journal of 

Parasitology., 84 (6): 1303-1305. 

-Siroký, P.; Petrzelková, K.J.; Kamler, M.; Mihalca, A.D. 

and Modrý, D. (2006). Hyalomma aegyptium as 

dominant tick in tortoises of the genus Testudo 

in Balkan countries, with notes on its host 

preferences. Experimental Application Acarology, 

40 (3-4): 279-90. 

-Sonenshine, D. E. (1993). Biology of ticks. Vol. 2. Oxford 

University Press, New York. 

-Stafford, P.J. and Meyer, J.R. (2000). A guide to the 

Reptiles of Belize. The Natural History Museum, 

London. Academic Press. London. 356pp. 

-Tavassoli, E.; Rahimi-Asiabi, N. and Tavassoli, M. (2007). 

Hyalomma aegyptium on spur-tighed tortoise 

(Testudo graeca) in Urmia region West Azarbaijan, 

Iran. Iranian Journal of Parasitololgy, 2: 40-47. 

-Wall, R. and Shearer, D. (2001). Veterinary Ectoparasites: 

Biology, Pathology and Control. 2 nd edn., Blackwell 

Science. Oxford. 262pp. 

189


ياطشَيراثةه 

190 

Testudo graeca 

يخموت يناكةَهةضيكةه مَيدنةي رةصةه َياس يكةيةنِزق وكةو 

قازَيع-ىاتصدروك 

يٌَيرةي-زَيهوةي 

Hyaloma aegyptium 

و ىاكةكؤصخ و ىاكةدهَهاب و ىاكةرةديرش يشووت ةك راضان يذً وَيوخ ييةكؤَهاجَهاج يرادةطًوج َيث ةه ينتزبةنِزق 

مةه يكةرةص ينجاًائ . ةزت ينارةوةنايط و ىاكةَهةضيك يرؤخةصً Hyaloma aegyptium . وبةد ىاكةي يكةوالشوو 

مَيدنةي ةه ىاكةنِزق يرؤخةصً ةب ىووب سووت يةذَيِر يندزلناصين تصةد و ىدزليرايد ةه ووب تييزب ادةيةوةهيذَيوت 

دتناياخ يطناتً راوتض يةواتً ةتكةوةهيَهؤلَيه . قازتَيع-ىاتتصدروك 

يٌَيرةي -زَيهوةي 

ياطشَيراث يناكةَهةضيك ةه 

ةه مَيدنةي ةه ةوةنازكؤك َيةضيك 

01 يؤك . 0202 

ةتخوث 

يَهاص يسوًةت يطناً ياتةرةص وكات تراً يطناً ياتةرةصةه 

يواضةب ىازهَيلصث ةوةليشنةه ىاكةوايرط َيةضيك .) زَيوط و نةهةك و ةرؤتصةب و ةيؤك( 

زَيهوةي ياطشَيراث يناكةضوان 

ىاكةنِزق يناصوون نيَيوش ايةورةي ةو . ىاكةنِزق ينووب تيصةبةً ةب يياهشؤِر نييبدروو و يرالَيوت نييبدروو و يياصائ 

وةزَين يِزضةدنةوان و ىووب شووت يةذَيِر . ىاكةووب شووت ةَهةضيك ةه ةوةنازكؤك ةنِزق 001 تيصط يؤك . ىازكراًؤت 

ةنِزق يناكةخموت يةزَيوطةب . ادكةي ياودةب 1.03 , 5.3 ةو % 12 , % 53 ةه ووب تييزب ىاكةووب 

شووت ةَهةضيك يةي َيً 

.) 30( 

ىاكةتي َيتً ةتنِزقَ َيةطةه دروارةبةب ىاكةَهةضيك يةبرؤسةه ىازهيب و ىووب 

50 ىاكةزَين ةنِزق , ىاكةوازكايج 

ةه ةك ىازناداو ىاكةنِزق ووًةي . ىاكةَهةضيك يةواود يهةث وةوةصَيث يهةث يَوطنةًهب و ىً ةب ىووباصوون ىاكةنِزق 

يٌَيرةي ةه ىاكةَهةضيك رةصةه وازك ساب يرؤخةصً يراًؤت مةكةي ادةيةوةهيذَيوت مةه . ىووب 

H. aegyptium 

. ازكراًؤت 

ةظفاخم يف Testudo graeca سنج نم فحلاس ضعب ىلع دئاس 

دارقك Hyaloma aegyptium 

و فيحاوزلا و روييطلا و تايديثلا 

قارعلا- 

ناتسدروك ميلقا-ليبرا 

يخمووت 

ىاتدروك 


ييصي لفطتلا يرابجا يليفط و مدلل ةصاملا 

لجرلااةيلصفم تايتوبكنعلا نم دارقلا 

ربتعي 

نايك ةيساردلا هذه نم يساسلاا فدهلا 

. ىرخلاا تاناويخلا و فحلاسلا ىلع Hyaloma aegyptium لفطتي . تايئامربلا 

تزيجنا . قاريعلا-ناتيسدروك 

مييلقا-لييبرا 

ةيظفاخم ييف فحلايسلا ضيعب يلع ةلفطتملا 

طاينم ضيعب نيم ةفخليس 

01 

يمج ايهللاخ ميت , 0202 

دارقب ةباصلاا ةبسن صيخشتو داجيا 

ويمت 

رهيش ةييادب ىيلا رااا رهيش ةييادب نيم رهيشا ةعبرا للاخ ةساردلا 

رييبكت تايسدع و ةدريجملا نييعلا ةطيساوب ةيقيقد ةرويصب 

ريق نيع يصخف ) ريويك و يلك و ةرؤتسب و ةيؤك( 

ليبرا 

ةظفاخم 

فحلاييس 01 نيييب نييم . ةافخلييسلا مييسج ىييلع دارييقلا قاييصتلا ييقوم ليجييست مييت اييضياو . يئويي رييهجم و جيرييشت رييهجمو 

روكذييلا فحلاييسلل ةباييصلاا ةدييش و ةباييصلاا 

ةبييسن . ة دارييق 001 عومجماييهنم 

ييمج 

. دارقلاييب ةباييصم 

نيم يعمج 

يذيلاو ريكا 50 نايك لوزيعملا داريقلا سنيجل ةبيسنلاب ايما . يلاويتلا ىلع 1.03 , 5.3 و % 12 , % 53 

و . ةييفلخلا و ةييماملاا ليجرلاا 

و 

يبلاا يختو نعلايب اقيصتلم لوزيعملا داريقلا ناك .) 30( 

ييناك 02 , ةييصوفخم 

ناك ثانلاا 

ثانلااب ةنراقم فحلاسلا ةيرثكا 

ةافخليسلا ىيلع روكذيلا ييليفطلل ليجيست لوا ةييلاخلا ةيسارد ريبتعت و . H. aegyptium عوين نيم لوزعملا دارقلا 

يمج ناك 

. 

ناتسدروك ميلقا يف


ON DETECTIONOF FEEDBACK IN THE TIME SERIES 

SAMEERA ABDULSALAM OTHMAN 

School of Basic Education, Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Duhok, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

(Received: November 27, 2010; Accepted for publication: June 26, 2011) 

ABSTRACT 

This research has characterized is the detection of feedback between output series and input series. The 

importance of detective appearance of feedback when has the adequate model is known, it also has applied to some 

method for detecting the feedback by using two methods. The first method is testing of cross-correlation function 

between prewhitening to the input and output series, where it has founded cross-correlation between prewhitening of 

the input series ( � ) and residual series (at) .The second method is uses to F test between two series of input and 

t 

output. It is appearing that the Dynamical Regression models have no adequacy in feedback, then the Multivariate 

Autoregressive should be used in the case. 

KEYWORDS: feedback, output series, input series, residual series, Dynamic Regression 

T 

INTRODUCTION 

his research includes the application of 

some statistical technique for studying 

the time series of the average monthly humidity 

as an output series with one of the variables 

which affect on it, that series of the average 

monthly relative rainfall as an input which is 

measured at the meteorological station of Dohuk 

the techniques used are the modeled by 

an(ARIMA) model as well as the dynamic 

regression model. Relatively the dynamic 

regression models ( are that models take the 

time into account),the modeling of the dynamic 

regression shows how are that output result and 

the input and are depending on each other: 

1- the relation of the lag time with the input and 

output. 

2-The time composition for the turbulence 

series. 

And for getting an economic model, the 

relative model was identified by identifying the 

linear transformation function was of the degree 

(1,0,1), and when the values of turbulence series 

were examined by using autocorrelation and 

partial autocorrelation coefficients, it is found 

that all of the coefficients were insignificant and 

that is proved that the turbulence series is a 

series of random residuals, so that: Nt =at . 

1- THE BASIC CONCEPTS 

1-1 Stationary And Non Stationary Time 

Series: 

If the underlying generating process for a time 

series is based on a constant mean and a constant 

variance, then the time series is stationary. More 

formally, a series is stationary if its statistical 

properties are independent of the particular time 

period during time in which it is observed. And 

time series exhibit non stationary if the 

underlying generating process does not have a 

constant mean and a constant variance. In 

practice, a visual inspection of the plotted time 

series can help to determine if either or both of 

these conditions exist. And the set of 

autocorrelations for the time series can be used 

to confirm the presence of stationary or not [4] 

& [6]. 

1-2 Mean Squared Error (Mse): 

The mean squared error is a measure of 

accuracy computed by squaring the error for 

each item in a data set and then finding the 

average or mean value of those squares, the 

mean squared error gives greater weight to large 

errors than to small errors because the errors are 

squared before being summed [4]. 

1-3 Autocorrelation Functio (Acf): 

This term is used to describe the correlation 

between values of the same time series at 

different time periods. It is similar to crosscorrelation 

but relates the series to different time 

lags, thus there may be an autocorrelation for a 

time of lag 1, another autocorrelation for a time 

of lag 2, and so on. And the pattern of 

autocorrelations for lags 1, 2, 3,… is known as 

the autocorrelation function. A plot of the ACF 

against the lag is known as the correlogram. It is 

frequently used to identify whether or not 

seasonality is present in a given time series (and 

the length of that seasonality), to identify 

191


appropriate time series models for specific 

situations, and to determine if data are stationary 

or not. The autocorrelation function at lag k is 

defined by: 

E [( z t ��)( z t �k 

��)] 

�k 

� 

(1) 

2 2 

E [( z ��) ] E [( z ��) 

] 

192 

t t �k 

Where zt : Observation at time t. 

μ: Mean of observations. 

ρk: autocorrelation function of lag k 

[4]&[6]&[7]. 

1-4 Partial Autocorrelation Function (Pacf): 

This measure of correlation is used to 

identify the extent of relationship between 

current values of a variable with earlier values of 

the same variable (values for various time lags) 

while holding the effects of all other time lags 

constant. Thus it is completely analogous to 

partial correlation but refers to a single variable. 

The standard formula for calculating partial 

autocorrelation function is: 

ˆ � � r 

ˆ � 

11 1 

k �1 

r � ˆ � r 

k k �1, j k �j 

kk � 

j �1 

k �1 

1� 

� 

� 

j �1 

ˆ � 

r 

k �1, 

j k 

(k=2, 2,3,…) 

ˆ � � ˆ � � ˆ � ˆ � 

Where k j �1 k, j � k1 k�, k k j 

ˆ � kk : partial autocorrelation function 

of lag k. 

rk: estimated value of ρk [4]&[7] . 

1-5 Autoregressive (Ar) Model: 

Model autoregression is a form of regression, 

but instead of the variable to be forecasted being 

related to other explanatory variables, it is 

related to past values of itself at varying time 

lags. Thus an autoregressive model would 

express the forecast as a function of previous 

values of that time series. Suppose that {at} is a 

purely random process with mean zero and 

variance σ 2 a then the process {Zt} is said to be an 

autoregressive process of order p, AR(p), if it 

satisfies the difference equation: 

Zt = C +� 1 Zt-1 +� 2 Zt-2 + . . .+ � pZt-p + at 

Where Zt: The value of time series at time t. 

C : Constant. 

� j : jth autoregressive parameter. 

at : White noise 

the necessary condition that the AR(p) be 

stationary is � j


relationship between the forecast variable and 

the explanatory variable is model using a 

transfer function. A DR model states how an 

output (Yt ) is linearly related to current and past 

value of one or more input (X1,t , X2,t , X3,t ,…) it 

is usually assumed that observations of the 

various series occur at equally spaced time 

intervals. While the output may be affected by 

the inputs, a crucial assumption is that the inputs 

are not affected by the outputs this means that 

we are limited to single equation models [6]. 

2.2 Transfer Function 

For simplicity we will discuss just one input. 

The ideas we develop here are easily extended to 

multiple inputs if Yt depends on Xt in some way 

we may write this as 

Yt = f(Xt ) (2) 

Where f(.) is some mathematical function. The 

function f(.) is called a transfer function. The 

effect of a change in Xt is transferred to Yt in 

some way specified by the function f(.).In 

general, however, there are other factors causing 

variation in Yt besides changes in the specified 

input, we capture those other factors with an 

additives stochastic disturbance (Nt) that may be 

auto correlated . Nt represents the effects of all 

excluded inputs on the variability of Yt .The 

input – output relationship may also have an 

additive the constant term (C) .This is a buffer 

term that captures the effect of excluded inputs 

on the overall level of Yt , thus we are 

considering models of the form 

Yt = C + f(Xt) + Nt (3) 

Where Yt : is the output 

Xt: is the input 

C: is the constant term. 

f(Xt): is the transfer function 

Nt : is the stochastic disturbance which may be 

auto correlated 

Nt is assumed to be independent of Xt 

Input Nt 

output Xt → [ transfer function] → Yt 

[1]&[2]&[6] 

2-3 Impulse Response Function 

We can write a linearly distributed lag 

transfer function in back shift form by defining 

v(B) as 

v(B) = v0 + v1B + v2B 2 + v3B 3 + … (4) 

where B is the backshift operator defined such 

that 

B k Xt = Xt-k 

We can write the transfer function f(Xt) as a 

liner combination of current and past Xt value: 

Yt = f(Xt ) 

= v0 Xt + v1 Xt-1 + v2 Xt-2 + v3 Xt-3 + … (5) 

Using equation (4),(5) may be rewritten as 

Yt = v(B) Xt (6) 

Equation (6) is a compact way of saying that 

there is a linearly distributed lag relationship 

between change in Xt and changes in Yt .The 

individual vk weights in v(B), (v0 , v1, v2, v3, … ) 

are called the impulse response weights we can 

estimate that the vk weights as follows 

^ 

� � ^ 

Vk = � ( k ) 

^ �� 

(7) 

� 

Where 

� 

^ 

� ( k ) estimates the cross 

�� 

correlation between �� , 

^ 

� � : standard deviation of � 

^ 

� � : standard deviation of � [5]&[6] 

2-4 Dead Time 

Yt might not react immediately to a change in Xt 

, some initial v weights may be zero. The 

number of v weights equal to zero (starting with 

v0 ) is called dead time denoted as b, starting 

with v0, there is one v weight equal to zero (v0 = 

0), so b=1. Alternatively if v0 = v1 = v2 = 0 and 

v3 � 0 then b=3 [5]&[6] 

2-5 The Rational Distributed Lag Family 

The Koyck impulse response function is just one 

member of the family of rational polynomial 

distributed lag models. This family is a set of 

impulse response functions v(B) given by 

b 

v(B) = 

w ( B ) B 

(8) 

� ( B ) 

where 

w(B) = w0 + w1B + w2B 2 + …+whB h (9) 

and 

2 

r 

� ( B ) �1 ��1B��2B�... � �r 

B (10) 

Where h: represents the order of (w) 

r: represents the order of (� ) 

Extending this frame work to m inputs, 

i=1,2,…,m, is straight forward. The result may 

be written compactly as 

Yt = 

m 

� 

i �1 

v ( B ) X 

i i , t 

m 

bi 

= w i ( B ) B 

� X (11) [5]&[6] 

it , 

� ( B ) 

i �1 

i 

2-6 Building Dynamic Regression Models(Dr) 

A dynamic regression (DR) model with one 

input consists of a transfer function plus a 

disturbance. This may be written as 

Yt = c + v(B) Xt + Nt 

193


Where 

s 

�( B ) �( 

B) 

Nt = 

a 

s D d t 

�( B ) �( B) 

�s� and 

at : is zero mean and normally distributed white 

noise [3]&[5]& [6]. 

2-7 Preparation And Prewhitening Of The 

Inputs And Outputs Series 

Rewriting this process, we may think of AR and 

MA operators as a filter that, when applied to 

Xt , produces an uncorrelated residual series 

�1 

� � � ( B ) � ( B ) X 

t x x t 

^ 

The series � t (in practice � t ) is called the 

pre whitened Xt series now suppose we apply the 

same filter to Yt : this will produce another 

residual series 

�1 

� � � ( B ) � ( B ) Y [1]&[2]&[5] 

t x x t 

2-8 Identifiction 

A) Estimation Of The Impulse Response 

Weights 

Equation (8) shows that if we prewhiten the 

input, and apply the same filter to the output, 

then the v weights are proportion to the cross 

correlations of the residuals from these two 

filtering procedures. in practice we don’t 

know the parameters on the right side of 

equation (8). instead we substitute estimates of 

these parameters obtained from the data to arrive 

at the following estimated v weights 

^ 

r ( ) 

^ �� k � � 

v k � [5] 

^ 

� 

194 

� 

b) Identifiction of (r,s,b) for the transfer 

function 

We obtain the identity 

v � 0 

j b + s 

j 1 j �1 2 j �2 ... r j �r 

C) Disturbance Series 

We generate an estimate of the Nt series 

denoted by N ^ t, the estimate disturbance series 

and it is computed as: 

N ^ t= Yt - v(B) Xt 

w s ( B) b 

= Yt - B X t 

�r 

( B ) 

This disturbance series ( Nt ) in a dynamic 

regression will often be autocorrelated. 

�N( B ) N t � �N( 

B ) at 

where 

at : is zero mean and normally distributed white 

noise [5] 

2-9 Estimation 

At the identification stage we tentatively 

specify a rational from transfer function model 

of orders(b,r,s), and a disturbance series ARIMA 

model of orders (p,d,q) We identified the 

following DR model 

b 

w ( B ) B �N 

( B ) 

Y t � X t � at 

(12) 

�( B) �N( 

B) 

At the second stage of our modeling strategy 

we estimate the parameters of the identified DR 

model using the available data. To estimate (12) 

we will use initial values to refer to coefficient 

values can often be found from identification 

stage information to estimate the coefficients in 

w(B) and � ( B ) the next step in estimation is to 

compute the SSR(sum of squared residuals) 

SSR = 

n 

� 

i �1 

a 

2 

i 

Is used to choose better model coefficients, 

by taking the minimum SSR [2]&[3]&[4] 

2-10 Check for feedback 

Serious model inadequacy can usually be 

detected by examining 

r k of the 

a) the autocorrelation function ^ ( ) a 

^ 

residuals at from the fitted model 

b) certain cross correlation function are 

involving input and residuals: in particular the 

cross correlation function r ^ ( k) 

between 

�a 

^ 

prewhitened input �t and the residuals a t .An 

important assumption in building a singleequation 

DR model is that there is no 

feedback from earlier values of the output to 

current values of the inputs. The possibility of 

feedback arises whenever the inputs 

are stochastic. Essentially the same results may 

be obtained using single-equation feedback, each 

input series is regressed on its own past, on the


past of each other input, and on the past of the 

output series. The following equation may be 

estimated to check for feedback from. The past 

of Yt to Xt 

Xt = c+ b1Xt-1 + b2Xt-2 +…+ bkXt-k + d 1y t-1 + d 2y 

t-2 +…+ d ky t-k + at ( 13) 

The estimated coefficients 

^ 

d k , k=1,2,3,…K 

in (13) contain information about possible 

feedback from past values of Yt to the current 

values of Xt ,one way to check for feedback is 

to examine the individual t values of the 

^ 

d coefficients. If they are all insignificant, we 

may conclude that there is no statistical feedback 

from the past of Yt to Xt , and we may include 

Xt as an explanatory variable in a single-equation 

DR model. We should not insist on a complete 

^ 

lack of significant d coefficient in models like 

(13) we should make a reasonable allowance for 

sampling variation and recognize that the results 

from a model like(13) are only a guideline 

linearity can produce unreliable t values. It may 

also be argued that possible feedback from Yt to 

Xt is represented in(13) by all d ky t-k terms, 

k=1,2,…,K as a set, thus it is helpful to perform 

a joint test using the hypotheses Ho : d1 =d2 

=…=dk =0 

HA : d1 � d2 � … � dk � 0 at least two of 

them not equal zero 

This joint Ho may be tested with the 

following F statistic 

D.RH 

20 

10 

0 

-10 

-20 

-30 

20 

40 

( Ess1�Ess0) / k 

F � 

Rss /( n � k ) 

1 1 1 

(14) 

Where Ess1 : is the explained sum of squares 

from estimating (13) 

Ess0 : is the explained sum of squares from 

estimating (13) with the lagged y 

K :is the maximum lag on the right side 

Rss1 : is the residual sum of squares , n1 : n-k 

n: original number of observations [1]&[6] 

3- APPLICATION 

3-1 Introduction 

This section contains applying some methods 

for detecting the feedback by using two 

methods. The first method is testing of crosscorrelation 

function between prewhitening of the 

input denoted by rainfall and of the output 

denoted by humidity (RH). We take the monthly 

average of the meteorological station of Dohuk 

for the period (1992) to (2006), all data are 

shown in the tables(1) in the appendix (A). The 

second method is it used to test F between two 

series of input and output by using equation (14) 

3-2 Detection Of The Feedback 

1)Detecting of the feedback by using crosscorrelation 

between output RH(Yt) and input 

rainfall (Xt). we plot the time series of it by 

using software of Minitab (13.2) as in 

figures(1),(2) respectively we show that the 

series is stationary in mean and variance 

Fig.(1):The time series plot of(RH) Fig. (2): The time series plot of rainfall 

We plot (Autocorrelation function) ACF for 

the RH and rainfall series in figures (3),(4) we 

show that the seasonality period (8) months. 

60 

80 

100 

D.ranfall 

200 

100 

0 

-100 

-200 

20 40 60 80 100 

195


196 

Autocorrelation 

1.0 

0.8 

0.6 

0.4 

0.2 

0.0 

-0.2 

-0.4 

-0.6 

-0.8 

-1.0 

5 

LBQLag Corr T LBQ Lag Corr T LBQ Lag Corr T 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

0.53 

0.05 

-0.33 

-0.51 

-0.32 

0.00 

0.44 

0.66 

0.36 

1.0 

0.8 

0.6 

0.4 

0.2 

0.0 

-0.2 

-0.4 

-0.6 

-0.8 

-1.0 

0.17 

-0.00 

-0.23 

-0.27 

-0.09 

0.04 

0.32 

0.21 

0.15 

5.77 

0.47 

-2.90 

-4.14 

-2.33 

0.01 

3.02 

4.21 

2.04 

1.80 

-0.05 

-2.40 

-2.71 

-0.87 

0.41 

3.03 

1.85 

1.31 

34.15 

34.50 

48.26 

80.45 

93.72 

93.72 

118.40 

174.27 

191.49 

3.33 

3.34 

9.68 

18.61 

19.66 

19.91 

33.04 

38.74 

41.80 

Autocorrelation Function for RH Yt 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

-0.05 

-0.40 

-0.49 

-0.37 

-0.10 

0.33 

0.55 

0.32 

-0.11 

-0.28 

-2.16 

-2.57 

-1.81 

-0.46 

1.58 

2.60 

1.43 

-0.48 

191.84 

212.95 

245.45 

263.59 

264.84 

279.74 

321.90 

336.26 

337.97 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

Fig. (3): (Autocorrelation function) ACF for the RH 

Fig. (4): (Autocorrelation function) ACF for rainfall 

19 

15 

-0.41 

-0.54 

-0.44 

-0.07 

0.32 

0.52 

0.34 

-0.04 

-0.32 

-1.81 

-2.32 

-1.78 

-0.28 

1.26 

2.06 

1.28 

-0.16 

-1.21 

362.49 

405.18 

432.99 

433.72 

448.77 

490.27 

507.66 

507.94 

524.34 

Autocorrelation Function for ranfall x1 

Lag 

28 

29 

Corr 

-0.42 

-0.32 

We take first difference for the data as shown 

in the figures(5),(6) and plot ACF again for the 

differenced time series about rainfall and 

(PACF) in a figures(7),(8) 

25 

T 

-1.57 

-1.15 

5 15 25 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

-0.00 

-0.03 

-0.21 

-0.09 

-0.07 

0.17 

0.32 

0.15 

0.03 

-0.04 

-0.27 

-1.77 

-0.77 

-0.56 

1.36 

2.61 

1.14 

0.24 

41.81 

41.95 

47.86 

49.03 

49.67 

53.48 

68.08 

71.23 

71.37 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

-0.18 

-0.22 

-0.15 

0.01 

0.21 

0.16 

0.29 

0.03 

-0.19 

-1.39 

-1.64 

-1.07 

0.09 

1.51 

1.14 

2.05 

0.19 

-1.25 

76.27 

83.39 

86.58 

86.60 

93.20 

97.12 

110.31 

110.43 

115.80 

28 

29 

-0.20 

-0.21 

-1.36 

-1.35 

LBQ 

552.67 

568.79 

Lag Corr T LBQ Lag Corr T LBQ Lag Corr T LBQ Lag Corr T LBQ 

122.42 

129.18


D.RH 

20 

10 

0 

-10 

-20 

-30 

20 

40 

60 

80 

100 

Fig. (5): the plot for differenced time series of(RH) Fig. (6): the plot for differenced time series of(rainfall) 


Partial Autocorrelation 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

1.0 

0.8 

0.6 

0.4 

0.2 

0.0 

-0.2 

-0.4 

-0.6 

-0.8 

-1.0 

-0.12 

0.03 

-0.18 

-0.02 

0.05 

0.07 

0.25 

-0.51 

0.03 

-1.28 

0.30 

-1.88 

-0.24 

0.49 

0.75 

2.50 

-4.84 

0.25 

Fig. (7): (Autocorrelation function) ACF for differenced time series of( rainfall) 

Fig. (8): (PACF)differenced time series of( rainfall) 

D.ranfall 

200 

100 

0 

-100 

-200 

20 40 60 80 100 

5 15 25 

Lag Corr T LBQ Lag Corr T LBQ Lag Corr T LBQ Lag Corr T LBQ 

1.0 

0.8 

0.6 

0.4 

0.2 

0.0 

-0.2 

-0.4 

-0.6 

-0.8 

-1.0 

Lag 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

PAC 

1.67 

1.77 

5.58 

5.65 

5.94 

6.60 

14.12 

45.90 

46.01 

T 

0.16 

-1.88 

-0.73 

0.46 

0.60 

2.78 

-5.14 

-0.38 

5 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

-0.06 

0.14 

-0.01 

0.05 

-0.05 

-0.14 

0.15 

-0.15 

0.00 

Lag 

-0.46 

1.08 

-0.05 

0.39 

-0.37 

-1.11 

1.19 

-1.12 

0.02 

PAC 

46.43 

48.76 

48.77 

49.09 

49.37 

51.99 

55.10 

57.97 

57.97 

T 

0.75 

-0.15 

-0.63 

0.29 

0.12 

1.10 

-1.33 

-2.62 

-0.56 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

Lag 

-0.04 

0.03 

0.03 

0.01 

0.08 

-0.14 

0.20 

0.05 

0.01 

15 

PAC 

-0.31 

0.20 

0.26 

0.08 

0.57 

-1.08 

1.48 

0.37 

0.06 

58.20 

58.30 

58.46 

58.48 

59.29 

62.26 

67.96 

68.35 

68.36 

T 

0.96 

-0.71 

0.76 

-0.00 

1.04 

-0.33 

0.66 

0.32 

-0.16 

Lag 

28 

0.03 

PAC 

-0.12 -1.28 10 0.07 

19 0.09 

28 0.08 

0.01 

-0.18 

-0.07 

0.04 

0.06 

0.26 

-0.49 

-0.04 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

-0.01 

-0.06 

0.03 

0.01 

0.10 

-0.13 

-0.25 

-0.05 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

-0.07 

0.07 

-0.00 

0.10 

-0.03 

0.06 

0.03 

-0.02 

0.21 

25 

T 

0.83 

68.49 

197


The figures (7) and (8) suggest that the 

tentative model for the differenced series is 

ARMA(1,1) as shown in the equation below: 

(1 ��B ) X � (1 � �B ) � 

t 

198 

t t 

X ��X �� 

t t �1 t t �1 

� � X ��X � �� 

t t t �1 t �1 

X � � where 

1 1 

X0 = 0 

The researcher writes the program through 

the use of macro within Minitab just as program 

(1) in the appendix (B).we can find the results of 

series( � ) are the same as in the table (1). 

Table(1) : The values of ( � ) variable input (rainfall) with (� =0.7955)and (� =0.9142) 

^ 

t 

^ 

� T ^ 

t 

� t ^ 

t 

� t ^ 

t 

� t ^ 

t 

� t ^ 

t 

� t 

1 -88.000 21 -15.491 41 20.914 61 3.090 81 13.621 101 17.454 

2 -166.95 22 -19.263 42 -57.810 62 0.825 82 181.321 102 -10.213 

3 -6.126 23 -177.78 43 45.285 63 57.945 83 -11.341 103 -110.586 

4 68.599 24 -199.08 44 -43.399 64 124.244 84 -14.421 104 44.623 

5 176.766 25 114.991 45 11.351 65 -151.397 85 19.309 105 18.369 

6 63.841 26 -60.162 46 -40.951 66 73.494 86 23.930 106 83.730 

7 -29.107 27 -12.916 47 -39.515 67 8.862 87 64.763 107 -14.519 

8 -158.20 28 -44.079 48 -111.860 68 21.545 88 -71.480 108 130.171 

9 26.933 29 -16.623 49 -71.630 69 8.559 89 38.555 109 -14.929 

10 -6.771 30 -13.595 50 -38.523 70 3.025 90 -110.418 110 111.542 

11 104.042 31 -20.304 51 -88.810 71 -35.216 91 -113.352 111 42.656 

12 49.465 32 183.923 52 -54.554 72 -81.143 92 43.921 

13 -180.41 33 -146.21 53 -52.158 73 58.409 93 5.146 

14 -46.325 34 52.027 54 -20.257 74 -52.560 94 -19.396 

15 66.593 35 -82.858 55 -18.910 75 96.214 95 58.087 

16 148.764 36 8.166 56 25.589 76 31.220 96 -98.705 

17 -48.434 37 -12.367 57 155.796 77 13.113 97 45.794 

18 40.497 38 25.794 58 -39.659 78 16.667 98 8.398 

19 -1.822 39 12.152 59 6.239 79 7.493 99 25.509 

20 -64.697 40 -99.762 60 21.392 80 120.885 100 -73.079 

by same method we can find the output series 

(RH) as below: 

(1 ��B ) Y � (1 � �B ) � 

t t 

Y ��Y � � � �� 

t t �1 t t �1 

� �Y ��Y � �� 

t t t �1 t �1 

1 1 

^ 

t 

Y � � where 

Y � 0 

0 

^ 

We can find the series ( � t ) by using program 

(2) in the appendix (B)

t 


( 

� ) 

^ 

t 

t 

( 

� ) 

^ 

t 

Table (2): values ( � ) for output (RH) 

t 

( 

� ) 

^ 

t 

1 -1.0000 21 1.9371 41 11.5237 61 -2.7684 81 -0.8323 101 -4.9184 

2 3.8813 22 -15.411 42 12.9664 62 -4.3263 82 23.2391 102 -5.1099 

3 10.3663 23 -19.951 43 3.4899 63 -1.1596 83 19.1532 103 -26.2850 

4 -2.4781 24 -14.717 44 0.7815 64 15.3489 84 4.9863 104 -12.9377 

5 6.9165 25 -3.4988 45 -6.1036 65 -1.2871 85 7.7630 105 -2.4636 

6 4.5500 26 0.2104 46 -15.6249 66 7.6189 86 5.9149 106 -8.6388 

7 9.7732 27 12.2148 47 -13.9653 67 12.6012 87 14.8164 107 -18.7156 

8 4.5706 28 -3.5612 48 -27.6301 68 12.9740 88 1.7947 108 -1.9728 

9 0.5875 29 2.3354 49 -16.5764 69 11.1103 89 7.0272 109 -3.9855 

10 6.1281 30 6.9530 50 -13.6081 70 9.7931 90 -2.9622 110 8.5610 

11 -17.579 31 -1.0076 51 -12.0766 71 11.1798 91 -17.1396 111 8.4849 

12 -4.1614 32 15.8744 52 -12.2674 72 0.6521 92 0.2410 

13 -17.622 33 0.7843 53 -19.4418 73 5.7781 93 5.2203 

14 -0.5868 34 -0.4875 54 -6.4322 74 -8.3086 94 -7.2051 

15 3.8725 35 -4.8546 55 -5.6759 75 -10.0498 95 6.7771 

16 -3.2328 36 2.3349 56 0.0156 76 0.3585 96 -13.3729 

17 -4.3644 37 11.5436 57 1.2413 77 -7.6722 97 -10.0885 

18 -21.603 38 16.8026 58 -5.6382 78 -4.6500 98 -9.0634 

19 0.1602 39 15.4285 59 -7.5635 79 -7.0690 99 9.2828 

20 2.9644 40 7.5587 60 -6.7325 80 4.3105 100 -9.0597 

^ 

^ 

2)correlation coefficient between ( � t )and ( � t ) 

by using equation (1) we can find the values of 

correlation coefficient in the table (3) 

t 

^ 

t 

( 

� ) 

^ 

t 

t 

( 

� ) 

Table (3): the values of correlation coefficient between ( � ) and ( � ) 

t r �� t r �� t r �� t r �� 

0 0.378 6 -0.004 12 0.025 18 -0.214 

1 0.147 7 0.110 13 -0.011 19 -0.135 

2 0.068 8 -0.090 14 -0.078 20 -0.062 

3 0.122 9 0.038 15 -0.071 21 

4 0.118 10 0.148 16 -0.019 22 

5 0.171 11 0.048 17 -0.128 23 

sample crosscorrelation 

0.4 

0.3 

0.2 

0.1 

0.0 

-0.1 

-0.2 

-0.3 

-10 0 

lag 

10 

^ ^ 

Fig.(9): correlation coefficient between ( � t ) and ( � t ) determines the dead time for input(RH). 

^ 

t 

^ 

t 

^ 

t 

t 

( 

� ) 

^ 

t 

-15 0.031 

199


It is clear from the figure (9) that the dead 

time is (b=0) close to zero which explains 

�� (0) � 0 significant and all of values near to 

zero, we can say that there is feedback between 

output series (Yt) and input (Xt). We find ACF 

^ 

between residual series and series ( � t ).we can 

clear that below 

200 

3)IDENTIFICTION 

1- Estimation Of The Impulse Response 

Weights 

We estimate of the impulse response weights 

between input (Xt ) and output series (Yt ) in the 

table (4) below 

Table (4): the values of the impulse response of input variable (rainfall Xt) 

t v t v t v t v 

0 0.0499 6 -0.0005 12 0.0033 18 -0.0282 

1 0.0194 7 0.0145 13 -0.0014 19 -0.0178 

2 0.0089 8 -0.01188 14 -0.0103 20 -0.00819 

3 0.0161 9 0.0050 15 -0.0093 21 

4 0.01558 10 0.0195 16 -0.0025 22 

5 0.0225 11 0.00634 17 -0.0169 23 

2) Identification Of (R,S,B) For The Transfer 

Function 

It is clear from the figure (9) 

taking one change point will continue toward 

itself for a few periods(s=5). It transfer to the 

other side thus than (r=1) .the pattern can be 

written as: 

( w �w B �w B �w B �w B �w 

B ) 

Y X N 

2 3 4 5 

t � 0 1 2 3 

(1 ��1B 

) 

4 5 

t � t 

t Nt ^ 

(15) 

4)Disturbance Series 

Table(5) :estimate values of disturbance series Nt 

t Nt ^ 

t Nt ^ 

We find disturbance series by using the 

equation 

N t �Y t �v 0X t �v 1X t �1�... � v 20X t �20(16) 

By using equation (16) we can obtain the 

number of disturbance series which their values 

less than the input and output series values(t=21) 

so, we can apply them in program (3) in 

appendix(B) the values in the table (5) 

t Nt ^ 

t Nt ^ 

1 8.3067 19 8.4527 37 1.8966 55 -17.218 73 -27.8116 

2 -13.3977 20 10.6442 38 11.867 56 11.4734 74 2.2931 

3 -20.1134 21 -6.2558 39 -10.634 57 5.6367 5 -2.0726 

4 0 22 -6.8021 40 6.6606 58 -7.2843 76 2.2749 

5 -0.3655 23 4.6793 41 14.2883 59 -2.0547 77 -6.8147 

6 13.8634 24 13.9806 42 -1.8847 60 -7.7965 78 14.2572 

7 0.8759 25 -21.235 43 -3.686 61 -2.2512 79 -5.2206 

8 24.6778 26 -12.021 44 -3.2112 62 8.8708 80 -3.3320 

9 15.1076 27 -14.395 45 0.5373 63 28.049 81 -1.8584 

10 1.3322 28 7.7617 46 1.8966 64 -9.6713 82 -11.5726 

11 15.0231 29 2.2580 47 11.867 65 -10.100 83 7.4928 

12 7.1083 30 -0.346 48 -12.615 66 8.5172 84 2.5678 

13 3.5126 31 1.6847 49 -4.1235 67 -4.315 85 -19.049 

14 -1.2732 32 -10.0583 50 7.4006 68 4.4084 86 -6.5645 

15 11.7306 33 7.6015 51 1.6043 69 6.57 87 -0.8425 

16 -16.373 34 2.5706 52 3.009 70 -14.985 88 5.2194 

17 -4.3515 35 4.4363 53 4.5073 71 -11.229 89 5.5882 

18 9.382 36 -7.8483 54 -5.3716 72 8.9425 90 -11.5726


We plot ACF and PACF from the disturbance series ( t ) , as in the figures (10) and (11) 

Autocorrelation Function for Nt^ 


Partial Autocorrelation 

Lag 

1.0 

0.8 

0.6 

0.4 

0.2 

0.0 

-0.2 

-0.4 

-0.6 

-0.8 

-1.0 

Corr 

It is clear from the figure(11) that the 

disturbance series ( t) is equal residual series 

Nt = at , thus the model of dynamic 

regression as shown in the equation below: 

( w �w B �w B �w B �w B �w 

B ) 

Y X a 

2 3 4 5 

t � 0 1 2 3 

(1 ��1B 

) 

4 5 

t � t 

Fig. (10): ACF and from the disturbance series ( t ) 

Fig. (11): PACF and from the disturbance series ( t ^ ) 

(17) 

We estimate the values of the model by using 

equation (17) 

By using table(4) we find 

v0 = �1 v1 + w0 j =b 

T 

2 

LBQ 

Lag 

Corr 

T 

LBQ 

1 -0.02 -0.15 0.02 8 -0.32 -2.94 15.13 15 0.03 0.23 21.15 22 0.15 1.16 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

-0.13 

0.05 

-0.00 

0.02 

0.13 

-0.10 

1.0 

0.8 

0.6 

0.4 

0.2 

0.0 

-0.2 

-0.4 

-0.6 

-0.8 

-1.0 

Lag 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

-1.23 

0.51 

-0.00 

0.21 

1.22 

-0.88 

PAC 

-0.13 

0.05 

-0.02 

0.04 

0.13 

-0.09 

2 

1.60 

1.88 

1.88 

1.93 

3.63 

4.55 

T 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

0.17 

0.01 

0.02 

0.11 

0.00 

-0.12 

Lag 

1.42 

0.11 

0.15 

0.89 

0.01 

-0.98 

PAC 

18.12 

18.14 

18.18 

19.45 

19.45 

21.06 

T 

Lag 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

Lag 

12 

Corr 

0.03 

-0.12 

-0.01 

-0.05 

-0.06 

-0.04 

12 

PAC 

v0 = w0 

v1 = �1 v0 – w1 

v2 = �1 v1 – w2 j =b +1,…,b+s 

v3 = �1 v2 – w3 

v4 = �1 v3 – w4 

v5 = �1 v4 – w5 

v6 = �1 v5 

T 

0.25 

-0.98 

-0.08 

-0.43 

-0.48 

-0.32 

LBQ 

21.27 

22.97 

22.98 

23.32 

23.76 

23.97 

Partial Autocorrelation Function for Nt^ 

1 -0.02 -0.15 8 -0.31 -2.93 15 -0.07 -0.70 22 0.11 

-1.23 

0.48 

-0.15 

0.35 

1.23 

-0.83 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

0.14 

-0.05 

0.09 

0.10 

0.06 

-0.07 

1.36 

-0.49 

0.84 

0.95 

0.53 

-0.68 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

-0.08 

-0.05 

-0.06 

-0.00 

0.02 

-0.08 

T 

-0.76 

-0.47 

-0.58 

-0.02 

0.17 

-0.72 

Lag 

Lag 

Corr 

PAC 

LBQ 

� 1 = v6 / v5 = -0.0005/0.0225 =-0.222 

w0 = v0 = 0.0499 

T 

T 

1.07 

26.62 

22 

22 

201


w1 = �1 v0 – v1 = (-0.222)(0.0499)- (0.0194)= 

-0.0304778 

w2 = �1 v1 – v2 = (-0.222)(0.0194)-( 0.0089)= 

-0.0132066 

w3 = �1 v2 – v3 = (-0.222)(0.0089)-( 0.0161)= 

-0.01808 

w4 = �1 v3 – v4 =(-0.222)(0.0161)-( 0.01558)= 

-0.01915 

202 

w5 = �1 v4 – v5 =(-0.222)(0.01558)- 

( 0.0225)=-0.025958 

Search to Minimize Sum of Squared 

Residuals 

The next step in estimation is to compute the 

SSR (Sum of Squared Residuals) 

SSR = 

2 3 4 5 

(0.0499 � 0.0305B � 0.0132066B � 0.01808B � 0.01915B � 0.02595 B ) 

t � t � t 

Y X a 

(1� 0.222 B ) 

^ 

a t = Yt +0.222Yt-1 -0.0499 Xt -0.0305 Xt-1- 

0.0132066 Xt-2 -0.01808 Xt-3 -0.01915 Xt-4- 

0.02595 Xt-5-0222at-1 (18) 

t 

n 

� 

t �1 

a 

2 

t 

Table (6): the values of series ( a ) 

^ 

We find the values of series ( a t ) by using 

equation (18) and program (4) in appendix (B), 

The value as in the table(6) 

^ 

a t ^ 

t 

a t ^ 

t 

a t ^ 

t 

a t ^ 

t 

a T ^ 

t 

a t 

1 0.0000 20 -0.9160 39 -3.3955 59 1.1386 78 14.6687 97 -1.4370 

2 0.7422 21 1.6774 40 -8.4087 60 13.2296 79 2.0145 98 -4.4783 

3 9.5889 22 5.2860 41 -17.9861 61 1.9000 80 1.8387 99 -20.4011 

4 4.9520 23 19.1778 42 -11.8717 62 8.1710 81 1.2348 100 -8.0027 

5 -3.4498 24 1.2919 43 -23.2960 63 9.5838 82 7.7183 101 2.3374 

6 0.9387 25 5.5449 44 -8.0296 64 10.0785 83 0.3255 102 -6.7431 

7 -21.9821 26 5.3637 45 -6.5819 65 6.9647 84 4.0698 103 -14.3211 

8 -5.2100 27 0.0144 46 -2.2575 66 8.3027 85 -4.2324 104 1.3423 

9 -9.8956 28 9.9616 47 -2.6486 67 6.7636 86 -14.4481 105 -2.1231 

10 4.5466 29 0.5953 48 -9.9744 68 -0.7813 87 -0.0109 106 9.6593 

11 3.3031 30 -1.6047 49 2.2018 69 1.2307 88 5.9083 107 6.6924 

12 -8.3265 31 -6.0637 50 1.4054 70 -11.0673 89 -6.6499 

13 -2.3224 32 2.3747 51 5.6577 71 -13.1957 90 7.5821 

14 -17.5623 33 8.6837 52 0.3474 72 -1.6501 91 -11.2824 

15 2.1247 34 16.8753 53 -3.4559 73 -7.6427 92 -10.1545 

16 6.3294 35 10.2357 54 -4.2761 74 -5.8736 93 -8.6454 

17 3.7500 36 6.8976 56 -5.5386 75 -6.2127 94 11.4132 

18 -12.1944 37 6.9511 57 -1.1261 76 0.7505 95 -6.8504 

19 -11.5427 38 8.7745 58 -3.1218 77 -1.9606 96 14.6687 

We plot cross correlation between series ( 

^ 

^ 

� t ) and series ( a t ) as in the figure (12), it is 

clear that there are significant values, this means 

^ 

t 

that the correlation between two series ( 

^ 

� t ) 

^ 

and series ( a t ) is significant, then the building 

(DR) models impossible.


sample crosscorrelation_1 

Fig. (12): cross correlation between series ( � ) and series ( a ) 

Check For Feedback By Using F Test 

The maximum lag k in model (16) K= 15,we 

estimate this equation to check for feedback 

Table (7): The estimated values of the ck coefficients with t values 

^ 

t 

Xt = c+ b1Xt-1 + b2Xt-2 +…+ b15Xt-15 + c 1y t-1 + 

c 2y t-2 +…+ c 15y t-15 + at 

The estimated values of the c ^ coefficients are 

shown in the table (7) 

k 1 2 3 4 5 

c ^ 

k -2.260 2.798 -1.479 -1.243 2.906 

t -2.09 2.41 -1.23 -1.08 2.58 

k 6 7 8 9 10 

c ^ k -0.760 -1.511 -0.2837 -1.687 1.862 

t -0.65 -1.36 -0.29 -1.54 1.67 

k 11 12 13 14 15 

c ^ k -0.015 -1.476 3.480 -2.327 -0.719 

t -0.01 -1.31 2.99 -1.93 -0.65 

F = ((314620 -218133)/15)/(511669/80) 

= 1.0057 

We see that the value of (F) by using 

equation (14) is significant if we in contrast with 

the value of (table F=3.46) at the 5% level 

for(15,80) degrees of freedom we have evidence 

that there is important feedback from the output 

and in the input. 

Conclusion 

1)To detection of feedback by using cross – 

correlation function between two series input 

and output has been found significant in some 

lag .Although the dead time is (b=0) close to 

zero which explains �� (0) � 0 which is 

significant, too and all of values near to zero, is 

said to be a feedback between output series (Yt) 

and input (Xt). 

0.3 

0.2 

0.1 

0.0 

-0.1 

-0.2 

-10 

0 

lag 

10 

^ 

t 

0.026 

2)After using crosscorrelation between series ( 

^ 

^ 

� t ) and series ( a t ) , it is clear that there are 

significant values, which mean that the 

^ 

correlation between the two series ( � t ) and 

^ 

series ( a t ) is significant, then the building (DR) 

models is impossible, therefore, we use 

Multivariate Autoregressive model. 

3)To check feedback is to examine the 

individual t values of the c ^ k coefficients. If they 

are all insignificant, we may conclude that there 

is no statistical feedback. This is clear when we 

find the F test. 

-15 

203


REFERENCES 

- Box, G.E.P., and Jenkins, G.M. (1976). Time Series 

Analysis. Forecasting and Control, Holden- Day, 

San Francisco. 

- Liu, L. - M. (1994). Forecasting and Time Series Analysis 

Using the SCA Statistical System, Scientific 

computing Associates, U.S.A. 

- Liu, L. –M. (2006).Time Series Analysis and 

Forecasting. 2 nd edit, Scientific computing 

Associates U. S. A. 

204 

- Makridakis, S, Wheelwright, S. C. and Hyndman, R. 

(1998). Forecasting methods and Applications, 

Wiley, New York. 

- Pankratz, A. (1983). Forecasting with Univariate Box- 

Jenkins Model.Concepts and cases, John Wiley & 

sons INC. New York. 

- �� (1991). Forecasting with Dynamic Regression 

Model, John Wiley & sons INC. , New York. 

- Wei, W.W.S. (1990). “Time Series Analysis- Univariate 

and Multivariate Method”.,Addison –Wesley 

publishing company,Inc., The Advanced book 

program, California,USA. 

Appendix (A) 

monthly average of the humidity and rainfall of the meteorological station of Dohuk for the period (1992) to 

(2006) 

year month humidity rainfall year month RH rainfall year month RH rainfall 

1992 Oct. 72 164.0 1997 Oct. 67 53.0 2002 Oct. 69 103.8 

Nov. 69 234.7 Nov. 60 133.7 Nov. 54 48.0 

Des. 60 32.8 Des. 64 82.0 Des. 52 186.8 

Jan. 63 18.2 Jan. 61 74.5 Jan. 59 72.1 

Feb. 47 19.8 Feb. 55 0.5 Feb. 33 4.3 

Mar. 42 0.0 Mar. 56 39.1 Mar. 40 16.1 

Apr. 52 159.9 Apr. 60 33.0 Apr. 50 23.7 

May. 66 198.4 May. 75 108.8 May. 75 204.9 

1993 Oct. 71 76.0 1998 Oct. 74 86.6 2003 Oct. 69 96.8 

Nov. 73 78.2 Nov. 68 83.5 Nov. 78 211.3 

Des. 70 54.8 Des. 62 140.2 Des. 69 139.6 

Jan. 59 109.9 Jan. 57 36.0 Jan. 60 30.5 

Feb. 53 206.8 Feb. 45 20.9 Feb. 37 3.7 

Mar. 45 51.0 Mar. 38 4.0 Mar. 42 21.9 

Apr. 60 113.0 Apr. 46 3.0 Apr. 61 71.2 

May. 68 29.5 May. 49 9.2 May. 72 112.0 

1994 Oct. 69 113.2 1999 Oct. 62 38.0 2004 Oct. 72 126.8 

Nov. 77 76.4 Nov. 60 71.8 Nov. 71 89.5 

Des. 50 163.6 Des. 56 77.3 Des. 49 30.3 

Jan. 55 150.8 Jan. 51 12.6 Jan. 60 91.1 

Feb. 36 13.7 Feb. 32 0.0 Feb. 42 16.9 

Mar. 47 16.0 Mar. 39 14.8 Mar. 34 8.3 

Apr. 66 194.1 Apr. 47 11.2 Apr. 68 136.2 

May. 66 181.9 May. 55 58.6 May. 58 11.9 

1995 Oct. 66 50.0 2000 Oct. 68 209.7 2005 Oct. 63 183.2 

Nov. 57 110.9 Nov. 58 26.3 Nov. 64 100.9 

Des. 54 152.2 Des. 52 83.6 Des. 61 57.2 

Jan. 61 78.7 Jan. 48 33.3 Jan. 52 16.1 

Feb. 40 0.0 Feb. 33 0.0 Feb. 39 41.5 

Mar. 33 0.0 Mar. 38 12.8 Mar. 31 1.7 

Apr. 49 21.2 Apr. 49 66.8 Apr. 44 29.7 

May. 56 7.8 May. 73 174.1 May. 50 72.9 

1996 Oct. 68 208.5 2001 Oct. 67 36.6 2006 Oct. 66 209.3 

Nov. 62 71.7 Nov. 66 100.5 Nov. 60 188.6 

Des. 70 163.1 Des. 64 84.3 Des. 47 35.9 

Jan. 59 55.1 Jan. 59 47.3 Jan. 56 142.6 

Feb. 44 4.9 Feb. 41 0.0 Feb. 40 8.2 

Mar. 41 5.5 Mar. 44 8.0 Mar. 44 100.4 

Apr. 48 17.7 Apr. 56 25.0 Apr. 55 48.9 

May. 72 207.5 May. 69 91.9 May. 103.8


Appendix (B) 

The software Minitab(13.2) is used in the following macro programs. 

Program (1): the values of ( � ) variable input (rainfall) 

^ 

t 

gmacro 

aa.macro 

let c4(1)=-88 

do k3=2:111 

let c4(k3)=c2(k3)- 0.7955*c2(k3-1)+ 0.9142*c4(k3-1) 

enddo 

endmacro 

Program (2): values ( � ) for output (RH) 

^ 

t 

gmacro 

aa.macro 

let c5(1)=-1 

do k3=2:111 

let c5(k3)=c1(k3)- 0.7955*c1(k3-1)+ 0.9142*c4(k3-1) 

enddo 

endmacro 

Program (3): estimate values of disturbance series Nt by using matlab program 

For i=1:111 

For k=1:21 

Z(I,k)= v(k)*ul(i+21)-k); 

end; 

end 

for i=1:111 

s(i)=0; 

for j=1:21 

s(i)=s(i)-z(i,j); 

end 

end 

for i=22:111 

n(i)=y(i)+s(i-20) 

end 

program (4): the values of series ( a ) 

^ 

t 

gmacro 

aa.macro 

let c3(5)=0 

do k1=6:111 

let c3(k1)=c1(k1)+ 0.222*c1(k1-1)- 0.0499*c2(k1)-0.0304778*c2(k1-1)- 

0.0132066*c2(k1-2)- 0.01808*c2(k1-3)-0.01915*c2(k1-4)- 0.025958*c2(k1-5)- 

0.222*c3(k1-1) 

enddo 

let k4=sum(c3(k1)**2) 

print k4 

endmacro 

205


تةكد اي وخ ايتاهد ايرنجشو ادسكزةد ايرنجش ازةبظاند ةناوةضَيث انادَيث وك ةي ادَ ىدنةض َىود َىنيلَوكةظ َىظ ايطنسط 

ينَيَيز انسك ةصيتكاسث 

206 

^ . ) at 

Dynamic 

) 

ةتخوث 

. ةيانجوط َىي ةنوونم ناريك ينناصب اد ةياد َىدنةض َىود ةناوةضَيث انادَيث َىظ انسك ايوخ ايطنسطو 

^ 

( نايامازةب ايرنجشو ) �t 

َىوونم وك ووباسكشائو ازادسكسلةدو 

: نانيئ زاكب ةنَيهد َىز ود وك تةكدزايد 

ةناوةضَيث انادَيث انسكايوخ 

( ايرنجش ايتاهاد ازةبظاند ) cross-correlation function( 

ذ تَيهدكَيث َىكَيئ اكَيز 

ايتاهاد ازةنظاند 

) F( 

انسكيقات انانيئزاكبذ تَيهدكَيث َىوود اكَيز 

multivariate Autoregressive ( َىنوونم َىدنه زةبذ تيبةه ةناوةضَيث انادَيث زةطةئ ةنين نايش وةئ 

صنانيئزاكب ةتَيوب 

Dynamic Regression 

فشكلا ةيمها زربت ثيح تلاخدم ةلسلسو تاجرخم ةلسلس نيب ةيسكعلا ةيذغتلا 

نع 

مادختساب ةيسكعلا ةيذغتلا نع فشكلا 

داجيا مت 

ثيح ةاقنملا تاجرخملاو 

Regression 

َىنوونم تيبانو نانيئزاكب ةتََيهد 


فشكلاب ثحبلا اذه زيمتي 

قئارط قيبطت تلوانت كلذك مئلاملا جذومنلا ةفرعم يف ةيسكعلا ةيذغتلا نع 

: نيتقيرط 

تلاخدملا يتلسلس نيب عطاقتملا طابترلاا ةلاد رايتخا يه ىلولاا ةقيرطلا 

^ 

^ 

رابتخا مادختسا يه ةيناثلا ةقيرطلا اما . ) at 

( يقاوبلا ةلسلسو ) �t 

( ةاقنملا تلاخدملا ةلسلس نيب عطاقتملا طابترلاا 

دوج و ةلاح يف ةءافكلا كلتميلا 

يكرحلا رادحنلاا جذومن ناب رهظ دقو تاجرخملاو تلاخدملا نيتلسلس نيب ) F ( 

. 

يكرح ردحنا جذومن ماردختسا زوجي لاو تاربغملا ددعنملا 

يتاذلا رادحنلاا جذومن مادختسا 

متيف ةيسكع ةيذغت


THE SINGULARITY OF M-CONNECTED GRAPH 

PAYMAN A.RASHED 

Dept. of Mathematics, College of Basic Education, University of Salahaddin, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

(Received: November 28, 2010; Accepted for publication: May 8, 2011) 

ABSTRACT 

In this paper we construct a new m-connected graph by the operation joins of two special graphs and the idea of 

the high-zero sum weighting of vertices is generalized and applied to find the singularity (nullity) of the news mconnected 

graphs, the new graph constructed by join path with itself and path with cycle of deferent orders, thus 

some properties are studies of the new m-connected graph and proved that the singularity of a new m-connected 

graph is the number of non zero distinct independent variables in any of it’s high-zero sum weightings, our goad is to 

characterizing the singularity of the new m-connected graphs (Pn � Pk) , (Pn � Ck) and special cases by the new 

technique of zero sum weighting which studied by cvetkovic and others in [7] and M.Brown in[6]. 

KEYWORDS: - Graphs, Connectedness, m-connected graphs, Singularity 

M 

1-INTRODUCTION 

ost of the following concepts are found 

in [1,5,6,7] and [8], in mathematics 

and computer science , connectivity is one of the 

basic concepts of graph theory. It is closely 

related to the theory of network flow problems. 

The connectivity of a graph together with a zero 

eigenvalue of a connected graph is an important 

measures of it’s robustness as a network. 

The connectivity (or vertex connectivity) 

m(G) of a connected graph G (other than a 

complete graph) is the minimum number of 

vertices whose removal disconnects G. a graph 

G is said to be m-connected if there does not 

exist a set of m-1 vertices whose removal 

disconnects the graph, i.e, the vertex 

connectivity of G is ≥ k (11, P.177) 

A vertex weighting of graph G is a function, 

f : V( 

G) 

� R. 

Where R is the set of real numbers. 

A weighting of G is said to be non-trivial if there 

is at least one vertex v, v�V (G) 

for 

which f ( v) 

� 0 . 

The neighborhood of a vertex v in a graph G 

is the set of all vertices w such that v is adjacent 

with w, N(v,G) denotes it. 

A non-trivial vertex weighting of a graph G is 

called a zero sum weighting provided that, for 

v� V (G) 

, � f (w) 

� 0 

Each 

. Where the summation 

is taken over all w, w� N( 

v, 

G) 

. 

In [6] M.Brown and others uses a new 

technique introducing a vertex weighting of a 

graph in order to characterize the singularity of a 

graph it is not that every graph has a non-trivial 

zero sum weighting because the graph Kp is 

such graphs. [10] K.Rasho an Rashid [6] 

M.Brown and other characterized singular graph 

by the next theorem. 

Theorem 1-1: 

A graph G is singular if and only if there is a 

non-trivial zero sum weighting (if zero is an 

eigenvalue of the adjacent matrix of G) for G. 

And this is a very applicable technique to 

characterize whether a graph is singular or not. It 

was proved by Th.1of [3] that a graph G is 

singular if and only if ( 0� S p ( G), 

S p ( G) 

is the 

spectra of a graph G. the set of all eigenvalues of 

the adjacency matrix A(G) ) .[1,P.168] then the 

multiplicity of zero is characterized by 

generalizing the above new technique, which 

does not includes the solution of the 

characteristic polynomial det( A � � I) 

� 0 of a 

graph. If G be a singular graph, then by Th.1-3 

of [10], G possesses a non-trivial zero sum 

weighting, which leads to the existence of at 

least a non-zero weighted vertex (v1) with non 

zero-weight x1, f ( v1) 

� x1 

� 0is 

a zero sum 

weighting for G [9] . 

And the set of all non-zero sum weighting of 

G is denoted by W(G) and denote Mv(G) to be 

the maximum number of non-zero distinct 

independent variables that can be used for a zero 

sum weighting of G. 

Lemma 1.2: 

0 � M G P 

For a graph G of order P, 

v ( ) � 

the 

left equality holds if and only if G is nonsingular, 

and the right holds if and only if G has 

no edges. 

Note: In this paper we denote the singularity 

of m-connected graph by � m (G) and � m 

(G)=Mv(G) 

207


208 

2-GENERALIZATION 

A graph G is said to be m-connected if there 

does not exist a set of m-1 vertices whose 

removal disconnects the graph, [2] and [11]. The 

connectivity m(G) of G is the maximum value 

of m for which G is m-connected. Thus, for non 

trivial graph G , 

m(G)=min{ P( u, 

v) 

: u, 

v� 

V, 

u � v}, 

P(u,v) is 

path between two distinct vertices u and v. 

We construct a new m-connected graphs 

(G1,G2,G3,G4) by the operation joins � of two 

special graphs P � Pn 

, P � Pn 

, Pn 

� P and 

2 3 

k 

(G * ,G ** ,G *** ) by the operation join between 

C � P C � P , C � P 

, 4 

cycle and path 3 n 

n k n 

respectively. By the new technique of zero sum 

weighting of vertices of the graph which used in 

[7],[8] and [10]. 

We need more methods to generate graphs, 

we present the important operation in a graph. 

Definition 2-1: The Complete Product join 

G1 � G2 of graphs G1 and G2 is the graph 

obtained from G1 & G2 by joining every vertex 

of G1 with every vertex of G2. 

i.e. V(G1 � G2) = V(G1) � V(G2) 

E(G1 � G2) = E(G1) E(G2) � {uv : u� G1 and v� G2} 

We illustrate G3 � C4 in figure (1) 

C3 

C4 

Path Graph Pn 

The path graph Pn with order n has size n-1. It 

has two vertices with degree 1 and n-2 vertices 

with degree 2. 

Theorem 2-2: [10] if Pn is a path graph, then 

( 1� 

( �1) 

) 

� m( Pn 

) � 

2 

n 

Fig (1) 

C � C 

i.e. Path graph Pn is singular iff n is odd. 

In this case � m ( Pn 

) �1 

Suppose that the vertices 0f Pn are labeled v1, 

v2, … , vn in natural order starting from a vertex 

v1 of degree 1.Then for n≥3 a minimum zero 

sum weighting has non-zero weights, 

f(vi) = -f(vi+2) = 0 , i � 1 mod 4 

3 

4 

Theorem 2-3 

� (P2 � P2) = 0 

m 

the proof is omitted since P2 � P2 = K4 and 

K4 is complete graph of order 4 which is not 

singular graph.[5]and[9], as shown in fig(2). 

Theorem 2-4 

Let n P P G � � 1 2 ( Pn is a path with n 

vertices) 

�1 � m (P2 � Pn) = � 

�0 

iff n �1 

� 0 

otherwise 

mod 4 

Proof: Suppose that G1 = P2 � Pn 

Let v1, v2 be the vertices of P2 

and u1, u2, … , un be the vertices of the path Pn 

for each vertex in (P2 � Pn), let f(v1) and f(v2) 

be the weight of vertices of P2 , and f(ui) be the 

weight of ui in Pn for i = 1, … , n 

To apply the zero sum weighting of the graph 

G1 to be singular we must prove that 

f ( w ) � 0 for each vertex v in G 

� 

wi�N 

( v) 

i 

Fig (2) 

The distinct independent variables used for 

weighting the vertices ui is of the form x1,0,-x1,0, 

x1,… , 0,-x and f(vi) = 0 for i=1,2, that shown in 

Fig (3) 

f(v1) f(v2) 

f(u1) f(u2) f(u3) f(un-1) f(un) 

x1 0 -x 0 -x 

Fig (3): The zero sum weighting for G = P2� Fig (3): The zero sum weighting for G = P2 

Pn 

� Pn 

1) If n+1 � 0 mod 4, then f(un) must be –x and 

this posses the zero sum weighting, Then a high 

zero-sum weighting for G1 exists. that uses only 

one independent variable. then � m (G)=1 

2) If n+1≠0 mod 4, f(un) may be 0 or x in this 

case a non trivial the zero sum weighting for G1 

does not exist Then the singularity be zero. 

i.e. � m (G1)=0

Pn 


Theorem 2-5 

� 

�2 � P ) � � 

�1 

iff n � 1 � 0 mod 4 

otherwise 

P P G � � 2 3 

P by 1 , v2, 

v3 

P by n u u u u ,...., , , 1 2 3 . 

m( 

P3 n 

Proof: Let n 

Labeled the vertices of 3 

v and 

the Vertices of n 

For each vertex v in G2,f(v) is the weight of v 

Such that f ( v1 

) � x1, 

f ( v2) 

� � , f ( v3) 

� �x 

and the 

1 

Weights of the other vertices of G be of the 

form x2, �, � x2, 

�, 

x2,..... 

, then to apply the 

condition 

�� f ( w) 

� 0 for each vertex in the 

w N ( v) 

graph G2 we have two case : 

i) If n+1 � 0mod4 (i.e n=3,7,11,….) as shown 

in fig(4) 

X2 

P3 

Fig (4) 

The neighborhood of each vi , i �1, 

2, 

3 

contains n+1mod4 vertices i.e. (3,7,11,…) and 

f ( w ) � x �� 

� x �� 

� ...... � 0 , then posses 

� 

w j� 

f ( vi 

) 

j 

2 

2 

the zero sum weighting and the high zero-sum 

weighting for G2 exists. 

And the number of non-zero distinct 

independent variables used to obtain the zero 

sum weighting for a m-connected graph G2 are 

x1 and x2 

We get � m( 

G2) 

� 2 

ii) If n �1� 

0mod 

4 (i.e n=2,4,5,6,… 

Then the weight of u n which is in the 

neighborhood of i v is � or x2 

f ( un) 

� 0 if n is even and 

odd (Note n �1� 

0mod 

4) 

f ( un) 

� x2 

if n is 

Case 1: if f ( u ) � 0 if n is even 

� 

wi 

�N 

( un 

) 

X 

1 

n 

f ( w ) � x �� 

� x � x � ...... � 0 

i 

ο 

1 

ο 

-x2 

1 

-X1 

2 

ο ............. 

-x2 

or ο 

or x2 

� � x � x 

2 

0 and 2 

� 0 

Then the high zero sum weighting for G 

exists which uses only one variable x1 , so 

� ( G) 

� 1 

m 

Case 2: if f ( un) 

� x2 

if n is odd 

f ( w ) � x �� 

� x �� 

� x ........ � 0 to satisfy 

� 

wj�N 

( vi 

) 

j 

2 

2 

the zero sum weighting 

� x 2 � 0, 

then the high zero sum weighting 

exist of G2 and we get 

�� m ( G) 

� 1 Since use only one variable 

In general if two m-connected graph 

G 3 and G4 

, where G3 � ( P2 

n�1 

� P2 

n�1) 

and 

G � ( P � P ) we have the Following results 

4 n m 

about 3 G and G 4 

Theorem 2-6 

Singularity of the m-connected graph 

3 2 �1 2 �1 

� � G P n P n equal to 2 if and only if 

2n+2 � 0mod4 

Proof: Let the weights of the vertices of 3 G 

be of the form as shown in figure(5) 

X1 

X2 

Fig (5) 

To apply the condition �� 

2 

wi 

N ( ui 

) 

f ( w ) � 0 and since 

the order of P 2n�1 has odd subscribed of n 

Such that f ( u1 

) � x1, 

f ( u2) 

� 0, 

f ( u3) 

� �x3 

and so on, then 

f w ) � x � � x �� 

� x �� 

� x ........ � 0 

� 

( i 2 � 2 

� 

2 

wi�N 

( ui 

) 

� 

And f y ) � x �� 

� x �� 

� x �� 

� x � .... � 0 

( i 1 1 1 1 

yi�N 

( vi 

) 

It shown that we are used exactly 2 non-zero 

distinct independent variables to obtain a high zero 

sum weighting of the m-connected graph G 3 

And we get � ( G3) 

� 2 

Proposition 2-7 

( 3) 0 � G � if n is even 

m 

ο 

ο 

m 

- 

x1 

-x2 

i 

209


Proof: it is obvious since f ( v ) � 0 and 

( x v f n � 

210 

1 1 ) � � so 

�� 

w N ( v ) 

i 

f ( w ) � 0 which is not 

posses The zero sum weighting, and G3 has no highzero 

sum weighting. 

Theorem 2-8 

The singularity of the m-connected graph 

G4 � ( Pn 

� Pk 

) is defined as follow 

i) 

�m 

( G4) 

� 2 if both ( n, 

k) 

�1 

� 0mod 

4 

ii) 

�m 

( G4) 

� 1 if n �1 

� 0mod 

4 or k �1 

� 0mod 

4 

iii) 

�m 

( G4) 

� 0 otherwise 

Proof: 

Case i: since n+1=0 mod 4 and 

k+1=0 mod 4, so the weights of the 

vertices of Pn and Pk are of the form 

i 

x1, o, 

� x1, 

o,....... 

and x2, 

o, 

�x2, 

o,..... 

respectively and the condition 

f ( w ) � 0 is hold for each ui �G4 � Pn 

� Pk 

� 

wi�N 

( ui 

) 

i 

Which implies that G4 posses the zero sum 

weighting and has a high zero sum weighting which 

uses only two non-zero distinct independent variables 

x1 and x2 (shown in Fig (6)). 

Pk 

Pn 

Fig (6): High zero-sum weighting of G4=Pn 

So we get ( 4 ) 2 � G � m 

Case ii: If n+1 � 0 mod 4 , then the only variable 

f ( w ) � 0 and take 

used is x1 and to apply 

�� 

w N ( u ) 

f ( uk 

) � 0 (the weights of last vertex) Since 

where n+1 � 0 mod 4 → n=3,7,11,.... , 

f ( v1 

) � x2 

� o � x2 

� o � x2 

�..... 

� x2 

by the 

subscribed of K which equal to 5,9,13,… 

� x1 � x2 

Since f(v1)=x1 

In the same way 

if n �1 � 0mod 

4 

Then 

, k �1 

� 0mod 

4 

f ( u ) � x � o � ( �x 

) � o � x � .... � x 

1 

� x 

2 

f(v1) 

X2 

X 

1 

1 

� x 

1 

o 

o 

sin ce 

1 

- 

x1 

- 

x2 

1 

o 

o 

i 

1 

f ( u ) � x 

i 

2 

i 

i 

1 

n 

f(uk) 

Then G4 has a high zero sum weighting 

which used exactly one variable x for weights of 

vertices of G4 to obtain the zero sums weighting 

for the graph G4. 

�� m( 

G4) 

�1 

Case iii: If ( n , m) 

�1 

� 0mod 

4 

Then ( v ) � 0 

f i or x1 in Pn 

f ( ui 

) � or x2 in Pk 

And 0 

And we can not have the zero sum weighting 

in any way 

( 4) 0 � � � m G 

Theorem 2-9 

If G5 � Pn 

� Pk 

where Pn & P k are path of 

order n,k respectively , n and k are odd , then 

� ( G ) � 2 if both ( n, 

k) 

�1 

� 0mod 

4 

m 

� ( G ) � 1 

m 

� ( G ) � 0 

m 

5 

5 

5 

if 

n �1 

� 0mod 

4 

otherwise 

or 

k �1 

� 0mod 

4 

Proof 

i) It is obvious and similar as in Th.2-8 

( 5) 2 � G � , shown in figure (7). 

m 

Pm 

Fig(7) 

f ( vn) 

� 0 or � x 

And 

f ( w ) � x � 0 � ( �x 

) � 0 � x � ........ � 0 or x 

ii) If n+1 � 0mod4, then 1 

� 

Pn 

X2 

wi�N 

( vn 

) 

i 

2 

2 

Since k �1 

� 0mod 

4 

Then x 2 � 0 to apply zero sum weighting 

( 5) 1 � 

� � m G 

In the same way if k+1=0mod4 and n is not 

in case three 

iii) If ( n , k) 

�1 

� 0mod 

4 

Does not posses the zero sum weighting the 

high zero sum weighting of G2 is zero 

� � ( G) 

� 0 

m 

X 

1 

O 

o 

-x1 

- 

x2 

o 

.................. 

............ 

2 

2 

o

X 

1 


3- SINGULARITY OF M-CONNECTED 

GRAPH CK � PN 

Cycle graph: Is a simple graph whose vertices 

can be arranged in a cyclic sequence in such 

away that two vertices are adjacent if they are 

consecutive in the sequence and are non adjacent 

otherwise. 

C3 is a cycle graph with three vertices and three 

edges, where it is non-singular graph. 

i.e. � ( C3) 

� 0 . see[8 ] 

we construct an m-connected graphs 

G * ,G ** ,G *** by join C3,C4,Ck with path Pn 

,n=1,2,3,… and we get the following result 

theorem. 

Theorem 3-1 

i) � m (C3 � Pn)=1 if n+1 � 0mod4 

ii) � m (C3 � Pn)=0 otherwise 

Proof: 

To apply join operation between two graphs 

C3 and Pn we must join each vertex of C3 with all 

vertices of Pn and we get m-connected graph G * 

Shown in fig (8), we give the weighting of 

the Vertices of Pn by the form x1,o,-x1,.... and 

zero for the vertices of C3, 

i) if n+1 � 0mod4, then 

� 

wi�( 

ui 

) 

vi�C3 

f (un)=-x1 implies that 

f ( w ) � x � o � ( �x 

) � .... � 0 ( since n has an 

i 

1 

Odd subscripted) 

And 

�� ( x ) � o � o � o � ... � 0 

f 

xi�N 

( ui 

) 

ui 

Pn 

i 

1 

Then we obtain the zero sum weighting 

* 

which Implies that G � ( C3 

� Pn 

) has a high 

zero sum weighting then it is singular, and we 

used exactly one variable, then � m (G * )=1 

iii) If n �1� 

0mod 

4, 

then f(ui)=0 or x1 

and we cannot get the zero sum weighting for 

o 

any vertex of G * then � m (G * )=0 

O 

o 

-X1 

O 

Fig (8) 

Fig (8) 

o 

-X1 

Now for the graph C4 (the cycle of four 

vertices and four edges) where it is singular as 

shown in the following lemma. 

Lemma 3-2 [6] and [7] 

The singularity of the cycle graph C4 is 2. 

Proof: It is obvious since we used two 

independent variables to get the zero sum 

weighting x and y, so 

� m (C4) =2 

-z 

Fig(9) 

While the construction m-connected graph C4 

with Pn get a new result. 

Theorem 3-3 

The singularity of m-connected G ** � 

(C4 � Pn), n=2,3,… , is defined as follow: 

i) � m (C4� Pn)=3 if n+1=0mod4 

ii) � m (C4� Pn)=2 otherwise 

X 

12 

o 

-x1 

y 

-y 

Fig (10) 

-z 

z 

o 

y 

-y 

-X1 

Or 

O 

Or 

X1 

z 

211


proof: to construct the m-connected graph 

G ** = C4 � Pn we must join every vertex 

{v1,v2,v3,v4}of C4 with all vertices {u1,u2,…..,un} 

in Pn 

Now we weights the vertices of new graph 

G ** by the variables shown 

In fig (10) 

i)If n+1=0mod4 then the number of vertices of 

Pn must be (3,7,11,…in each case 

� 

wi�N 

( vi 

) 

212 

f ( w ) � x � o � ( �x 

) � .... � x � o � ( �x 

) � 0 

i 

and �� 

1 

xi 

N ( ui 

) 

1 

f ( x ) � y � z � ( �y) 

� ( �z) 

� o � 0 

i 

For each vertex ui of Pn 

then G ** has a high zero sum weighting. 

And we get easily the zero sum weighting 

which used exactly three non zero distinct 

independent variable y,z,x1 

Then � m (C4+Pn)=3 

ii)If n �1� 

0mod 

4, 

then the number of 

vertices of Pn is 2,4,5,6,8,…. And doesn't 

posses the zero sum weighting since 

f ( w ) � 0 

� 

i 

wi�N 

( vi 

) 

Since f(vn)=0 or x1 and � f 

i�2, 

3, 

4,.... 

But �� 

xi 

N ( ui 

) 

1 

1 

( v ) � 0 

f ( x ) � z � y � ( �z) 

� ( �y) 

� 0 , then 

i 

we used exactly two variables , y and z 

� � m ( C4 

� Pn 

) � 2 if n �1� 

0mod 

4 

In general Ck is a cycle graph of k vertices 

and the condition to make Ck singular is proved 

in the theorem below. 

Theorem3-4 [1] and [8] Singularity of Ck 

k 

� ( C ) � 1� 

( �1) 

, k=3,4,…. 

k 

Theorem3-5 

For m-connected graph G *** � (Ck+Pn) we 

have the following results 

i) � ( Ck � Pn 

) � 3if 

k � 0mod 

4 and n �1 

� 0mod 

4 

ii) � ( Ck � Pn 

) � 2if 

k � 0mod 

4 and n �1 

� 0mod 

4 

iii) � ( � P ) �1if 

k � 0mod 

4 and n � 1 � 0mod 

4 

Ck n 

iv) 

� ( Ck � Pn 

) � 0if 

k � 0 mod 4 and n �1 

� 0 mod 4 

Proof: 

Let u1,u2,….,uk and v1,v2,….,vn be the 

labeled vertices of Ck and Pn respectively after 

given 

The weighting of each vertex of m-connected 

graph G *** 

Be having the following cases: 

If k=0mod4 and n+1=0mod4 then 

i) from 

�� f ( w) 

� 0, 

x1+o+(-x1)+o+…=0 

w N ( ui 

) 

i 

Since we have (n+1=0mod4). 

i.e v ( p ) � 3, 

7, 

11,... 

in each case the sum 

n 

of the weights equal to zero. 

And from �� f ( w) 

� 0 , y1+y2+….+yk=0 

w N ( vi 

) 

Then f(uj)=y1 for odd subscript j and f(up)=y2 

for even subscript p 

� y1 � y3 

� y5 

and y 2 � �y6 

� �y8 

� ..... 

Then a high zero-sum weighting for G *** 

exists as shown in fig (11) 

Thus uses exactly x1,y1 and y2 non-zero 

distinct independent variables 

Therefore � m (G *** )=3 

ii) if n �1 

� 0mod 

4 

Then 

k 

( v ) � 0 

� f since f(vn)=0 or x1 

i 

i�1 

To apply x1+(-x1)+o+x1+….=0 we must have 

x1=-x1=0 

And the only distinct independent variables 

are used to given a high zero sum weighting of 

G *** are y1 and y2 

Therefore m 

� (G *** )=2 

Now if k � 0mod 

4 we have 

iii) if n+1 � 0mod 4 

from 

�� f ( w) 

� 0, 

x � ( �x 

) � o �.... 

� 0 

w N ( ui 

) 

1 

And it is true since we have n=3,7,11,…. 

And from �� f ( w) 

� 0 we have 

w N ( vi 

) 

y1+y2+y3+…+yn=0 implies that 

y1=y2=y3=……=yn=0 

to obtain the high zero sum weighting . 

And we used exactly one variables x1 that is 

� m (G *** )=1 

iv) if n �1 

� 0mod 

4 

it is obvious that x1=-x1=0 and y1=y2=…..=yk 

to get the high zero sum weighting 

That is � m (G *** )=0 

1


Pn 

Fig (11): A high zero-sum weighting for Ck � Pn 

4-SINGULARITY OF COMPLETE 

BIPARTITE GRAPH 

In this section we shall extend the idea of 

zero-sum weighting defined in [5,6] and [8] and 

the new technique of evaluating the singularity 

of a graph by determining the number of distinct 

independent variables in a high zero-sum 

weighting for the connected bipartite graph 

G(V1,V2) and complete bipartite graph Kp,n , the 

graph Kp,n defined in [4]. 

Definition4-1: 

A bipartite graph G=(V, E) in which V can be 

partitioned into two subsets V1 and V2 so that 

each edge in G connects some vertex in V1 to 

some vertex in V2. 

In the mathematical field of graph theory, a 

complete bipartite graph or biclique is a special 

kind of bipartite graph where every vertex of the 

first set is connected to every vertex of the 

second set. i.e. each vertex in V1 is connected to 

each vertex in V2. If /V1/=p and /V2/=n, then 

corresponding complete bipartite graph is 

represented Kp,n fig(12). 

p 

a 

b 

c 

X1 

yk 

o 

y1 

- 

x1 

o 

q 

r 

s 

Ck 

Fig (12): Complete bipartite graph K3,4 

y2 

y3 

y4 

In the remaining part of this paper, we 

assume that the vertices of V1 and V2 are labeled 

{v1,v2,v3,….,vp}, and {u1,u2,u3,….,un} 

respectively. 

Notation: A complete bipartite graph has p+n 

vertices (of order p+n)and size np (edges),for 

any k , K1,k is called a Star graph. All complete 

bipartite graphs which are trees are Stars, and the 

graph K1,3 is called a Claw, and used to defined 

the Claw-free graphs, where the graph K3,3 is 

called the utility graph. While Kp,p called Moor 

graph and Kp,p+1 is a Turan graph. 

Lemma4-2: 

The adjacency matrix of a complete bipartite 

graph Kp,n has eigenvalues np ,- np ,0 ;with 

multiplicity 1,1,n+p-2 respectively.[8]. 

It comes from the fact that for a symmetric 

real matrices A the total multiplicity of non zero 

eigen values is the rank. Since the adjacency 

matrix of Kp,n has rank 2, it has two non zero 

eigenvalues � 1 and � 2 . With the sum of all 

eigenvalues is equal to 0 , so � 1 � �2 

� c for 

some positive constant c. Hence the 

characteristic polynomial of Kp,n is 

2 2 p�n�2 

p�n 

2 p�n�2 

( �) 

� ( � � c ) � � � � c � 

PK p, 

n 

and proved in [8] the sum eigenvalues of any 

2 

graph is zero and �� 2q 

(q is the number 

i 

of edges of G) , then –c 2 is equal to -1 times the 

number of edges of Kp,n. 

i.e. –c 2 =-np. We can obtain that c � np . 

Therefore the spectrum of the complete bipartite 

graph Kp,n consists of np , � np and 

(p+n-2) eigenvalues equal to zero. 

Theorem4-3: 

the singularity of complete bipartite graph 

Kp,n is p+n-2 

i.e. � ( , ) � p � n � 2 

m K p n 

x1 

y1 

x2 

y2 

x3 

Fig(13) 

y3 

yp 

xn 

213


Proof: 

For each vertex in G let y1,y2,…..,yp be the 

weights of the other vertices of V1 and the 

weights of the other vertices of V2 

x1,x2,…..,xn. 

be 

For each vi of V1 there are n vertices in 

neighborhood of vi . i=1,2,…p , and 

f ( w ) � x � x �..... 

� x to apply the 

� 

w �N 

( v ) 

i 

214 

i 

i 

1 

2 

condition � f ( wi 

) � 0 

wi�N 

( vi 

) 

x1+x2+…..+xn=0 , put xn= -x1-x2-……-xn-1 

and for each uj of V2 there are p vertices in 

neighborhood of each uj , j=1,2,….,n , and 

f ( s ) � y � y �.... 

� y to apply the 

� 

s �N 

( u ) 

j 

j 

condition � 

s � 

j 

j 

1 

N ( u ) 

2 

f ( s ) � 0 

j 

j 

y1+y2+….+yp=0 put yp=-y1-y2-……-yp-1 

then a high zer-sum weighting for G1 exist , 

that uses exactly (n-1)+(p-1) non-zero distinct 

independent variables. 

Therefore � ( , ) � n � p � 2 . 

Theorem 

K1,n is n-1 

4 

-3: 

m K p n 

n 

p 

The singularity of Star Graph 

i.e. S(K1,n) =n-1 

Proof: It is obvious from the above theorem, 

since Star graph is a special type of complete 

bipartite graph Kp,n. Let f(v1) =0,and the 

weights of the other vertices are as shown in 

fig(14), we get 

� 

f 

( i 1 2 

n 

w ) � x � x � ..... � x � 0 

X1 

X2 

Xn 

Fig (14) 

Implies that xn=-x1-x2-x3 ……-xn-1,then the 

high zero sum weighting exist and used exactly 

n-1 non zero distinct independent variables. 

X3 

f(v1)=0 

X4 

5- APPLICATION 

Graph spectra (The set of eigenvalues of the 

adjacency matrix A(x) which is symmetric, 

square, zero diagonal and (0, 1) matrix of the 

graph G) has been applied and has become 

important in some scientific fields, such as 

combinatory, quantum chemistry, physics and 

computational algorithms. The first 

mathematical literature discussing the spectra of 

graphs is the fundamental papers of L.M. 

Lihtenbaum (1956) and of L. Collatz and V. 

Sinogowints (1957) and D.M. Cvetcovic after 

them. Mathematicians study the spectra of 

graphs because they hope by combining graphs 

with linear algebra, in particular the welldeveloped 

theory of matrices, to investigate the 

properties of graph s and further classify graphs. 

We can use eigenvalue to deduce an easy result 

about bipartite graphs. If G has bipartition (V1, 

V2) and if x is an eigenvector with corresponding 

eigenvalue� , then we can replace the label xi 

with –xi for each vertex in V1 to get an 

eigenvector with corresponding eigenvalue - � . 

Hence � and - � have the same multiplicity, 

and the spectrum that is symmetric about 0, then 

the trace of A and A 2k+1 is 0 and the graph 

contains no odd cycles, and so G is bipartite. 

This fields one of the oldest results concerning 

the spectra of graphs. [7] and [8]. 

Theorem 5-1: A graph is bipartite if and only if 

its spectrum is symmetric about 0. 

Suppose that Vi and Vj are non-adjacent vertices 

with the same neighbors, and suppose that x is 

an eigenvector with eignvalue� . If ∑ is the sum 

of the labels vertices on the neighbors of vi and 

vj, then clearly � xi=(Axi) = ∑=(Ax)j= � xj. 

And hence � (xi-xj)=0.see[4] and[7] 

Theorem 5-2: If V and U are non-adjacent 

vertices with the same neighbors, and if x is an 

eigenvector with eignvalue� , then v and u have 

the same label or � =0. 

5-3 Lower bounds for the eigenvalues: 

Finding lower bounds for the eigenvalues of 

graphs has been a recurring theme in the study of 

graph spectra. 

In this section we use � (G) to denote the 

smallest eignvalue. 

[4,p.40] 

Lemma 5-4: Let G be a connected graph with 

least eignvalue � (G), then 

i- � (G) ≤0 with equality for a null graph 

(without any edge)


i- if G is not null, then � (G) ≤ -1, with equality 

iff G is complet 

ii- if G is neither complete nor null,then � (G) ≤ 

-√2 with equality iff G= K1,2 

iii- if G is neither complete nor K1,2 and if 

� (G)≥ -1.5, then G is 

Fig (15) 

proof: Since the trace of any adjacent matrix is 

0, � (G) ≤ 0 iff a graph has an edge, then that 

edge is a two-vertex induced sub graph with 

least eignvalue -1, implies � (G) ≤ -1 . 

if G is not complete graph, then K1,2 is an 

induces sub graph with least eignvalue -√2 , 

Among the graphs G with four vertices the one 

given in the last statement is the only one with 

least eignvalue � (G)≥ -1.5 

5-5 Upperbound of the eignvalue 

How we find graphs with eignvalues bounded 

from below by -2, similarly we can find graphs 

with eignvalues bounded from above by 2. 

i 

j 

k 

Fig (16 ) the graph T(i,j,k) 

we define the graph T( i, j, k), shown in 

fig(16 ) take three paths pi, pj and pk and add a 

new vertex adjacent to one end vertex of each 

path. The graph is then a tree with i+j+k+1 

vertex, tree pendant vertices and one vertex of 

degree 3. 

Now we form a matrix X from a set of 

vectors, where the inner product of any two 

vectors is 0 or 1. 

We can then define the adjacent matrix of G 

by equal XX T = 2I – A(G) 

And we will have a graph whose eignvalues 

are bounded from above by 2. 

Theorem 5-5: If G is a graph with largest 

eignvalue � 1=2, then G is one of the following 

graphs Cn, K1,4 , T(2,2,2), T(3,3,1), T(5,2,1) or 

Fig (17) 

Corollary 5-6: If G is a graph with largest 

eignvalue � 1< 2, then G is a path Pn, T(1,1,r), 

T(1,2,4), T(1,2,3) or T(1,2,2) 

5-5 An application in chemistry: 

Cayley in Beineke [ 3, p.434] found the 

earliest application of graph theorem (spectra) to 

chemistry in 1857 when he enumerated the 

number of rooted trees with a given number of 

vertices. Chemical molecule can be represented 

by a graph by taking each atom of the molecule 

as a vertex of the graph, and the edges of the 

graph represent atomic bonds between the end 

atoms property [3, p.420] such that two 

isomorphic graphs must either both have the 

property, or both lack it , is said to be a graph 

invariant. 

H 

H 

H 

H 

H 

Fig (18): isomers of C5H12 

The question of isomorphism is a particular 

interest to chemists. The necessary condition for 

a molecule to be stable (means have no zero 

eigenvalue in the spectra, i.e. Singularity of such 

graphs is zero) is that it must have an even 

number of atoms. However the singularity of the 

Isomer in figure (18) is 7.Thus as a chemical 

property, we mention that the isomer is stable 

more than any other molecular has the 

singularity more than 7. As a general case , 

paraffin's have the molecular formula 

CkH2k+2.They have 3k+2 atoms(vertices) of 

which k is carbon and 2k+2 are hydrogen atoms. 

They have 3k+1 bonds (edges), hence, for large 

k, many isomers of the same compound are 

determined. 

H 

H 

H 

H 

H 

H 

215 

H


As a mater of fact, isomers with minimum 

singularity will appear mostly in nature. Apply 

weighting technique, we can show that 

� m ( CkH2k+2) ≥ k+2 ,equality holds for all 

paraffin compounds whose shape is like Figure 

(15). That is, the straight shape is the most stable 

isomer out of all. In [7] it is proved that the 

necessary condition for a molecule to be 

stable(to have no zero eigenvalue in the spectra, 

i.e. the singularity is zero) is that it must have an 

even number of atoms(vertices). 

REFRENCES 

- B.Andras Fay, Graph theory: Flows, Matrices, Adam 

Hilger,Bristol,1991. 

- S.Axler and K.A.Ribet , Graph theory, Graduate texts in 

Mathematics,1993. 

- L.w.Beineke and R.J.Wilson; Selected Topics in Graph 

Theory, Academic press, Inc, London,1978 . 

- L.W.Beineke,R.J.Wilson and P.J.Cameron,Topics in 

Algebraic Graph theory,2004. 

216 

m 

ىةلث ةب ووتسطكةي ىفاسط ؤب وابان ىةلث 

- Bondy, John Adrian; Murty; U.S.R. ,Graph theory with 

Applications,1976. 

- M.Broun, J.W.Kennedy and B.Servatins ; Graph 

Singularity, Graph Theory notes of 

NewYork,vol.25(1993) 23-32. 

- D.M.Cvetcovic ,M.Doob ,I.Gutman and A.Torgasev; 

Recent Result in the Theory of Graph Spectra, 

North Holland, Amsterdam,1988. 

- D.M.Cvetkovic, M.Doob and Sachs; Spectra of Graphs, 

Academic Press, New York, 1979. 

- Kh.R.Sharaf and D.H.Mohammed; Degree of Singularity 

of Product of graphs, Jornal of Duhok University, 

vol.9,no.1,(2006) 39-50. 

- Kh.R.Sharaf and P.A.Rashed; On the Degree of the 

Singularity of a graph, Journal of Dohuk 

University, vol.5,no.2,(2002) 133-138. 

- Skiena,S.Implementing Discreat, Mathematics: 

Combinatories and Graph Theory with 

Mathematica. Addison-Wesely, 1990. 

ةتخوث 

ىىكَيفاسفاسط دنةض ةل َىون ىووتسطكةي ىفاسط دنةض ىةوةهيشؤد ؤب ةيةوةهيرَيوت مةل ةواهَيهزاكةب � ىزادسك 

ةووتسطكةي , ةفاسط ىوابان ىةلث ىةوةهيشؤد ؤب ةووتاهزاكةب ىناكةزةس ؤب ىسفسان ىشزةب ىندسكشَيك ةو , تةبيات 

ىةزامذ ةتاكةد فاسط ىوابان ىةلث ةك ةواسهَيلمةس اهةوزةه , ةووب 

اديةث ناكةفاسط ىندسكؤك ىمانجةئ ةل ةك ناكةيَيون 

شيهيَلؤكَيل اهةوزةه . َىسهَيهةدزاكةب ىشزةب ىندسكشَيك ةل ةك شاوايج ىؤخةبزةس ىسفسان ىناكةواِزؤط ةل تسيوَيث 

و ( Pn � P 

k 

) � ( Pn 

� C 

k 

) ةل ينتيسب ةك ةناي َىون ةووتسطكةي ةفاسط ةزؤج مةئ ىوابان ىةلث ىندسكزامذةه ؤب ةواسك 

[6] ةىل M.Brown و [7] ةىل Cvet Kovic ةك شزةب ىندسكشَيك ىكيهكةت ىندسكَيجةب َىج ةب نايناكةيتةبيات ةزاب 

. ةواهَيه نايزاكةب 

) تلااصتلأا نم m ( ةلصتملا 

تانايبلل ذوذشلا ةجرد 

: ةصلاخلا 

ةت لتخم تاجردتب ةتصاب تاتنايب نتم ةلتصتم تاتنايب اتنتتسلأ نينايب لاصتأ 

� ةيئانثلا ةيلمع انمدختسا ثحبلا اذه ىف 

ةتتيلمع نتتع ةتتاتانلا ودتتىدالا تاتتنايبلل ذوذتتشلا ةتتجرد داتتاىلأ سوذتتتلل جت تتصلا تتتيللا ىلاتتيلا نىزاتتتلا وتتتةف انمدختتتسأو ، 

ةىت تصلالا ةلةتتسملا تاتتيلتملا ددع جواست تانايبلا كلتل ذوذشلا ةجرد نأب انتبثأو ةلصتم تانايب نع ورابع ىهو لاصتلأا 

. ىلايلا هنىزات ىف مدختست ىتلا ة لتخملا 

تلااتتحلاو ( Pn � C 

k 

) و ( Pn � P 

k 

) لاتصتلأا 

ةتتيلمع نتم ةتتاتانلا ودتىدالا تاتنايبل ذوذتتشلا ةتجرد اتتستبأ تتت كلذتك 

. 

[6] ىفM.Brawnو 

[7] ىف ىقابلاو cvetkovic اهمدختسأ جذلا ىلايلا نىزاتلا ةينةت تيميتو قيبطتب اهنم لةل ةصاخلا


A STUDY OF NAUPLIAR STAGES OF Mesocyclops edax FORBES, 

1891(COPEPODA: CYCLOPOIDA) 

LUAY A. ALI * and KAZHAL H. H. RAHIM ** 

* Dept. of Biology, College of Education-Scientific Dept, University of Salahaddin, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

** Dept. of Basic Science, College of Nursing, Hawler Medical University, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

(Received: December 22, 2010; Accepted for publication: May 5, 2011) 

ABSTRACT 

The present study conducted to define the naupliar stages of Mesocyclops edax (Copepoda: Cyclopoida) in the 

laboratory. Eggs of adult females were isolated and incubated in sterile petridish at 25±1C ◦ . During the follow up of 

the development of these eggs for 5 to 6 days, all six nauplius stages were observed. The study was included the 

descriptions of obtained naupliar stages. 

KEYWORDS: Nauplius, Mesocyclops edax, Copepoda, Cyclopoida 

C 

INTRODUCTION 

opepods are very small crustaceans, 

most ranging from less than one 

millimeter to several millimeters in length. Freeliving 

freshwater copepods can be distinguished 

from other small aquatic invertebrates by a 

variety of morphological characteristics. 

Knowledge of naupliar morphology is indispensable 

for the investigation of stagedependent 

biological and ecological phenomena 

and the elucidation of phylogenetic 

relationships. As part of present study of the life 

cycle of fresh-water Cyclopoida, is describe the 

naupliar stages of Mesocyclops edax. 

Many previous studies have been done on 

the life cycles of copepoda in different parts of 

the world. A study of the development of larval 

stages of seven species of marine copepoda 

made by Oberg (1906). These species included 

representatives of four different families in all 

these species and he found six naupliar. While, 

Byrnes (1921) described the metamorphosis of 

Cyclops americanus and C. signatus, but only 

gave three naupliar stages, which correspond 

very closely to stage II, IV and VI. However, 

Manfredi (1923) investigated the development of 

Cyclops bicuspidatus, C. serrulatus and C. 

prasinus and found five naupliar. A study of the 

life cycle of C. bicuspidatus was made by 

Armitage and Tash (1967). A revision of the 

African species of the genus Mesocyclops was 

published by Velde (1984), he recorded twelve 

species of Mesocyclops in his study, four of 

them were described as new species, in addition 

to recording of M. leuckarti for the first time in 

Africa. On the other hand, naupliar development 

of Mesocyclops edax was described by Dahmas 

and Ferrnando (1995). 

In Iraq generally and in Kurdistan 

particularly, most previous studies on copepod 

were mainly restricted to surveying different 

species in different aquatic environment, there 

are no study on life cycles of copepoda, this 

study become the first study of naupliar stage of 

free copepod in Iraq in general and in Kurdistan 

region in particular. 

MATERIAL AND METHODS. 

Greater Zab River is a large river (392 km) 

in Iraq. This river is one of the main tributary of 

the Tigris, it originates mainly from 

mountainous area of Iran and Turkey. It is 

situated between 36 ◦ -37 ◦ north latitudes and 43 ◦ - 

44 ◦ east longitude (Grabda, 1963). During this 

study, the samples were collected near Khabat 

sub district far about (40 km) to the west of Erbil 

city (Fig. 1), during the period of June 2009. 

Samples were collected by filtering, 50 liter of 

the river water by using planktonic net, with 55 

µm pore size then the samples were concentrated 

to 10 ml of river water. 

After returning to the laboratory the adult 

female of copepods is began to produce the eggs 

were placed in small petridish with little amount 

of distal water at 25±1 C º and drop of water at 25 

C º were added every six hour by using small 

syringe reparation. Then they were placed in 

incubator at 25 ±1 C º (Grabda, 1963 and 

Tsotetsi, 2005). Every day plastic cups checked 

under dissecting microscope and the nauplius 

stage observation made daily. Photos taken for 

217


each stage by using Olympus compound 

microscope and digital camera model (Sony, 

DSC-W55). 


Mesocyclops edax was originally described 

from Lake Superior of North America (Forbes, 

1891). Generally, cyclopoida exhibit complex 

life cycles and relatively long generation times 

compared with other zooplankton. The lifecycle 

consists of six nauplius stages, followed by five 

218 

copepodid larval stages before final molt into 

adult. The eggs typically hatch as nauplius 

larvae which are not resemble their parents. 

They are much smaller, broader in proportion, 

have only a few pairs of limbs, and possess no 

tail end to their body, they may be colorless, the 

only conspicuous part of them being their eye 

(Sommer, 1989 and Marshall and Williams, 

2002). In this study, the naupliar stages of 

Mesocyclops edax has been descibed. 

Fig. (1): Map of Iraq, insert location of sampling sites of Greater Zab, River (Map info. Vers. 9). 

Nauplius I 

This stage was demonstrated after 6-12 

hours immediately after egg hatching at 

25 � 1°C body length 72-82 µm, width 62 

µm (Fig. 2). This instar more nearly 

spherical in cross section than later stages. 

Labrum bearing spinule row along caudal 

margin, 2 larger spinules at either 

laterocaudal corner. Ventral body wall 

bearing groups of spinules along both lateral 

margins. Hind body bearing medial row of 

long spinules and 2 rows of small spinules 

laterally. Long seta on either side of hind 

body. Antennule consisting of 5 segments. 

Proximal 2 segments devoid of conspicuous 

armature. Third segment bearing 1 anterior 

seta plus spinule and row of spinules along 

outer margin; 1 of these much longer than 

other spinules throughout phase. Fourth 

segment bearing 2 setae throughout phase, 

proximal seta small, distal seta large and 

spinulose, more than 3 times as long as 

proximal seta. Distal fifth segment bearing 2 

spinulose setae terminally; outer crest of 

spinules at base of setae. 

Coxa of antenna bearing large swordshaped 

masticatory element furnished with 

row of strong spinules along outer margin 

and shorter spinules on inner distal third. 

Basis furnished with 3 small setae along 

inner margin, 2 grouped proximally and 1 

distally; 2 or 3 anterior surface spinules on 

outer portion. Endopod 1-segmented and 

armed with 2 inner setae midway, distal 1 

much stronger and spinulose; 2 long 

spinulose setae terminally. Exopod distinctly 

5-segmented, with 1 spinulose seta at inner


tip of segments 1-4 and 2 spinulose terminal 

setae on segment five. 

Coxa of mandible bearing one inwardly 

curved unfurnished seta. Basis armed with 2 

setae proximally, proximal most without 

spinules throughout naupliar phase and 

distal one stronger and spinulose. Endopod 

two segmented. First segment unornamented 

and bearing saddle like lobe carrying 2 

strong setae ornamented with stiff spinules. 

Second segment bearing 2 smaller smooth 

lateral setae midway and two setae 

terminally. Exopod four segmented with 1 

spinulose seta at tip of inner margin of 

segments 1-3, but 2 spinulose setae 

terminally on distal segment. 

The description of nauplius1 was 

similar to that reported by Dahmas and 

Ferrnando (1995) in their studies on 

Mesocyclops edax in Pinehurst Lake. 

Fig. (2): Nauplius I. 

A. Photomicrograph(200X) B. Camera lucida drawing (scal bar=0.011mm) 

Nauplius II 

Nauplius stage I molted to liberate this 

stage after 20-24 hour body length, 110 -115 

µm, width 75- 80µm (Fig. 3). On ventral body 

wall of nauplius II, three lateral sickle shaped 

rows of spinules close to caudal edge of labrum. 

In respect to ornamentation of hind body, 1 

abbreviated row of spinules on each 

ventrolateral side at base of both caudal setae. 

Antennule adding third terminal seta and inner 

row of spinules on proximal third of distal 

segment. Antenna consist of endopod and 

exopod, third seta terminally on its endopod 

Exopod becoming 6-segmented, segments 1-5 

each with seta at inner distal tip, distal segment 

with 2 spinulose setae. Mandible acquiring third 

seta distally on basis. Endopodal lobe of first 

segment developing 2 additional (equal 4 in all) 

medial spinulose setae. Distal segment of 

endopod with third spinulose seta terminally. 

Second proximal most seta of first exopodal 

segment. Naupliar mandible reaching final 

structure and not changing until nauplius VI 

except in size. Incipient maxillule indicated by 

strong plumose seta originating from 

protuberance. 

The same measurement and disruptions 

was reported by Dahmas and Ferando 

(1992), from samples of Mesocyclops 

collected from Awasa Lake in Ethiopia. 

Fig. (3): Nauplius II. 


219


Nauplius III 

Nauplius stage II molted to liberate this 

stage after 25-30 hour body length 125-130 µm, 

width 80-85 µm (Fig. 4). Hind body bearing 

second caudal seta posteriorly on either side, 

both setae similar in length, posterior seta 

articulated. Third pair of short setae at this stage 

between outer pairs of setae. Antennules 

acquiring fourth seta at terminal third of distal 

segment. Antenna; developing second strong, 

club-shaped, spinulose masticatory seta. Basis 

220 

having fourth seta in group of 3 proximal setae. 

Endopod bearing fourth subterminal 

unornamented seta Second small naked proximal 

seta developed on first exopodal segment; third 

spinulose seta sub terminally on distalmost 

segment of exopod . 

The size and shape of this stage was close 

to that reported by Dahmas and Ferrnando 

(1995). They followed and described both adult 

and nauplius stages of two species of 

Mesocyclops. 

Fig. (4): Nauplius III. 


Nauplius IV 

Nauplius stage III molted to liberate this 

stage after 22-24 hour Body length about 155- 

160 µm, width 90-96 µm (Fig. 5). Two spin 

form elements indicated at either outer sides of 

hind body. Antennule with 4 additional setae 

developed on distal segment. Antenna bearing 

proximal third, small seta, on inner margin of 

endopod. Exopod becoming 7-segmented, and 

Proximal seta developed at nauplius III situated 

at inner distal tip of newly developed proximal 

seventh segment. Maxillule becoming bilobed 

limb bud with 4 spinulose setae on inner lobe. 

Prospective endopod and exopod having 3 and 4 

spinulose setae respectively. Row of spinules at 

base of middle of 3 exopodal setae, outermost 

seta of exopod by far longest, reaching beyond 

tip of longest caudal seta. 

Generally, similar body size and 

characteristic of nauplius IV was published by 

Dahmas and Ferrnando (1995). 

Fig. (5): Nauplius IV. 

A. Photomicrograph(400X) B. Camera lucida drawing (scal bar=0.016mm)


Nauplius V 

The description of this stage were as follow 

as ; the Body length 200-210 µm, width 120-125 

µm (Fig. 6). Hind body grooved medially and 

minute acutiform imagination on inner sides of 2 

inner setae. Antennule bearing 10 setae on distal 

segment. Antenna bearing five seta sub 

. 

terminally on endopod. Nauplius stage IV 

molted to liberate this stage after 20-24 hour 

This description of NV was agreed with that 

reported by Dahmas and Fernando (1993) that 

they studied and described Mesocyclops sp. and 

Thermocyclops (copepoda) from Beria Lake in 

Sirelanka 

Fig. (6): Nauplius V. 

A. Photomicrograph(400X) B. Camera lucida drawing (scal bar=0.033mm 

Nauplius VI 

Nauplius stage V molted to liberate this 

stage after 18-24 hour. The body length of this 

stage were 270 -285µm, and width 135-145 µm 

(Fig. 7). Inner of 2 outer spinules on hind body 

becoming distinctly spinulose, both spinules 

become more longer. Antennule bearing 14 setae 

plus 2 spinular indications of setae not counted 

as such on distal segment. Antenna bearing 

fourth seta midlength on endopod. distal 

segment. Antenna bearing fourth seta midlength 

on endopod. 

No indication externally of maxilla or 

maxilliped in any stage. Precursors of legs 1 and 

2 appearing at sixth nauplius stage as medial flap 

like limb buds armed with setae and a cutiform 

imaginations on exopod and endopod. 

Fig. (7): Nauplius VI. 


A1= Antennule, A2= Antenna, ps= Posterior seta 

221


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Armitage, B. K. and Tash, C. J. (1967). The life cycle of 

Bicuspidatus Thomasi, S. A. Forbes in 

Leavenworth county state lake, Kansas, USA. 

Department of zoology, of Kansas, crustacean, 

Vol.13, 94-102. 

Byrnes, E. F. (1921). The metamorphosis of Cyclops 

americanus and Cyclops signatus var. tenuicornis, 

cold spring Harbor monograph 1x, the Brook lyn, 

institute for Arts and sciences 4:3-53. 

Dahmas, U, H. and Ferando C. H. (1992). Naupliar 

development of Mesocyclops aequatorialis 

similis and Thermocyclops consimilis (Co pepoda: 

Cyclopoida) from Lake Awasa, a tropical rift valley 

lake in Ethiopia.-Canadian Journal of Zoology 70: 

2283-2297. 

Dahmas,U. H. and Fernando C. H. (1993). Naupliar 

development of Mesocyclops cf. Thermocyclops 

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(Kiefer, 1929) (Copepoda: Cyclopoida) from Beira 

Lake, SriLanka. Journal of Plankton Research 15: 

9-26. 

Dahmas. U. H, Ferrnando, H. C. (1995). Naupliar 

development of Mesocyclops edax Forbes, 

1891(copepoda: cyclopoida). Crustacean biology, 

15(2):329-340 

Forbes, S. A. (1891). On some Lake Superior Ento- 

mostraca.-Report of the United States Commission 

of Fish and Fisheries for 1887: 701-718. 

222 

Grabda, J. (1963). Life cycle and morphogenesis of 

Lernaea cyprinacea L. Acta Parasitol. Polonica, 

11: 169- 198. 

Manfredi, P. (1923). Etude sur le development larvaire de 

quelques especes du genre Cyclops. Annales de 

Biologic lacster, 12: 3-4. 

Marshall, A.J. and Williams, W. D. (2002). Textbook of 

zoology invertebrates. 7 th ed., CBS publishers and 

distributors, NewDelhi. India. 

Oberg, M. (1906). Die metamorphose der plankton 

copepoden der Kiefer buch. wiss. Meere 

suntersuchun herausgeg, V. D. Komm, Z. wiss. 

Unter such, D.deutsh-Meere in Kiel,U.D, 

Biol,Anstallt, Helgoland.Neue. (Sited by The larval 

development of fresh water copepod.The Oho state 

Ewers, L. A. (1930). 

Sommer, U. (1989). Plankton ecology, succession in 

plankton communities. Springer-verlage, Newyork, 

USA. 

Tsotetsin, A. M. (2005). Aspect of the ecology, life cycle 

and pathology of Lamproglena clarae (Copepoda: 

Lernaidae), collectedfrom the gills of Clarias 

gariepinus from the Vaal river system, South 

Afrika. Coll. Faculty Sci., Univ. Rand Afrikaans. 

101pp. 

Velde, L. V. (1984). Revision of the African species of the 

genus Wilson, C. B. (1911). Nort America Parasitic 

Copepods. The Lernmopodidm. Proc. U. S. Nat. 

Mus., 39: 189-226. 

ةل ةواركايج ىناكةكاَيه ةو ةطيقات ةل ةكؤمرك ىناكةغانؤق ىندرك ناشين تسةد ؤب ارد مانجةئ ةيةوةهيلؤكَيل 

مةئ 

ناكةكلَيه ىةشةط ىنوضاداودةب ىوامةل ةو 

. ارهَيلهةه ىدةس ىةلث 

َ1± 

52 

وومةه ىدروو ىفسةو ةكةوةهيلؤكَيل 

اهةورةهةو توةك تسةدةب ةكؤمرك ىناكةغانؤق وومةه 

نضح مت . ربتخملا يف 

ةتخوث 

ىمرةط ىةلث ةل ووتشيةطيث ىَىم ةل 

. ذؤر 6-2 

ىوامةل 

. ىؤخ ةتَيرطةد ناكةغانوق 

Mesocyclops edax Forbes, 1891 لجرلاا يفاذجملل ةيقريلا لحارملا 

ةسارد 

Mesocyclops edax 

لجرلاا يفاذجملل ةيقريلا لحارملا ىلع فرعتلل ةيلاحلا ةساردلا تيرجأ 

2 نم تحوارت ةرتفل ضويبلا ومن 

ةعباتم للاخو . ◦م 

َ± 

52 ةرارح ةجرد يف يرتب قابطا يف ةجضان 

ثانا نم 

ةذه نم ةلحرم لكل يليصفت فصو ةساردلا تنمضت دقو 

. ةتسلا ةيقريلا لحارملا ىلع لوصحلا مت 

ثيح 


تلزع ضويب 

مايأ 

6 

ىلا 

. 

لحارملا


EFFECT OF SALICYLIC ACID ON SOME BIOMASS AND 

BIOCHEMICAL CHANGES OF DROUGHT- STRESSED 

WHEAT (Triticum aestivum L. var. Cham 6) SEEDLINGS* 

FAKHRIYA M. KARIM and MOHAMMED Q. KHURSHEED 

Dept. of Biology, College of Education -Scientific dept, University of Salahaddin, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

(Received: January 6, 2011; Accepted for publication: May 2, 2011) 

ABSTRACT 

This study was carried out to examine the effect of salicylic acid on growth of winter wheat plants (Triticum 

aestivum L. var. Cham 6) under water stress conditions. The experiment consisted of pre-treated grains with salicylic 

acid solution with concentration of (100ppm) via soaking for three hours and spray of the seedlings with salicylic acid 

at the level of (200ppm), and the plants were put under drought stress conditions at different levels (0.75FC, 0.50FC, 

0.25FC). Shoot and root biomass characteristics as well as some biochemical changes of shoot were studied. Statistical 

analysis were accomplished for the gained results using the completely randomized design for all of the experiments 

with four replications for each treatment and mean treatments were compared using Least Significant Difference Test 

(L.S.D.) at the level of 0.05 to the characteristics of plants that have been registered in the greenhouse, and the level of 

0.01 to the chemical characteristics of the plants which were done in the laboratory. The plant treating with salicylic 

acid led to significant increases in the most of shoot and root biomass characteristics under water deficit stress 

conditions which were included fresh weight and water content of shoot, as well as dry root/dry shoots per plant and 

the relative growth rate of leaf, but the water content of root and dry weight of root and shoot were decreased 

compared with untreated plants. Proline and salicylic acid content of shoot showed an increase in plants treated with 

salicylic acid under drought stress comparing with untreated plants. 

KEYWORDS: Salicylic acid, Drought, Wheat 

C 

INTRODUCTION 

ereals are the main source of nutrition, 

energy, protein and dietary fibers for 

human and animals (Gooding and Davies, 1997). 

It is well believed that Iraqi Kurdistan Region is 

the mother land of wheat on basis of some 

archaeological evidences that has been found in 

Tel-jarmo which belongs to 8000 years B.C 

(Harlan, 1991). Wheat represents the largest 

average among all other field crops in Iraqi 

Kurdistan in such away; it covers 78% of rainfed 

area (Al-Najafi, 1989). In both natural and 

agricultural conditions, plants are frequently 

exposed to environmental stresses. It has been 

reported that only 10% of the world’s arable 

lands are free from environmental stresses, with 

drought and salinity being the wide spread 

(Ashraf, 1999). Biotic and abiotic stresses are 

factors that adversely affect plant growth and 

development (Ansari and Misra., 2007). 

However, in Mediterranean countries, plants are 

subjected to water deficient, high and low 

temperatures that are a major factors limiting 

growth and development in plants (Kozlowski et 

al., 2000). Water is a central molecule in all 

* Part of M.Sc. thesis of the first author 

physiological processes in plants, comprising 

between 80 and 95% of the biomass of 

herbaceous plants. Plant water deficit occurs 

when insufficient moisture prevents a plant from 

growing adequately and completing its life 

cycle. Insufficient moisture can be the 

consequence of a shortage in rainfall (drought), 

coarse textured soils that retain little water in the 

root zone, or drying winds. Water deficit is not 

only caused by lack of water but also by 

environmental stresses like low temperature or 

salinity. 

Salicylic acid is a naturally occurring 

phenoloic that is widely found throughout the 

plant kingdom, it was recognized as an 

endogenous regulator in plants after finding that 

it is involved in many plant physiological 

processes such as photosynthesis, transpiration, 

nutrient uptake, chlorophyll synthesis, protein 

synthesis and transport (Raskin, 1992). SA 

induces changes in leaf anatomy and chloroplast 

structure, it is involved in endogenous signaling; 

mediating in plant defense mechanisms against 

biotic and abiotic stresses (Hayat and Ahmad, 

2007). Application of exogenous SA enhanced 

the drought stress resistance of wheat plants 

223

224 


(Gomez et al., 1997; Hamada and Al-Hakimi, 

2001; Sakhabutdinova et al., 2003; Waseem et 

al., 2006), and (Bandurska and Stroi, 2005) on 

barely. Proline plays a major role in the antioxidative 

stress as a hydroxyl radical scavenger, 

it regulate the NAD + /NADH ratio, and as a 

protein-compatible hydrotrope (Matysik et al., 

2002). Proline also protects membranes and 

proteins against the effects of high 

concentrations of inorganic ions (Srinivas and 

Balasubramanian, 2000). On the other hand, the 

accumulation of low molecular weight solutes 

and/or compatible osmolytes may help to 

maintain the relatively high water content 

necessary for plant growth by balancing the 

osmotic pressure of cytosol with that of vacuole 

and external environment. It has been reported 

that the higher accumulation of proline could be 

due to inhibition of proline catabolizing 

enzymes, such as proline oxidase and proline 

dehydrogenase (Delauney and Verma, 2001). 

Since wheat cultivation in Iraq might be 

exposed to many damages resulted from the 

physical factors such as temperature, salinity and 

drought at different periods of growth. 

Therefore, the objective of this study is i) to 

study the vegetative characteristics, yield 

components and biochemical changes induced 

by SA under normal and drought conditions ii) 

to asses whether exogenous application of SA 

could improve the action of drought on plant and 

could ameliorate the adverse effects of these 

factors, iii) to estimate the changes that occur in 

some compatible solute accumulations under 

water and stress such as proline and SA, which 

are important marker in abiotic stress resistance 

as well as some others biochemical constituents. 


The experiment was carried out in 

uncontrolled glasshouse of Biology department, 

College of Science Education, University of 

Salahaddin during the period from November 

23, 2009 to March 10, 2010 to determine 

whether SA application could enhance growth in 

drought stressed plants. The plastic pots with 

diameter of 24cm and 21cm in depth with 

drainage holes in the bottom were used. Sandy 

loam soil was sieved through 4mm pore size 

siever, and sterilized by formalin 40% then 7kg 

of dried loamy sand soil was put in each pot. 

Some chemical and physical properties of the 

soil are shown in table (1). Seeds of the wheat 

were pre-soaked in neutralized 100ppm SA for 

3hrs. Seven grains were placed into each pot and 

after germination the plants were thinned to two 

per pot. Urea fertilizer (CO(NH 2 ) 2 containing 

46.66% N, Phosphorus and Potassium fertilizer 

(KH 2 PO 4 ) containing 22.70 %P and % 28.60 K 

were added to the pots as solutions after 02days 

from sowing at the rates of 75, 75 , 94.5 mg/Kg 

for N,P and K, respectively. Seedlings were 

sprayed twice with 200ppm SA solution after 

30days from sowing and were sprayed with 

week interval. Three days after second spray the 

seedlings will subject to water deficit for 45days. 

They were watered as follow; 0.75, 0.50 or 

0.25FC (field capacity). Some pots were 

untreated regarded as control and SA treatment 

with 100% FC. After drought stress the plants 

returned to normal irrigation for plants recovery 

and plants survival ability that assessed after 

20days. The experiment was designed as 

completely randomized design that consisted of 

8 treatments with 4 replicates. 

Table (1): Some Physical and Chemical properties of 

the soils used in the experiment: 

Properties Values 

Sand% 69.11 

Silt% 24.23 

Clay% 6.66 

Soil texture Sandy Loam 

Field Capacity% 13.87 

Organic matter% 0.83 

Electrical Conductivity (dSm -1 at 

25 °C) 

0.40 

pH 7.42 

Total Nitrogen% 0.05 

Available Phosphorus (mg Kg-1 1.24 

soil) 

Soluble Potassium(mg Kg -1 soil) 24.18 

Soluble Sodium(mg Kg -1 soil) 19.78 

Soluble Chloride(mg Kg -1 soil) 36.75 

Biomass changing measurements Shoot and 

root dry weight (g/plant) 

The roots and shoots of plants in each 

replication were dried at 70°C until reaching a 

constant weight, then root and shoot dry weights 

were measured and the dry weight of root and 

shoot per plant was calculated by dividing the 

total weight by the number of plants (Ekiz and 

Yilmaz, 2003). 

Ratio of dry root/ dry shoot per plant 

The whole plant was uprooted by pouring 

water into the plant's pot to be rinsed from the 

soil, and then separated into shoot and root.


After that, the shoot and the root were oven- dried for 48hrs at 72 °C. The root and shoot dry 

weights were measured with weighing 

balance. Root: shoot ratio was computed 

according to (Luvaha et al., 2008), as follow: 

Water content (g/ plant) 

After F.W. (fresh weight) measure, shoots 

were dried at 110°C for 1hrs to kill tissues then 

dried at 70°C for 24hrs. Dry shoots obtain after 

being cooled to room temperature for half an 

hour (He et al., 2008). 

Water content = F.W. – D.wt 

Relative growth rate (RGR) 

The formula to calculate the relative leaf 

growth rate was according to (Liang et al., 2002) 

as follow: 

RGR = 1/ L � . dL / dt 

Lo = Stand for the leaf lengths of selected plants 

at the beginning of the treatment. 

dL/ dt = Stand for the length increments of 

selected leaves per day during the treatment. 

Biochemical Determination 

Proline determination (µg/g F.wt.) 

Proline was determined according to the 

method described by Bates et al., (1993). 

Approximately 0.5g of fresh leaf material was 

homogenized in 10ml of 3% aqueous 

sulfosalicylic acid and filtered through 

Whatman’s No. 2 filter paper. Two ml of the 

filtrate was mixed with 2ml acid-ninhydrin and 2 

ml of glacial acetic acid in a test tube. The 

mixture was placed in a water bath for 1h at 

100°C. The reaction mixture was extracted with 

4 ml toluene and the chromophore containing 

toluene was aspirated, cooled to room 

temperature, and the absorbance was measured 

at 520nm Spectrophotometer. Appropriate 

proline standards were included for the 

calculation of proline in the samples. 

Salicylic acid determination (µg/ Kg F.wt.) 

Salicylic acid was measured in fresh leaf 

extracts as described by Ahmad and Vaid 

(2009), with some modifications. 2.0g of sample 

was warmed with 25ml ethanol (96%) to melt an 

extracted with the solvent it was further 

extracted with 25ml twice of ethanol (96%). SA 

was prevented by the addition of 1ml of 0.2M 

NaOH and the samples were centrifuged 

(Heraeus sepatech model) for 15min at 13000g. 

The combined extracts were filtered and made 

up to 100ml with ethanol (96%). Then 25ml of 

the extract was diluted to 50ml in a volumetric 

flask with ethanol (96%) and the absorbance 

measurements were carried out at 303nm. 

Statistical Analysis 

All data were analyzed using ANOVAs and 

subsequent comparison of means was performed 

using Fischer , s Least Significant Differences 

(LSD) at p≤ 0.05 for greenhouse experiment 

measurements with four replicates and p≤ 0.01 

for Laboratory chemical measurements with 

three replicates (Snedecor and Cochran, 1989). 

Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 

(SPSS) and Microsoft Excel Statistical 

Programmer were used for all statistical analysis. 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 

Biomass changes of shoot and root 

Table (2), refers to different levels of drought 

stress caused significant decreases in shoot fresh 

weight as compared with untreated controls. As 

well as, there were not significant differences 

between the different levels of drought stress 

pre-treated with SA as compared with control. 

However, it was observed that the levels of 

drought stress pre-treated with SA had higher 

shoot fresh weight than those did not pre-treat 

with SA. The significant increases in shoot fresh 

weight were 5.27 and 4.31g respectively that 

gained from 0.25FC + SA and 0.50FC + SA. 

The fresh weight of root was significantly 

reduced under different levels of drought stress 

at the averages of 8.79 and 6.33g root fresh 

weight were significantly lowered that obtained 

from the levels of 50FC and 25FC respectively 

as compared with well watered control. It was 

further noted that the levels of drought stress 

pre-tread with SA showed significant decreases 

as compared with control plants. However, the 

different levels of drought stress pre-treated with 

SA showed insignificant differences as 

compared with those did not pre-treated with SA 

except the value of 17.61g from the level of FC 

+ SA which was significantly increased. 

The dry weight of shoot was significantly 

decreased with increasing the levels of drought 

stress in comparison with control (table 2). In 

addition, it was observed that dry weight of 

shoot was decreased under the different levels of 

drought stress pre-treated with SA as compared 

with control. Moreover, it was found that the 


225

226 


SA showed insignificant effect as compared to 

those did not pre-treat with SA except the value 

of 1.4g was the significant difference decrease 

that obtained from the level of 0.75FC + SA 

compared with 0.75FC. From the same table it 

was shown that the dry weight of root was 

significantly decreased under difference levels of 

drought as compared with control. The 

maximum decrease in root dry weight was 3.79g 

recorded at 0.25FC treatment. It was further 

observed that the different levels of drought 

stress pre-treated with SA showed significant 

decrease in comparison with control except the 

level of FC + SA showed insignificant difference 

which was 7.18g. Furthermore, the different 

levels of drought stress pre-treated with SA 

showed insignificant differences as compared 

with those did not pre-treated with SA except the 

value of 5.06 was significant that obtained from 

level of 0.25FC + SA comparing to 0.25FC. 

The application of different levels of drought 

stress was resulted in significant increases in 

ratio of dry root/dry shoot per plant biomass of 

wheat plant (table 2). The higher values were 

0.73 and 0.78 that obtained from the levels of 

0.50FC and 0.25FC respectively as compared 

with the well watered control. While, it was 

found that the different levels of drought stress 

pre-treated with SA showed significant increase 

as compared with control except both the 

treatments of FC + SA and 0.75FC + SA. Table 

(3), refers to insignificant differences of shoot 

water content under different levels of drought 

stress as compared with control, but the effect of 


SA showed significant increases comparing with 

control. Furthermore, it was found that the 


SA showed significant increase at both 

treatments 0.50FC + SA and 0.25FC + SA which 

were 21.83 and 22.2g respectively as compared 

to those did not pre-treat with SA. The results 

found in the same table, demonstrate that water 

content of root was shows insignificant 

differences except the level of 0.25FC as 

compared with control. In addition the different 


showed significant decrease at both 0.50 FC + 

SA and 0.25FC + SA levels in comparison to 

control. 

The relative growth rate of leaf was gradual 

decreased significantly as the drought stress 

levels increased (table 3). In addition, it was 

observed that the different levels of drought 

stress pre-treated with SA showed significant 

increases on the relative growth rate of leaf. As 

well as, it was found that the different levels of 

drought stress pre-treated with SA showed 

significant increase except the value of 

0.28mm/day at the level of 0.25FC + SA was not 

significant as compared to those did not pretreated 

with SA. The data showed significant 

decreases in shoot fresh weight, relative growth 

rate of leaf and shoot dry weight as compared 

with untreated controls, but it was noted that the 


significantly increased the shoot fresh weight, 

relative growth rate of leaf and water content of 

shoot in comparison with those did not pre-treat 

with SA. These finding results agreed with 

(Gomez et al., 1997; Hamada and Al-Hakimi, 

200;Waseem et al., 2006) in wheat plants. The 

significant decreases in the above mentioned 

biomass changes of shoot under drought stress 

could be interpreted that as plant undergoes 

water stress the water pressure inside the leaves 

is decreased, therefore the plant wilts and further 

development of water stress symptoms reduced 

(Lambers et al., 2008). To survive under these 

conditions the plants undertake various 

mechanisms adaptations to maintain their growth 

and development (Chaves et al., 2003). Decline 

in photosynthetic rate might be due to stomatal 

closure which reduces CO2/O2 ratio in leaves and 

inhibits photosynthesis (Janson et al., 2004). 

Stomatal closure is one of the earliest responses 

to drought protecting the plant from extensive 

water loss so drought stress led to a noticeable 

decrease in stomatal conductance (Chaves et al., 

2003). Whereas, a common adverse effect of low 

water potential stress is the reduction in fresh 

and dry biomass of shoot production occurred 

probably due to the ABA action in which it is 

produced in the cells under abnormal conditions 

and this way inhibit the cell division and/or 

DNA synthesis (Lobato et al., 2008). The 

significant increases in the biomass changes of 

shoot those previously mentioned may be due to 

the role of exogenously applied of SA through 

foliar spray caused an increase in photosynthetic 

rate under the drought stress conditions and SA 

induced increase in photosynthesis can be 

associated with stomatal factors (Athar and 

Ashraf, 2005). Application of SA induce 

increase in leaf water content has been 

emphasized as better indicater of water status of 

a plant so that they may have a good chance to 

survive in the dry period. Effect of SA on 

biomass changes of root caused significant 

decreases in the root fresh weight and root dry 

weight under different levels of drought 

conditions as compared with control. Whereas, 

both parameters mentioned above as well as


water content of root were decreased 

significantly under different levels of drought 

stress pre-treated with SA in comparison with 

control. These results agree with (Gomez et al., 

1997; Waseem et al., 2006) in wheat plants. The 

significant decrease in the root fresh weight and 

root dry weight can be interpreted accordingly 

the main reason which creates decrease in 

growth parameters due to chemical signals from 

the root system may affect the stomatal 

responses to water stress. Stomatal conductance 

is often much more closely related to soil water 

status than to leaf water status and affected by 

soil water status is the root system, in the fact 

dehydrating only part of the root system may 

cause stomatal closure, so the stomata can 

respond to conditions sensed in the roots by 

ABA hormone (Taiz and Zeiger, 2003). Whereas 

significant reduction of biomass changes 

parameters of root by SA may be interpreted that 

primary consequence of drought is osmotic 

stress led to high concentration of Na + 

negatively affected the inter cellular K + 

accumulation presumably either by competing 

for sites through which influx of both cations 

occurs or affecting membrane stability causing 

leakage of K + may lead to water deficit in root 

tissues and loss of turgor (Wated et al., 1991). 

The application of different levels of drought 

stress was led to significant increases in ratio of 

dry root/dry shoot per plant as compared with 

the control, and was found that the different 


showed significant increase as compared with 

control. These increases in ratio of dry root/dry 

shoot per plant could be due to the different 

response of root and shoot growth of this 

cultivar wheat plant to water stress. Therefore 

there was an increase in root/shoot ratio under 

water deficit conditions (Hamblin et al., 1990). 

Such variation have been due to increased 

accumulation of assimilates diverted to root 

growth differential sensitivities of the roots and 

shoots to endogenous ABA or to a greater 

osmotic adjustment in roots compared with 

shoots (Sharp and Davies, 1989). However, SA 

treatments was manifested in the present 

investigation with respect to ionic balance which 

is considered as one of the most complicated and 

integral parts of plant activities the action 

imbalance is one of the most basic disorders due 

to drought stress (Al-Hakimi, 2006). This may 

be happened because of osmotic adjustment 

which occurs in roots although compared to 

leaves the process is less well understood as with 

leaves, these changes may increase water 

extraction from the previously explored soil only 

slightly. However osmotic adjustment can occur 

in the root meristems enhancing turgor and 

maintaining root growth (Taiz and Zeiger, 

2003). 

Table (2): Effect of different levels of drought stress (%field capacity) with or without pre-treated with (SA) on 

biomass changes of wheat plant: 

Treatments 

Control(FC) 

0.75FC 

0.50FC 

0.25FC 

FC+SA 

0.75FC+SA 

0.50FC+SA 

0.25FC+SA 

L.S.D 

p≤ 0.05 

Fresh wt. 

(g/plant) 

29.13 

26.13 

23.64 

22.10 

31.45 

28.54 

27.95 

27.37 

2.25 

Shoot Root Ratio of dry root/ 

Dry wt. 

(g/plant) 

Fresh wt. 

(g/plant) 

11.04 13.97 

8.95 

6.27 

5.16 

10.96 

7.55 

6.11 

5.16 

0.49 

10.61 

8.79 

6.33 

17.61 

Dry wt. 

(g/plant) 

SA: Grains pre-soaked in 100ppmSA for 3hrs and the seedlings were sprayed twice with 200ppmSA 

9.83 

8.71 

7.24 

3.43 

6.45 

4.73 

4.38 

3.79 

7.18 

4.90 

4.98 

5.06 

0.94 

dry shoot per plant 

0.61 

0.54 

0.73 

0.78 

0.66 

0.63 

0.86 

0.96 

0.11 

227

228 


Table (3): Effect of different levels of drought stress (%field capacity) with or without pre-treated with (SA) on water 

content of shoot and root and relative growth rate of leaf after 20days from SA treatment: 

Treatments 

Control(FC) 

0.75FC 

0.50FC 

0.25FC 

FC+SA 

0.75FC+SA 

0.50FC+SA 

0.25FC+SA 

L.S.D 

p≤ 0.05 

Water content of 

shoot(g/plant) 

Biochemical Characters 

Proline content of shoot (µg/g shoot fresh wt.) 

As illustrated in Table (4), the different levels 

of drought stress led to significant increase in 

proline content of shoot as compared with 

control, and there were significant differences 

between drought stress levels. The maximum 

value was 11.61µg/g shoot fresh weight at the 

level of 0.25FC, also the different levels of 


significant increases on proline content as 

compared to their controls. As well as, it was 

found that the different levels of drought stress 

pre-treated with SA showed higher proline 

content than those did not pre-treated with SA in 

which the maximum value was 22.88µg/g shoot 

fresh weight at the level of 0.50FC+SA. These 

results are agreement with (Sakhabutdinova et 

al., 2003) on wheat plant. According to 

suggestment of (Kaiser, 1982) that proline 

accumulation may be associated with stress 

tolerance in wheat it was found many species 

that changes in metabolic activities due to 

decrease in water potential disappear when rates 

are compared on the basis of equal relative water 

content. In addition, application of SA also 

induced accumulation of proline in seedlings. 

Endogenous SA content of shoot (µg/Kg shoot 

fresh wt.) 

The results presented in Table (4) indicate 

that the effect of drought stress showed 

Water content of root 

(g/plant) 

Relative growth of leaf 

(mm/day) 

18.09 7.64 0.43 

17.18 5.88 0.41 

16.96 4.41 0.35 

16.94 2.54 0.28 

20.48 10.43 0.49 

20.99 4.92 0.45 

21.83 3.73 0.40 

22.20 2.18 0.28 

2.38 3.28 0.02 

significant differences on endogenous SA 

content of shoot. Endogenous SA content of 

shoot was 3.60µg/g shoot fresh weight observed 

on the control; increased significantly to 

11.81µg/g shoot fresh weight with the drought 

level of 0.25FC. While the different levels of 


significant increases as compared with their 

controls. However, the different levels of 


higher than those did not pre-treated with SA in 

which the higher values were 98.79 and 

118.19µg/g shoot weight at the level of 0.50FC 

+ SA and 0.25FC + SA respectively. This 

finding result observed for the first time in wheat 

plant; agree with (Bandurska and Stroi, 2005) in 

barley. Therefore, further studies may be 

required to test this parameter. These increases 

might be due to that treatments with SA greatly 

alleviate the harmful effect of drought stress on 

wheat plants by increasing levels of endogenous 

growth hormone salicylic acid and induced the 

appearance of water defense proteins. Therefore 

induction of specific protein is a common 

response of plants to various environmental 

stresses (El-Khallal et al., 2009). On the other 

hand activation of antioxidant enzymatic system 

induced by pre-treat with SA may contribute to 

its anti stress effects in plants and contribute 

substantially to SA induced adaptation to 

subsequent stress conditions (Sakhabutdinova et


al., 2003). 

Table (4): Effect of different levels of drought stress (%field capacity) with or without pre-treated with (SA) on 

the proline and endogenous SA content of wheat plant: 

Treatments 

Control(FC) 

0.75FC 

0.50FC 

0.25FC 

FC+SA 

0.75FC+SA 

0.50FC+SA 

0.25FC+SA 

Proline content 

(µg/Kg shoots fresh wt.) 

Salicylic acid content 

(µg/Kg shoots fresh wt.) 

2.05 3.60 

6.53 8.86 

6.91 11.42 

11.61 11.81 

10.62 43.32 

16.46 67.84 

22.88 98.79 

17.58 118.19 

L.S.D p≤ 0.01 2.36 7.90 

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ة اتـضش ىزةـط ىـكةوووز ىةـشةط زةضةل كيليطيلاض ىشست ىكَيلزاك ىةزابةل 

ةتـخوــث 

ةوازدمانجةئ ةيةوةنيرَيوت مةئ 

شَيث ىوؤت ةل ةووتاوكَيث 

ةكةوة دسكيقات . ى اكشوو ىزاشف ىخؤدوزاب سَيذ ةل 6 ماش ىنشةض (Triticum aestivum L.) 

َىض ىةوام ؤب ىمقو ىاطَيوز ةب ) نؤيلم ةل شةب 011( 

ىتضةخ ةب كيليطيلاض ىشست ىةوايرط ةب واسكةَلةمام تخةو 

سَيذ ة اسخ ةوة دسكيقات ى اكةكةوووز .) نؤيلم ةل شةب 011( 

ىتضائ ةب كيليطيلاض ىشست ةب َلاةط ى د اذوسث ةو سَيمرتاك 

زةـض ةـل ةوةـنيرَيوت ةو ) 0.25FC ،0.50FC 

،0.75FC( 

شاواـيو ىتـضائ ةـب واوةـتا 

ى ادواـئ ىزاـشف ىخؤدوزاـب 

ة د ـ ن ي ش ة ـ ي ز ا ك ا وز ؤ ط َى د ـ ة ه ة و ة وز و ى ط ة ش و ة ـ ض ى ة ـ ل ة م ؤ ك ة ـ ل ة ـ ي ز ة ه ؤ ب ا س ك ة ت ض ز ا ب ة د ن ي ش ى ا ك ة ت ة َل ض ة خ 

ةـب ازدمانجةئ 

ؤب ناي ىزامائ ىزاكيش ناكةمانجةئ 

. ازدمانجةئ ناكةكةوووز ةل ىطةشوةض ىةلةمؤك ؤب ناكةييوايميك 

ن ا ك ة ـ َل ة م ا م ى ا س ـ ك َي ت ى م ا نج ة ـ ئ ة و ة ـ ي ة َل ة م ا م ز ة ـ ه ؤ ـ ب ة ز ا ـ ب و و د ز ا و ـ ض ة ـ ب و ا و ة ت ى ك ة م ة وز ة ه ى ن ي ا ص ي د ى ا ن َي ه ز ا ك ة ب 

ىوو اخ وا ةل ىكةوووز ى اكةتةَلضةخ ؤب 1010 ىتضائ ةل ) L.S.D. ( ىتةوزةنب ىشاوايو نيترمةك ىؤه ةب ناسكدزووازةب 

. نووباسك ؤب نايزاكيش ةطيقات ةل ةك ةكةوووز ى اكةييوايميك ةتةَلضةخ ؤب 1010 ىتضائ ةو . نووباسكزامؤت ىيةشوش 

ى ا ك ة ت ة َل ـ ض ة خ ى ة ـ ن ي ز ؤ ش ة ـ ل ز ة ـ ط ي ز ا ك ى و و ب د ا ـ ي ش ى ؤ ـ ه ة و ـ ب ك ي ل ي ـ ط ي ل ا ض ى ـ ش س ت ة ب ة ك ة ك ة و و وز ى د س ك ة َل ة م ا م 

ىوزةت ىشَيك 

ةل نووب تييسب ةك واوةتا ى ادوائ ىزاشف ىخؤدوزاب سَيذ ةل ةوز و ىطةشوةض ىةلةمؤك ىةتضزابةدنيش 

ةو ىطةشوةض ىةلةمؤك ىكشوو ىشَيك زةض ةل ةوز ىكشوو ىشَيك ىةرَيوز و ىطةشوةض ىةلةمؤك ىوائ ىةرَيوز و 

ىمةك ىطةشوةض ىةلةمؤك ىكشوو ىشَيك و ةوز ىكشوو ىشَيك و ةوز ىوائ ىةرَيوز ىضةك َلاةط ىيةرَيوز ىةشةط 

ى ووبداـيش كيليـطيلاض ىـشست و لؤوسـث ىوسب ةو نووباسكة ةَلةمام تخةو شَيث ةك ىة اوةئ ةب دزووازةب دسك 

واوةـت ا ى ادوائ ىخؤدواب سَيذ ةل كيليطيلاض ةب نووباسكةَلةمام ةك ىة اكةوووز وةئ ةل ووبزايد ةوَيث ىزةطيزاك 

. كيليطيلاض ةب نووباسكة ةَلةمام تخةو شَيث ةك ىة اوةئ ةب دزووازةب 

نةص ) Triticum aestivum L. ( ةيويةتلا ةةطنحلا تابن ومن يف كيلسلاسلا ضماح 

ريثات ةساردل 

يةةف ف ةةج 011( 

يةةةف ف ةةج 011( 

لا 


ةساردلا هذه تيرجأ 

ةةي ريض كيلةةسلاسلا ضماةةح سوةلحمض اقبةةسم رلاذةةبلا ةةةلماةم اةةت دةقل . ي اةةملا ئاةةاجدا جلارةةو تةةحت 6 اةش 

ةةي ريض كيلةةسلاسلا ضماةةح سوةةلحمض لارلادا ر اةةث حةةم لا تاااةةس ةةةثلاث عدةةمل رةةم لا ةةةقيرطض ) وةةيلملا 

.) 0.25FC ، 0.50FC ، 0.75FC( 

ةةةليخم تايويةسمض يقسلا يف صقنلا ئااجا جلارظل تاتابنلا تضرا 

ةةةي امي ويابلا تارةةي يلا ضةةةض كلذةة لا ررذةةولا لا ررةةلخلا بوةةموملا حةةم يةةيل ةةةيويحلا ةةةلييلا ص اةةتك يةةف خةةحبلا اةةت 

. تاتابنلل ررلخلا بوموملل 

يةيل تارارةيم ةةةضركض يةمايلا ي اوةتةلا ايمةتيلا ادخيةساض اةايلا سوةتحلا اةت ييلا ج اينلل ي اتحدا 

ييلحيلا ررجأ 

ااةسايق اةت يةيلا ةةيتابنلا ص اةتخلل 1010 ويةسم تحت ) L.S.D. ( رونةم لرف يقأ رابيكا ادخيساض ج اينلا تنروقلا ةلماةم 

ضماةةحض تاةةبنلا ةةةلماةم تئأ . رةةبيخملا يةةف اةةاليلحت 

اةةت يةةيلا ةةةيلاايمييلا ص اةةتخلل 1010 ويةةسم لا يجاةةج لا تةةيبلا يةةف 

ي اةملا ئاةاجدا جلارةو تحت رذولا لا ررلخلا بوموملل ةيويحلا ةلييلا ص اتك اظةم يف ةيونةم عئايز ىلا كيلسلاسلا 

بوةموملل جاةولا زلا ىةلا رذةولل جاةولا زلا ةبةسنلا ررةلخلا بوةموملل ي اةملا وةيحملالا ررةطلا زوةلا تنمةلت ييلالا 

ةةنراقم رذةولالا ررةلخلا بوةموملل جاةولا زوةلا لا رذةولل ي اةملا وةيحم ضةةخنا اةمنيض ةةقرولل يبةسنلا 

وةمنلالا ررةلخلا 

اقبةسم ةةلماةملا تاةتابنلا يةف كيلةسلاسلا ضماح لا حيللاربلا ويحم يف ةيونةم عئايز تراوا دقللا 

. ةلماةملا ري لا تاتابنلاض 

. 

ةلماةملا ريغ تاتابنلاض 

ةنراقم يقسلا يف صقنلا ئااجا جلارو تحت كيلسلاسلا ضماحض 

.) 

ويلملا 

231


232 

BACTERIOLOGICAL STUDY AND ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY OF 

HONEY AGAINST SOME PATHOGENIC BACTERIA ISOLATED 

FROM BURN INFECTIONS 

SUHAILA N. DAROGHA * and AHMED A.Q.A.S. AL-NAQSHBANDI ** 

* Dept. of Biology, College of Education, Scientific Dept., University of Salahaddin, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

** Dept. of Laboratory, Rizgary Teaching Hospital, Ministry of Health, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

(Received: January 31, 2010; Accepted for publication: December 30, 2010) 

ABSTRACT 

This study was conducted at Emergency Management Center (EMC) in Erbil city to analyze (Isolation and 

Identification) the bacterial isolates from infected burn wounds of patients admitted to the burns unit and to 

determine the sensitivity pattern of the cultured bacteria to some commonly antibiotics and different honeys as 

antibacterial agent. A total of 50 samples (surface swab) were analyzed, 45 positive samples yielding 73 isolates, of 

which 59 (80.82%) were Gram-negative bacteria and 14 (19.18%) Gram-positive bacteria. The mean age was 21.51 

years (range: 1-45 years) and infection was most prevalent in age group 21-25 (37.77%). Among the patients, 32 

(71.11%) were female and 13 (28.89%) male with highest percentage of staying in the hospital occur for (6-10) days. 

Flame 35 (77.78%) was the most common cause of burn injuries and 25 (55.56%) of a total patients had third degree 

burns. The most common bacterial isolates were Pseudomonas aeruginosa 33 (45.21%), Klebsiella pneumoniae 23 

(31.51%), Staphylococcus aureus 11 (15.06%), Staphylococcus epidermidis 3 (4.11%), Proteus mirabilis 2 (2.74%) and 

Escherichia coli 1 (1.37%). The results of the antibiotics susceptibility showed that Gram-negative bacteria were 

highly sensitive to Amikacin 76.65%, Chloramphenicol 75.79%, Gentamicin 69.70% and Ciprofloxacin 68.87% while 

Gram-positive bacteria were more sensitive to Vancomycin 100% and Clindamycin 90.90%. Different honey samples 

investigated for their in vitro antibacterial activity against antibiotic resistant bacterial isolates showed that excellent 

antibacterial activity against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria at 20% concentration for Qandel and 

Peshtashan honey (except K. pneumoniae and S. aureus, the MIC was at 30% concentration of Peshtashan honey) 

while 30% concentration for Sunbulah honey. 

KEYWORDS: Burn wound infection, Gram-positive and negative bacteria, Antibiotic sensitivity, honey as antibacterial agent. 

B 

INTRODUCTION 

urn is a type of injury that might be 

caused by a wide variety of substances 

and external sources such as exposure to 

chemicals, friction, electricity, heat and 

radiation. Burns remain a significant public 

health problem in term of morbidity, long-term 

disability and mortality throughout the world, 

especially in economically developing countries, 

it has been estimated that 75% of all deaths 

following burn injuries are related to infection 

(Singh et al., 2003 and Nasser et al., 2003). 

Thermal injury destroys the skin barrier that 

normally prevents invasion of microorganisms, 

making the burn wound the most frequent origin 

of sepsis in these patients (Vindenesm and 

Bjerknes, 1995). Burn patients become 

susceptible to infection due to the loss of this 

protective barrier and decreased cellular and 

humoral immunity (Wong et al., 2002). The 

organisms that predominate as causative agents 

of infection in any burn treatment facility change 

over time. Gram-positive bacteria are initially 

prevalent, then gradually become superceded by 

the Gram-negative opportunistic that appear to 

have a greater propensity to invade (Manson et 

al., 1992). The common pathogens isolated from 

burn wounds include aerobic organism like S. 

aureus, P. aeruginosa, Klebsiella spp. and 

various coliform bacilli, anaerobic organisms 

like Bacteroides fragilis and Fusobacterium 

spp. and fungi like Candida albicans and 

Aspergillus spp. (Revathi et al., 1998 , Macedo 

and Santos 2005). Multi-drug resistant bacteria 

have been reported as the cause of nosocomial 

outbreaks of infection in burn units or as 

colonizers of the wounds of burn patients 

(Agnihotri et al., 2004). 

Anti-infective drugs are critically important 

in reducing the global burden of infectious 

disease. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria pose a very 

serious threat to public health. For all kinds of 

antibiotics, including the major last-resort drugs,


the frequencies of bacterial resistance are 

increasing worldwide and the effectiveness of 

the drugs is diminished, therefore alternative 

antimicrobial strategies are urgently needed 

(World health organization 1999 , Levy and 

Marshall 2004). 

Since ancient times, honey has been used for 

its medicinal properties to treat a wide variety of 

ailments. In particular, it has been used as a 

dressing for wounds (including surgical 

wounds), burns, respiratory and gastrointestinal 

infections, skin ulcers and various other 

diseases. Microbial resistance to honey has never 

been reported, which makes it a very promising 

topical antimicrobial agent (Cooper et al., 2002 

and Mulu et al., 2004). 

Recently, many researchers have reported the 

antibacterial activity of honey against S. aureus, 

P. aeruginosa, E. coli, P. mirabilis, Shigella 

dysenteriae and Klebsiella spp. (Cooper et al., 

2002, Agbaje et al 2006 and Adebolu, 2005). 

The ability of honey to kill microorganisms have 

been attributed to its high osmotic effect, high 

acidic nature, hydrogen peroxide concentration 

and its phytochemical nature such as flavinoids 

and phenolic acids (Bang et al., 2003). A 

number of reasons for this have been suggested: 

shrinkage disruption of the bacterial cell wall 

due to the osmotic effect of the sugar content, 

induction of an unfavorable environment with 

low-water activity, thereby inhibiting bacterial 

growth (Anand and Shanmugam, 1998). 

The aim of this study was to determine the 

occurrence of some pathogenic bacteria in burn 

wound infection and their sensitivity pattern to 

commonly used antibiotics, also to investigate 

the activity of different honeys against some 

pathogenic bacteria were isolated from burn 

wound infections. 


Sample collection 

This study was done on 50 patients admitted 

to Emergency Management Center (EMC) in 

Erbil city between 1 / July / 2009 and 15 / 

September / 2009. Surface wound swabs 

obtained from the burn patients aseptically by 

sterile swabs and collected in sterile capped 

tubes contained normal saline (0.9%), then 

directly transferred to the bacteriological 

department in Hawler Teaching Hospital. 

Bacterial isolation and identification 

Samples were inoculated on Blood agar and 

MacConkey agar by streaking method and 

incubated at 37 ° C for 18-24 hours. Cultures 

were carried according to Brooks et al (2007). 

Susceptibility test 

Mueller-Hinton agar was used for 

determining the sensitivity of bacteria by single 

disk diffusion method using Kirby Bauer method 

(Morello et al., 2003). The antibiotics tested for 

Gram-positive cocci were: Amoxicillin + 

Clavulanic acid (30µg + 10µg), Erythromycin 

(15µg), Trimethoprim (10µg), Ceftriaxone 

(10µg), Clindamycin (2µg), Cephalexin (30µg) 

and Penicillin (10µg); for Gram-negative bacilli 

were: Piperacillin (100µg), Nitrofurantion 

(300µg), Nalidixic acid (30µg), Cephalothin 

(30µg), Amikacin (30µg), Ceftazidime (30µg) 

and Deoxycycline (10µg); and for both of them: 

Ciprofloxacin (10µg), Chloromphenicol (30µg) 

and Vancomycin (30µg). 

Preparation of bacterial suspension 

Transfer loopful of highest antibiotic resistant 

bacteria to the test tube containing 5 ml nutrient 

broth, then incubated at 37 °C for 24 hours, then 

the bacterial number adjusted using a standard 

curve (Morello et al., 2003). 

Determination of minimum inhibitory 

concentration (MIC) of honey 

The MIC of different type of honey determined 

by turbidity method (spectrophotometer method) 

at 600 nm. The different concentrations of honey 

(v/v) were prepared in 5 ml nutrient broth 

medium to give final concentration of 10%, 

20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70% and 80%, then 

added 0.05 ml of bacterial suspension to each 

test tube which contains nutrient broth with 

different concentration of honey, then incubated 

in shaker incubator over night at 37 °C. 


The Burn wound is considered one of the 

major health problems in the world, and 

infection is one of the most frequent and sever of 

complications in patients who have sustained 

burns (Zorgani et al., 2009). In the present study, 

we recovered 73 isolates from 50 surface swabs 

which were taken from burn wound infection 

and 45(90%) of these swabs were positive, of 

which 59(80.82%) were Gram-negative bacteria 

and 14(19.18%) Gram-positive bacteria (Table 

1). This finding is supported by many 

investigators which found that initially there is 

colonization by Gram-positive bacteria from the 

patients resident cutaneous flora which is 

replaced later by Gram-negative bacteria, mainly 

from the patients gastrointestinal flora (Jinfu et 

233


al., 1997, Macedo and Santos, 2005 and Ahmed 

et al., 2006). Single isolate was found in 23 

cases (46%), and multiple isolates were found in 

22 cases (44%). Five samples (10%) showed 

absence of bacterial pathogens (Table 2). This is 

in agreement with other studies (Revathi et al., 

1998 and Atoyebi et al., 1992) while is contrast 

to other reported study where multiple isolates 

have been seen in up to 78% of cases (Kaushik 

et al., 2001). Burns provide a suitable site for 

bacterial multiplication. It is richer and more 

persistent source of infection than the surgical 

wounds because a readily accessible damaged 

tissue and nutrient rich exudates of burns 

constitute an excellent bacterial culture medium 

(Shaikh et al., 2004). 

Table (1): Frequency of type of microorganisms 

isolated. 

Type of microorganisms Number Percentage 

234 

Gram-negative bacteria 59 80.82% 

Gram-positive bacteria 14 19.18% 

Table (2): Frequency of type of cultures isolated out 

of 50 burn samples. 

Type of cultures Number Percentage 

Single 23 46% 

Double 16 32% 

Triple 6 12% 

Nil 5 10% 

P. aeruginosa was the most common isolate 33 

(45.21%) in this study (Table 3) as has been 

reported by other authors (Akhi and Hasanzadeh, 

2005, Ekrami and Kalantar, 2008), where this 

organism was held responsible for the majority 

of invasive burn wound infections in burntreatment 

facilities. Prevalence of Pseudomonas 

spp. in the burn wards may be due to the fact 

that this organism thrives in a moist environment 

(Atoyebi et al., 1992). The second most common 

isolate was K. pneumoniae 23 (31.51%). This 

result is in agreement with Nagoba et al (1999) 

and Al-Akayleh (1999) which recorded that the 

K. pneumoniae were 27.6% and 42.6% 

respectively. K. pneumoniae is a major cause of 

nosocomial infection leading to morbidity and 

mortality among patient population (Malik and 

Chhibber, 2009). S. aureus also been considered 

as one of the common bacteria and frequency of 

isolation in this study was 11 (15.06%). This 

result is in a ccordance with other studies 

(Mehta et al., 2007 and Revathi et al., 1998) 

which recorded that the rate of S. aureus were 

17% and 19% respectively. S. aureus is the most 

frequently isolated microorganism from body 

surface because it is normal flora of skin and this 

could easily be introduced into the wound either 

by the patients dressing materials or through the 

object that causes the injury (Hardy, 2003). In 

our study S. epidermidis was isolated only from 

three patients (4.11%) followed by P. mirabilis 

and E. coli (2.74% and 1.37%) respectively. 

Table (3): Frequency of different microorganism 

isolated out of 50 burn samples. 

Microorganisms Number of 

Pseudomonas 

aeruginosa 

Klebsiella 

pneumoniae 

Staphylococcus 

aureus 


epidermidis 

Isolates 

Percentage 

33 45.21% 

23 31.51% 

11 15.06% 

3 4.11% 

Proteus mirabilis 2 2.74% 

Escherichia coli 1 1.37% 

Table (4) show frequency of burn infection 

according to different parameters with 

relationship of Gram-positive and Gramnegative 

bacterial isolates, accident burn wound 

infection was most prevalent in the age group 

21-25 (37.77%) and the rate of burn infection 

was observed highly, Gram-negative 30.14% 

and Gram-positive 6.85%, while infection was 

less prevalent in the age group over 41 years old 

(2.22%). Other studies has shown that most 

infection were recorded among age > 10, 20-30 

years (Kehinde et al., 2004 and Chalise et al., 

2008) respectively. Among 45 burn patients, 32 

of them were female and 13 were male and 

burns predominated in female (71.11%) than 

male (28.89%). This may be because of the 

reason that accidental burns are more common in 

females as they tend to spend more time near fire 

(Kaur et al., 2007). These results were agreed 

with Negeri (2005) ; Ganatra and Ganatra, 

(2007) and disagree with Ann (1976) which 

showed that burn was more prevalent in male 

than female by working in industry or factory 

and increased risk-taking behavior. During the 

study we observed that the burn infection with 

highest percentage of staying in the hospital 

occurs in 1-5 and 6-10 was (26.67% and 

31.11%) respectively. Gram-negative bacteria


which isolated in duration (1-5 and 6-10) days 

were 24.66% and 23.29% respectively, as a 

highest percentage, while Gram-positive bacteria 

which isolated in the same duration were 4.11% 

and 6.85% respectively. This has been shown in 

other studies in which was more infection occurs 

within duration (1-10) days (Brunicardi et al., 

2005). In this study, flames are the most 

common cause of burn 35 (77.78%) followed by 

hot water 5 (11.11). These results were in 

agreement with other studies which reported that 

the flame was most common cause of burn 

infection 80.5%, 50% and 48.7% respectively 

(Negeri (2005); Kehinde et al., 2004 and 

Brunicardi et al., 2005). Flame burn is the most 

common mechanism in thermal injury (Kaur et 

al., 2007). 

Table (4): Frequency of burn infections and relationship between types of microorganisms according 

to different parameters. 

Age (Years) 

Sex 

Duration of hospital stay (Day) 

Cause of burn 

Degree of burn 

Parameters Number (%) Gram-negative 

This study indicates that 4.44% of the burn 

patients were first-degree, 40% had seconddegree 

burns and 55.56% had third-degree burns 

and 56.16% of burn wound infection patients 

had third-degree burns which infected by Gramnegative 

bacteria and 5.48% was by Grampositive 

bacteria. This result is in contrast with 

the result of Al-Akayleh (1999) who indicates 

that 53.90% of the burn patients was second 

bacteria 

Gram-positive 

bacteria 

1-5 5 (11.11%) 5 (6.85%) 3 (4.11%) 

6-10 2 (4.44%) 3 (4.11%) 1 (1.37%) 

11-15 3 (6.67%) 2 (2.73%) 1 (1.37%) 

16-20 8 (17.78%) 12 (16.44%) 1 (1.37%) 

21-25 17 (37.77%) 22 (30.14%) 5 (6.85%) 

26-30 3 (6.67%) 3 (4.11%) 0 

31-35 3 (6.67%) 5 (6.85%) 1 (1.37%) 

36-40 3 (6.67%) 5 (6.85%) 2 (2.73%) 

54 1 (2.22%) 2 (2.73%) 0 

Female 32 (71.11%) 44 (60.27%) 8 (10.96%) 

Male 13 (28.89%) 15 (20.55%) 6 (8.22%) 

1-5 12 (26.67%) 18 (24.66%) 3 (4.11%) 

6-10 14 (31.11%) 17 (23.29%) 5 (6.85%) 

11-15 5 (11.11%) 7 (9.59%) 1 (1.37%) 

16-20 4 (8.89%) 5 (6.85%) 1 (1.37%) 

21-25 3 (6.67%) 3 (4.11%) 1 (1.37%) 

26-30 6 (13.33%) 7 (9.59%) 3 (4.11%) 

40 1 (2.22%) 2 (2.73%) 0 

Flame 35 (77.78%) 48 (65.75%) 12 (16.44%) 

Electric 2 (4.44%) 4 (5.48%) 0 

Hot water 5 (11.11%) 4 (5.48%) 2 (2.74%) 

Oil 1 (2.22%) 1 (1.37%) 0 

Explosion 2 (4.44%) 2 (2.74%) 0 

First 2 (4.44%) 3 (4.11%) 1 (1.37%) 

Second 18 (40%) 15 (20.55%) 9 (12.33%) 

Third 25 (55.56%) 41 (56.16%) 4 (5.48%) 

degree while 32.46%, 13.87% was first and third 

degree respectively. 

The pattern of bacterial sensitivities is subject 

to frequent modification. Its assessment is 

important for epidemiological and clinical 

purpose. Table 5 and 6 illustrates the different 

activity against isolated bacteria by the 

antibiotics in most frequent use in our country. 

Presently, the most active drugs against Gram- 

235


positive bacteria (S.aureues and S. epidermidis ) 

are Vancomycin 100% followed by Clindamycin 

90.90% and 63.63% to Ceftriaxone, Cephalexin, 

Gentamicin,Ciprofloxacin and Chloramphenicol. 

This was similar to reports elsewhere (Revathi et 

al., 1998 and Atoyebi et al., 1992). Gramnegative 

bacteria were more sensitive to 

Amikacin 76.65%, Chloramphenicol 75.79%, 

Gentamicin and Ciprofloxacin 69.70% and 

68.87% respectively. We found in our results 

that P. aeruginosa which was the commonest 

isolate was highly resistant to Ceftazidime and 

Nalidixic acid (96.97% and 93.94%) 

respectively and sensitive to Amikacin (84.84%) 

followed Vancomycin and Gentamicin 

(78.78%), in contrast to a study in India by 

Revathi et al (1998) which showed 82.8% 

sensitivity to Ceftazidme. A study done by 

Mehta et al (2007) showed that P. aeruginosa 

was moderately resistant to Piperacillin 

(41.42%) whereas resistance was more marked 

236 

for Amikacin (85.81%), Gentamicin (89.22%) 

and Ciprofloxacin (78.81%). K. pneumoniae was 

found to be highly resistant (100%) to 

Vancomycin, Gentamicin, Cephalothin and 

Piperacillin, while P. mirabilis was absolutely 

sensitive to Piperacilli, Cephalothin, Gentamicin, 

Vancomycin, Amikacin, Chloramphenicol and 

Ciprofloxacin. A similar results of multidrug 

resistant Gram-positive and negative bacteria has 

been reported from several studies (Singh et al., 

2003, Agnihotri et al., 2004, Kaushik et al., 

2001 and Dhar et al., 2007). The high percentage 

of multi-drug resistant isolate is probably due to 

empirical use of broad-spectrum antibiotics and 

non adherence to hospital antibiotic policy. 

These multi-resistant strains establish 

themselves in the hospital environment in areas 

like sinks, taps, mattress, toils and thereby 

spread from one patient to another (Mehta et al., 

2007). 

Table (5): Percentage of sensitivity of Gram-positive bacteria isolated from burn patients in response to different antibiotic. 

Isolates AMC 

Staphylococcu 

s aureus 

(n=11) 

Staphylococcu 

s epidermidis 

(n=3) 

30 µg 

18.18 

% 

Percentage 59.09 

C 

30 µg 

27.27 

% 

CIP 

10 µg 

27.27 

% 

CL 

30 µg 

27.27 

% 

CN 

10 µg 

27.27 

% 

CRO 

10 µg 

27.27 

% 

DA 

2 µg 

81.81 

% 

E 

15 µg 

36.36 

% 

P 

10 µg 

18.18 

100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 0% 66.66 

% 

63.63 

% 

63.63 

% 

63.63 

% 

63.63 

% 

63.63 

% 

90.90 

% 

18.18 

AMC= Amoxicillin+Clavulanic Acid, E= Erythromycin, TMP= Trimethoprim, CRO= Ceftriaxone, DA= Clindamycin, 

CL= Cephalexin, P= Penicillin, CN= Gentamicin CIP= Ciprofloxacin, C= Chloramphenicol, VA= Vancomycin. 

% 

% 

% 

42.42 

Table (6): Percentage of sensitivity of Gram-negative bacteria isolated from burn patients in 

response to different antibiotic. 

Isolates AK 

Pseudomona 

s aeruginosa 

(n=33) 

Klebsiella 

pneumoniae 

(n=23) 

Proteus 

mirabilis 

(n=2) 

Esherichia 

coli 

(n=1) 

30 µg 

84.84 

% 

21.74 

% 

Percentage 76.65 

C 

30 µg 

CAZ 

30 µg 

CIP 

10 µg 

72.73 3.03% 36.36 

30.43 

% 

% 

4.35% 39.13 

% 

CN 

10 µg 

78.78 

% 

DO 

10 µg 

75.75 

% 

F 

300 µg 

42.42 

% 

0% 4.35% 56.52 

% 

KF 

30 µg 

66.66 

% 

NA 

% 

30 µg 

0% 21.74 

TMP 

10 µg 

63.63 

% 

VA 

30 

µg 

100 

% 

0% 100 

31.81 

% 

PRL 

100µg 

6.06% 42.42 

% 

% 

% 

100 

% 

VA 

30 µg 

78.78 

% 

0% 0% 

100% 100% 50% 100% 100% 0% 0% 100% 50% 100% 100% 

100% 100% 0% 100% 100% 0% 100% 0% 100% 0% 0% 

% 

75.79 

% 

14.35 

% 

68.87 

% 

69.70 

% 

20.02 

% 

49.74 

% 

41.67 

PRL= Piperacillin, F= Nitrofurantoin, NA= Nalidixic Acid, KF= Cephalothin, AK= Amikacin, CAZ=Ceftazidime, 

DO= Doxycycline, CN= Gentamicin, CIP= Ciprofloxacin, C= Chloramphenicol, VA= Vancomycin. 

% 

44.45 

% 

35.61 

% 

44.70 

%


Several laboratory studies have evidence to 

support the use of honey as a wound dressing. 

Honey has been shown to stimulate cytokine 

production by monocytes, which inturn initiates 

tissue repair. Honey has broad-spectrum 

antibacterial activity; however, different honeys 

vary substantially in the potency of their 

antibacterial activity (Tonks et al., 2001 and 

Honey 

Concentration of honey % 

Qandel 

Peshtashan 

Sunbulah 

Isolates 

Tonks et al., 2003). In this study, both locally 

and commercially honey obtained have showed 

antibacterial activity against different bacterial 

species which were isolated from burn wound 

infections. The MIC of honey samples was 

determined through reading the optical density 

by spectrophotometer at 600 nm, as shown in 

table (7). 

Table (7): The MIC of different honey for highest antibiotic resistant isolated bacteria. 

10% 

Pseudomonas 

aeruginosa 

Klebsiella 

pneumoniae 

Proteus 

mirabilis 

Esherichia 

coli 


aureus 


epidermidis 

* 0.646 0.557 0.327 0.411 0.785 0.320 

20% 0.006 0.245 0.058 0.036 0.218 0.133 

30% 0 0 0.014 0.028 0.016 0 

40% 0 0 0 0 0 0 

10% 0.303 0.317 0.231 0.43 0.120 0.66 

20% 0.016 0.54 0.003 0.027 0.58 0.06 

30% 0 0.001 0 0 0.07 0.007 

40% 0 0 0 0 0 0 

10% 0.735 0.762 0.522 0.450 0.761 0.834 

20% 0.124 0.144 0.031 0.210 0.017 0.490 

30% 0.022 0.008 0.027 0.013 0.016 0.114 

40% 0 0 0 0 0 0 

* spectrophotometer reading 

Reading decreased from 0.646 to 0.006 for P. 

aeruginosa, from 0.557 to 0.245 for K. 

pneumoniae, from 0.327 to 0.058 for P. 

mirabilis, from 0.411 to 0.036 for E. coli, from 

0.785 to 0.218 S. aureus and from 0.320 to 0.133 

for S. epidermidis at the concentration 10% to 

20% and this mean that the concentration of 

20% was the MIC for all tested bacteria. No 

difference was observed in the antibacterial 

activity of Peshtashan honey. The concentration 

of 20% was seen to be the MIC for all tested 

bacteria except for K. pneumoniae (reading 

decreasing from 0.317 to 0.001) and S. aureus 

(reading decreased from 0.120 to 0.07) at the 

concentration 10% to 30%, this means that the 

MIC for K. pneumoniae and S. aureus was 30% 

while for Sunbulah honey, the MIC was at the 

concentration of 30% for all tested bacteria. 

Researchers working on honey, showed that pure 

honey is bactericidal for many pathogenic 

organisms including various Gram-negative and 

Gram-positive bacteria. (Subrahmanyam et al., 

2003a) used honey to determine antibacterial 

activity against different pathogenic bacteria 

which were isolated from burn and they have 

shown that 100% inhibition was observed at 

25% (v/v) honey concentration for P. 

aeruginosa, coagulase-negative staphylococci 

and S. aureus, K. pneumoniae at 30% 

concentration and P. vulgaris at 20% honey 

concentration. Another study done by the same 

researchers (Subrahmanyam et al., 2003b) 

showed that of all 28 isolates of coagulasepositive 

S. aureus which were isolated from 

infected burn wounds showed inhibition with 

honey at concentration of 25% while French et 

al (2005) showed that the growth of both S. 

aureus and coagulase-negative Staphylococci 

isolates were inhibited by manuka and pasture 

honeys at concentrations of 2.7-5%. Study done 

by Agbaje et al (2006) showed inhibitory effects 

of honey at 50% and 100% concentrations on the 

various pathogenic bacteria (S. aureus, P. 

mirabilis, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, Klebsiella 

spp., S. albus and Streptococcus faecalis). 

Honey may inhibit bacterial growth due to a 

number of different mechanisms, presence of an 

“inhibine” factor in honey, which is hydrogen 

peroxide is a well-known antimicrobial agent 

(Bang et al., 2003). High sugar concentration 

237


exert an osmotic pressure which makes little or 

no water available for the microorganisms to 

survive, low PH, proteinaceaus compounds or 

other unidentified components present in the 

honey may all provide antimicrobial activity 

(Mundo et al., 2004). Because of its high 

viscosity, it forms a physical barrier and the 

presence of enzyme catalase gives honey an 

antioxidant property. These properties of honey 

make it an ideal and coast-effective dressing for 

burn patients (Bangroo et al., 2005). 

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16(4):22-24. 

�Tonks, A.; Cooper, R.A.; Price, A.J.; Molan, P.C. and 

Jones, K.P. (2001). Stimulation of TNF-α release in 

monocytes by honey. Cytokine. 14(4):240-242. 

�Tonks, A.J.; Cooper, R.A.; Jones, K.P; Blair, S.; Parton, J. 

and Tonks, A. (2003). Honey stimulates 

inflammatory cytokine production from monocytes. 

Cytokine. 21(5):242-247. 

�Vindenesm H. and Bjerknes, R. (1995). Microbial 

colonization of large wounds. Burns. 21(8): 

575-579. 

�Wong, T.H.; Tan, B.H.; Ling, M.L. and Song, C. (2002). 

Multi-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii on a burns 

unit-clinical risk factors and prognosis. Burns. 

28(4):349-357. 

�World Health Organization (1999). Drug infection. WHO, 

Geneva. 13(4):230-233. 

�Zorgani, A.; Shawerf, O.; Tawil, K.; El-Turki, E. and 

Ghenghesh, K.S. (2009). Inducible clindamycin 

resistance among Staphylococci isolated from burn 

patients. Libyan Journal of Medicine. 4:104-106. 

239


ةل 

242 

) ىاتوس ىةكةي( 

ىزاشوطايسف ىزةسةزاض ىزةتنةس ىةناخشَوخةن ةل ازدنايةط مانجةئةب ةي ةوةهيلَوكَيل مةئ 

ةتخوث 

ةو . تَيبةد اديةث ىاتوس ىمانجةئ ةل ةك ىاكةشَوخةن ىهيسب ةل ىاكةواسكايج ةيايتركةب ىةوةندسكيش َوب سَيلوةي ىزاش 

ىاوَين ةل ةنايايتركةب مةئ َوب ويوطنةي ةل ةشاوايج ىزَوج و ىتسَلةيزةبةدهيش ىزايتسةي ىزةطيزاك ىندسك ىزايد 

َلى ىيايتركةب ىةشةط ىايةنوونم 

51 

َوب ىووب ظيتةطَين ةك ىةنايايتركةب وةئ 

،ةواسكيش ىةنوونم 

10 

ىَوك 

ةل 

. 9002 

. ةوةناسك كَيل ىيايتركةب ىةواسكايج 

لوليةئ 

37 

51 

ات شوومةت ىطنام ىاتةزةس 

ةناشةط مةئ ىَوك ةل ةو اسك ىدةب 

ىةيَوب َوب وظيتةسَوث 

ةك ةنايايتركةب وةئ ةو )% 00,09( 

ىووب ةواسكايج 12 ) Negative for Gram stain( 

ماسط ىةيَوب 

ىووب شووت . ىاكةييايتركةب ةواسكايج ىتشط ىَوك ةل )% 52،50( 

ةيةواسكايج 55 ) Positive for Gram stain( 

،ىاكةشَوخةن ىتشط ىَوك ةل .)% 73،33( 

ىةرَيز ةب ووب وَلابزةب َلاس 

91-95 

ماسط 

ىناكةنةمةت ىاوَين ةل زَوش ىكةيةرَيز ةب 

-6 

ةل ىايةبزَوش ىاكةشَوخةن ةل ىوايرطزةو ةك ةنانوونم وةئ ةو )% 90،02( 

ىةسَين ىاي 

57و 

)% 35،55( 

91 ىةرَيز ةو )% 33،30( 

71 

ىزاكَوي ةك ىاكةوَلابزةب 

زَوش ةنوونم 

ىةرَيز ةب ووب ىاكةناتوس ىكةزةس ىزاكَوي سطائ ةك اسك ىزايد ةو 

ىةيي َىم ىاي 

. ةوةنووبام ذَوز 

. ووب مةي َىس ىةلث ةل ىايناتوس ةك ىاكةشَوخةن تشط ى 

79 

50 

)% 11،16( 

97 Klebsiella pneumoniae و )% 51.95( 

77 Pseudomonas aeruginosa -: 

ةل ينتيسب وناكةواتوس ىندسكوةي 

Proteus 

و )% 5.55( 

7 Staphylococcus epidermidis و )% 51.06( 

55 Staphylococcus aureus و )% 75.15( 

ىايةزوةط ىكةيزايتسةي ماسط ىةيَوب َوب ىاكةظيتةطَين ايتركةب 

.)% 5.73( 

5 Escherichia coli و )% 9.35( 

% 60,03 Ciprofloxacin ةو % 62,30 Gentamicin ،% 

31,32 Chloramphenicol ،% 

36,61 

% 500 

وةئ ىذد 

Vancomycin 

) ادبويت وانةل( 

Amikacin 

9 mirabilis 

َوب ووبةي 

َوب ادناشين ىايةزوةط ىكةيزايتسةي ماسط ىةيَوب َوب ىاكةظيتةشَوث ايتركةب ادتاك ىامةي ةل مَلاةب 

ىيايتركةب ةذد وكةو اسهَييزاكةب ويوطنةي ةل شاوايج ىزَوج 

.% 20.20 

Clindamycin 

و ظيتةشَوث ىايتركةب ىذد َوب ةيةي ىايةزوةط ىكةياناوت ةو ،ىاكةتسَلةيزةب ةدهيش َوب ةيةي ىايسطزةب ةك ىةنايايتركةب 

K. 

ةل ةطج( 

ىزَوج ةل ويوطنةي َوب 

Peshtashan 

% 70 

و 

Qandel 

ىزَوج ةل ويوطنةي َوب 

% 90 

ىتيةث ةل ةي ىتيسب ةشةط ىهتسطَيز ىتيةث ويترمةك 

، 

ةو 

ىتيةث ةل ماسط ىةيَوب َوب ظيتةطَين 

S. aureus 

و 

Pneumoniae 

. 

Sunbulah ىهيوطنةي َوب % 70 ىتيةث ةب ةو ) Peshtashan


قورحلا جمخ نم ةلوزعملا ةيضرملا ميثارجلا ضعب ىلع لسعلل 

) صيخشتو لزع( 

ليلحتل 

ليبرأ ةنيدم يف 

ةلوزعملا 

نم . 9002 

ميثارجلا 

ميثارجلا 

/ لوليأ / 

ةيساسح طمن ديدحتو 

51 

. ةيموثرج ةلزع 

و 

37 

9002 

/ زومت / 

يموثرجلا داضتلا ةيلاعفو ةيموثرج ةسارد 

– قورحلا تادحو – ئراوطلا ىفشتسم يف ةساردلا هذه ءارجأ مت 

تادحولا هذه يف نيدقارلا قورحلا جمخب نيباصملا نم 

5 

لزع 

مت اهنمو ةيباجيا تناك ةنيع 


ةيموثرجلا تلازعلا 

نيب ةرتف للاخ لسعلا نم ةفلتخم عاونأو ةعئاشلا ةيويحلا تاداضملا ضعبل 

51 

،اهليلحت مت ىتلا 

. ةيموثرجلا تلازعلا عومجم نم )% 52.1. 

( 55 مارغ ةغبصل ةبجوملا ميثارجلا 

و )% 00.09( 

) ةيحطس ةحسم( 

12 

ةنيع 

10 

عومجم 

تناك مارغ ةغبصل ةبلاسلا 

ثانلإا 

يف تاباصلأا تناك تانيعلا عومجم نمو .)% 73.33( 

91-95 

ةيرمعلا ةئفلا يف تناك ًاراشتنأ رثكلأا تاباصلأاو 

) 50-6( 

نيب ام تلصح ىفشتسملا ىف دوقرلل ةبسن ىلعأو ،روكذلا يف )% 90.02( 

57 و )% 35.55( 

79 ًاراشتنا رثكأ 

ىضرملل ىلكلا عومجملا نم )% 11.16( 

91 و )% 33.30( 

71 قورحلا تاباصلإ 

ًاعويش رثكلأا تناك بهللا نأ نيبت . مايأ 

Pseudomonas 

) 51.05( 

5 

55 

Escherichia coli 

و % 31.32 

: تناك قورحلا جمخل ةببسملاو ًاعويش رثكلأا تلازعلا 

Staphylococcus aureus 

و 

)% 9.53( 

9 

و 

)% 75.15( 

proteus mirabilis 

97 Klebsiella pneumoniae 

و 

)% 5.55( 

. ةثلاثلا ةجردلا نم قورحلا مهيدل تناك 

7 

و 

) 51.95( 

77 

aeruginosa 

Staphylococcu epidermidis 

Chloramphenicol و % 36,61 Amikacin ـل ةيلاع ةيساسح تاذ تناك مارغ ةيبلاس ميثارج .)% 5.73( 

ةيساسح رثكأ تناك مارغ ةبجوم 

يف( 

ميثارج نيح يف 

يموثرج داضمك 

لسعلا نم 

ةفلتخم عاونأ مادختسأ مت 

دنع مارغلا 

ثيح ،S. 

% 60.03 

.% 20.20 

Ciprofloxacin 

و 

Clindamycinو 

% 62.30 

% 500 

Gentamicin 

Vancomycin 

ةيباجيإو 

مارغلا 

ةيبلاس ميثارج دض ةيلاع ةءافك ترهظأو 

،ةيويحلا 

تاداضملل ةمواقملا ميثارجلا دض 

aureus 

و 

K. 

Pneumoniae 

ادعام( 

Peshtashan 

و 

Qandel 

ةقطنم نم جتنملا لسعلل 

ـل 

) جاجزلا 

% 90زيكرت 

. 

Sunbulahو 

Peshtashan يتقطنم يف جتنملا لسعلا نم % 70 زيكرتل امهيتلكت 

باجتسا 

242


242 

ANN-BASED STATIC SLIP POWER RECOVERY 

CONTROL OF WRIM DRIVE 

ALI A. RASOOL and HILMI F. AMEEN 

Dept. of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Salahaddin, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

(Received: October 17, 2010; Accepted for publication: August 14, 2011) 

ABSTRACT 

This paper presents a novel ANN-based slip power recovery drive system of WRIM, which estimates the 

appropriate firing angle of the thyristors in the inverter circuit for any given operation condition. Adjusting the speed 

or electromagnetic torque of the WRIM can be achieved by controlling the slip energy through slip power recovery in 

rotor side. The performance characteristics of drive system are determined using simple DC equivalent circuit. The 

obtained results are satisfactory and promising. The proposed controller operates on open loop, so it does not require 

speed sensor. Another advantages of such controller are it’s simplicity of the configuration and high accuracy. The 

effectiveness of these controllers is demonstrated for different operation conditions of the drive system. 

KEY WORDS: Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Wound Rotor Induction Motor (WRIM), Slip Power Recovery, Speed 

Control 

A 

INTRODUCTION 

n induction motor is used for many 

applications and several driving 

schemes were proposed. In recent power 

electronics development, slip power recovery 

system is one of the driving methods [1]. A slip 

power recovery system is composed of doubly 

excited machine and power electronic converters 

in the rotor circuit which is very attractive for 

variable speed constant frequency power 

generation. It was found that there are increasing 

applications of such motor control such as wind 

energy generation, hydro power, aerospace and 

novel power generation. The advantages of slip 

power recovery systems are high efficiency and 

lower converter rating. 

Control speed of WRIM with slip power 

recovery is important in higher power rating. 

The speed at sub-synchronous can be controlled 

by adjusting the resistance in the rotor circuit, 

which causes the slip power loss in external rotor 

resistance. The losses can be converted and 

returned back to AC mains by using line 

commutated inverter, where the three phase rotor 

currents are rectified with diode rectifier to feed 

power to intermediate DC current and to make 

the power unidirectional. The speed is controlled 

by changing the back DC voltage at the 

intermediate DC link. If this voltage is increased, 

the speed is supposed to decrease in order that 

the rotor rectified voltage can drive the current 

through DC circuit [2]. Usually the current 

inverter is a six thyristors rectifier working with 

firing angles greater than 90 degrees [3]. Many 

studies were done for simulating the slip power 

recovery. E. Akpinar and P. Pilly had made 

detailed studies for the rotor performance 

including the rectifier behavior and overlap 

problem [4]. Amr M. A. Amin, used ANN-based 

on tracking control techniques that are evolving 

to serve high performance drives such as 

sliding mode and the adaptive control [5]. 

S. Tunyasrirut, et. al. used a fuzzy logic 

control for speed control of WRIM at self tuning 

by keeping the speed constant and adjusting the 

rotor current appropriated to the load [6]. A K 

Mishra, simulated the slip power recovery by 

spice simulation using equivalent circuit model 

of wound rotor induction motor [7]. Sateen 

Tunyasirut and Jongkol Nayamwiwit proposed 

an adaptive fuzzy nero controller to control the 

speed of wound rotor induction motor with slip 

energy recovered. In their model the simulation 

and experimental results showed that the 

adaptive fuzzy-nero controller gives a good 

controlled system by keeping the speed constant 

and good transient responses without overshoot 

can be obtained [8]. M. Y. Abdelfattah presented 

a novel ANN based chopper controller, which 

generate the appropriate chopper duty cycle for 

any given operation condition [9]. 

This paper presents an ANN based slip power 

recovery of WRIM drive in which the 

appropriate firing angle of the inverter is found 

as a function of required motor speed and load 

torque. The ANN based drive controller is faster 

than another algorithm because of their parallel


structure, it does not require solution of any 

mathematical model, with the absence of the 

speed sensor. 

DEVELOPMENT OF DC EQUIVALENT 

CIRCUIT MODEL 

AND PERFORMANCE EQUATIONS 

The electrical model of Slip Power Recovery 

Controlled of wound rotor induction motor drive 

is shown in figure (1) which consists of three 

phase wound rotor induction motor, a three 

phase uncontrolled rectifier, smoothing inductor, 

a three phase controlled converter and a three 

phase recovery transformer. For using the DC 

equivalent circuit model in [10], the following 

assumptions should be made: 

1. The DC link current is ripple free by 

connecting a high value of conductor. 

2. The Commutation distortion due to leakage 

inductance of the motor is neglected. 

3. The flux can be assumed sinusoidal. 

4. The recovery transformer is assumed to be 

ideal. 

5. The effect of magnetizing current being very 

small and negligible. 

Figure (2) shows the DC equivalent circuit of 

Slip Power Recovery of WRIM, where all the 

parameters of AC side are referred to DC link 

side [11]. 

Fig. (1): Power circuit diagram of Slip Power Recovery for WRIM 

Fig. (2): DC Equivalent circuit of slip power recovery of WRIM 

The expression of output DC voltage (Vd) of 

uncontrolled rectifier is given by: [4] 

V 

d 

3 

� 

6SV 

�n 

1 

SL 

� � � � � 

( 1) 

Where n1 is the stator to rotor turn ration, S is 

the slip and VSL is the stator line voltage at 

standstill. Also the DC voltage for controlled 

converters (Vi) is: [4] 

243


3 6 VSLCos� 

Vi 

� 

� � � � � �( 

2) 

� n2 

Where n2 is the transformer line side to inverter 

side turns ratio and α is the inverter firing angle 

( 90 � � �180� 

). The copper loss of rotor is 

determined by: 

/ 

Xls � Xlr 

/ 

Pcu 

� [ Vd 

�{ 

3S( 

) � 2SR 

S} 

Id 

] Id 

� ( 3) 

� 

3 / 

/ 

Assuming that rS � ( XL S � XLr 

) � 2RS 

, 

� 

then the equation (3) is simplified to: 

2 

P rcu �Vd Id 

� SrS 

Id 

� � � � �( 

4) 

The air gap power is: 

rotor loss 1 

2 

P g � � ( Vd 

Id 

� SrS 

Id 

) � � � ( 5) 

S S 

In steady state operation, the torque is 

proportional to rectified rotor DC link current Id, 

which in turns, is equal to the difference between 

the rectified rotor voltage Vd and the voltage 

back emf of the inverter Vi, divided by the 

resistance of the DC link inductor. At no load, 

the motor torque is negligible and for a certain 

rectified rotor current Id, which is almost zero, 

the two direct voltages Vd and Vi will be 

balanced. It can be noticed from the derivation 

that the voltage Vd will be proportional to the 

slip and the torque will be proportional to the 

current Id. 

The electromagnetic developed torque = 

Pg 

Te 

� , then: 

�s 

6 VSL 

2 

( 3 Id 

� rS 

Id 

) 

� n1 

Te 

� 

� � � � � �( 

6) 

�s 

The DC link current for specified value of 

delay angle (α) of the inverter is given by: 

3 6VSL 

S Cos� 

[ ( � ) 

� n1 

n2 

Id 

� 

� � � � � ( 7) 

SrS 

� 2Rr 

� Rd 

Equation (7) gives the relation between the 

DC link current and firing angle α of the 

inverter. 

244 

ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK 

Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) are a 

computational modeling tools that have recently 

emerged and found extensive acceptance in 

many disciplines for modeling complex real 

world problems. ANNs may be defined as 

structures comprised of densely interconnected 

adaptive simple processing elements called 

artificial neurons or nodes that are capable of 

performing massively parallel computations for 

data processing. The attractiveness of ANNs 

comes from the remarkable information 

proceeding characteristics of the biological 

system [12]. 

The simplest form of ANN is known as the 

perecptron Figure (3). Multi Layer Perceptron 

(MLP) is a collection of simple processing units 

highly interconnected which process the 

information fed to the input units, these units are 

organized by layers. Typically the neurons in the 

input layer serve only for transforming the input 

pattern to the network without any processing. 

The information is processed by the hidden and 

output neurons. Each neuron has a certain 

number of inputs, but only one output [12]. 

Fig. (3): Internal Structure of the Neuron 

To solve more complicated problems, MLP is 

used which is trained using the back propagation 

algorithm Figure (4) represents the MLP 

structure. For practical reasons, ANNs 

implementing the back propagation algorithm do 

not have too many layers, since the time for 

training the networks grows exponentially [12]. 

Fig. (4): Structure of MLP 

The backpropagation algorithm is used in 

layered feed-forward ANNs. The artificial 

neurons are organized in layers, and send their 

signals “forward”, and then the errors are 

propagated backwards. The network receives 

inputs by neurons in the input layer, and the 

output of the network is given by the neurons on 

an output layer. There may be one or more


intermediate hidden layers. The backpropagation 

algorithm uses supervised learning, in which we 

provide the algorithm with examples of the 

inputs and outputs we want the network to 

compute, and then the error (difference between 

actual and expected results) is calculated. The 

idea of the backpropagation algorithm is to 

reduce this error, until the ANN learns the 

training data. The training begins with random 

weights, and the goal is to adjust them so that the 

error will be minimal. The activation function of 

the artificial neurons in ANNs implementing the 

backpropagation algorithm is a weighted sum 

(the sum of the inputs xi multiplied by their 

respective weights wji) [13]: 

A ( x, 

w) 

j 

n 

� �i�0 x w 

i 

ji 

� � � � � � � 

( 

8) 

We can see that the activation function 

depends only on the inputs and the weights. If 

the output function would be the identity (output 

= activation), then the neuron would be called 

linear. But these have severe limitations. The 

most common output function is the 

tansigmoidal function: 

2 

O j ( x, 

w) 

� �1� 

� � � � � � ( 9) 

�2 Aj 

( x, 

w) 

1� 

e 

It is clear that the output depends only in the 

activation function, which in turn depends on the 

values of the inputs and their respective weights. 

Now the goal of the training process is to obtain 

a desired output when certain inputs are given. 

Since the error is the difference between the 

actual and the desired output, the error depends 

on the weights, and we need to adjust the 

weights in order to minimize the error. We can 

define the error function for the output of each 

neuron: 

2 

E ( x, 

w, 

d) 

( O ( x, 

w) 

� d ) � � � � �( 

10) 

j 

� j 

j 

We take the square of the difference between 

the output and the desired target because it will 

be always positive, and because it will be greater 

if the difference is big and lesser if the difference 

is small. The error of the network will simply be 

the sum of the errors of all the neurons in the 

output layer: 

2 

E ( x, 

w, 

d) 

O ( x, 

w) 

� d ) � � � � � ( 11) 

� � j 

j 

The backpropagation algorithm now 

calculates how the error depends on the output, 

inputs, and weights. After we find this, we can 

j 

adjust the weights using the method of gradient 

descendent: 

�E 

�wji 

� �� 

� � � � � � � �( 

12) 

�w 

ji 

Where η is the learning rate which is a small 

positive number represents the step size we need 

to take for the next step. Equation (12) can be 

interpreted in the following way: the adjustment 

of each weight (Δwji) will be the negative of a 

constant (η) multiplied by the dependence of the 

previous weight on the error of the network, 

which is the derivative of error (E) in respect to 

Wji. Equation (12) is used until we find 

appropriate weights (the error is minimal). ANN 

model is used for estimating an appropriate 

firing angle in two cases (constant speed and 

constant torque operation), Tansigmoidal 

function is used as an activation function 

between the hidden layers and input to hidden 

layers. 

The proposed architecture of the neural 

network contains two hidden layers of 

tansigmoidal neurons and broadcasts their output 

to a layer of linear neurons which computes the 

network output. The back propagation training 

algorithm is used for feed forward neural 

networks. Levennerg Marguardt back 

propagation algorithm for feed forward neural 

networks is used as it’s much faster than 

standard back propagation algorithm. The 

training is achieved with Matlab simulation 

program which uses a given number of inputs – 

output examples patterns [13]. 

THE PROPOSED CONTROL MODEL 

A control system is proposed by which a 

three phase WRIM can be controlled with the 

flexibility of control as constant DC current 

(torque) operation or constant speed operation, a 

neural network is involved in the model to 

estimate the proper firing angles for both modes 

of operation. By good training of the ANN, 

satisfactory results were obtained. In case of 

constant current operation, the input to the ANN 

is the slip, constant current and the output is the 

firing angle, but in case of constant speed 

operation the input to the ANN is the DC 

current, constant speed and the output is the 

firing angles. This firing angle is linked as an 

estimator to control converter circuit to adjust it. 

245


The motor speed and DC link current (or Te) 

are inputs to the MATLAB Neural Network 

model and the corresponding values of thyristor 

inverter firing angle (α) are calculated 

systematically. After normalization all data, The 

ANN model was implemented by software in the 

drive system program as shown in fig. (5). Both 

the reference speed (nref) and DC link current (Id) 

are inputs to the ANN model, which estimates 

the appropriate firing angle (α). A firing circuit 

generates pulses to the thyristors of the inverter 

with the corresponding requirement; the neural 

network program was run in several cases, 

constant speed operation and constant torque 

operation. The WRIM motor parameters and 

drive system are: 3 hp, 380/220 V, Y/ Δ, three 

phase, 50 Hz, 4 pole, n1 = 1.13, n2 = 2.06, 3.5/ 6 

A, stator resistance RS = 4.12 Ω, rotor resistance 

R / r = 3.2 Ω, mutual inductance Lm = 316 

mH, self inductance L / r= LS = 332 mH, J (for 

motor & load) = 0.06 kg.m 2 , B (viscous friction 

of motor & Load) = 0.05 kg.m 2 /sec. 

246 

SIMULATION RESULTS 

Experimental Data was used to train the 

ANN. The architecture of the ANN is selected 

after many trial and error and, it was concluded 

that for constant speed operation an ANN of two 

hidden layers of tansigmoidal activation function 

is the best and gives most accurate results, each 

hidden layer contains four neurons, but in case 

of constant current operation the best 

configuration of the ANN was two hidden layers 

each one contains three neurons with tansigmidal 

activation function. The Mean Absolute 

Percentage Error MAPE % is calculated 

according to the equation 13. 

MAPE 

1 

N 

N 

� � 

i�1 i 

Fig. (5): Modified Control System Diagram 

xi 

� yi 

( ) �100% 

� � � � � ( 13) 

x 

Where xi represents the actual value and Vi is 

ANN output. For Constant speed operation the 

MAPE fluctuates between 0.001973 at 750 rpm 

and 0.010626 at 1200 rpm, while for constant 

DC current operation it fluctuates between 

0.014944 at 5.4 A and 0.035245 at 2 A which is 

satisfactory. Figure (6) shows the variation of 

firing angle (α) of the inverter with DC link 

current (which is directly proportional to the 

electromagnetic torque) for actual value and 

ANN based model. The curves show that the 

designed ANN model is near to the actual values 

for different rotor speeds 1440 rpm, 1200 rpm 

and 1050 rpm. It is shown that when the load 

torque on the motor shaft is increased, the firing 

angle must be decreased to balance between 

them and keeping the rotor speed constant. 

Figure (7) shows the firing angle (α) of the 

inverter against the motor speed for different 

load torques (or DC link current) for actual value 

and ANN based model. The curves show that the 

designed ANN model is encouraging to satisfy 

the actual value for different load torque (I = 2 

A, 4 A and 5.4 A). Figure (7) shows that as the 

speed of the motor decreased the firing angle is 

increased to maintain the load torque at desired 

value. 

The system was tested for two different 

modes, variable speed drive and constant speed 

drive operation. Figure (8) illustrates the 

simulation results when the reference speed 

increased suddenly from 1050 rpm to 1350 rpm 

with constant torque of 14.5 N.m. It is obvious 

that increasing the reference speed decreases the 

firing angle of inverter bridge, which results in 

decreasing the rotor effective resistance and 

consequently increasing the motor 

electromagnetic torque during the acceleration 

period. Since the load torque is kept constant, an 

acceleration torque appears which results in 

accelerating the speed of the motor until it 

reaches the desired value. Figure (9) shows the 

simulation results for constant speed operation. 

The desired speed is kept constant at 1400 rpm,


while the load torque is changed directly from 

13.5 N.m to 5.6 N.m. It is noticed that the motor 

speed has increased by 3% at the instant of the 

Firing Angle α 

95 

94.5 

94 

93.5 

93 

92.5 

92 

91.5 

91 

90.5 

N=1440 rpm 

load decrease then it recovers to its desired 

value. 

Actual ANN 

90 

0.2 1.06 1.85 3.04 3.43 5.2 

I d (dc link Current) A 

Fig. (6): Firing angle against DC link current for different motor speeds 

247


248 



180 

160 

140 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

180 

160 

140 

120 

100 

Actual ANN 

Id=2 Amp 

0 

0.06 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 

80 

60 

40 

20 

Id=2 Amp 

S (Slip) 

Actual ANN 

0 

0.06 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.4 0.5 

S (Slip) 

Fig. (7): Firing angle against the slip at different DC link current


Fig. (8): Variable speed drive ANN based simulation results 

249


250 

Fig. (9): Constant Speed Drive ANN Based Simulation Results


CONCLUSION 

In this paper a novel method of adjusting the 

firing angle of the thyristor inverter of slip power 

recovery drive system has been investigated. 

This method depends on training two Neural 

Networks, one for adjusting the firing angle at 

constant speed operation and the other for 

constant torque operation. A practical data where 

used for training and testing these networks, the 

best design, layers and neurons in each layer 

were found by many trail and error testing 

through the Matlab simulation program. The 

data are electromagnetic torque and the rotor 

speed at different operation condition as an input 

and their corresponding firing angle of thyristor 

inverter as an output of the ANN model. The 

results of the comparison between the actual and 

ANN output were encouraging, for Constant 

speed operation the MAPE was between 

0.001973 and 0.010626, while for constant DC 

current operation it fluctuates between 0.014944 

and 0.035245. The performance and robustness 

of the proposed controllers have been evaluated 

under a variety of operating conditions of the 

drive systems and the results demonstrate the 

effectiveness of these control structures. 

REFERENCES 

- Kenshi, N. Hoshi, Nakagawa and Junpei H. (2000). A 

Compact Type Slip Power Recovery System with 

Sinusoidal Rotor Current for Large Pump / Fan 

drive. Power Electronics and Motion Control 

Conference, Proceeding of IPEMC, 2, (pp. 774- 

779). 

- Lavi, A. and Polge, R. J. (1996). Induction Motor Speed 

Control with Static Inverter in the Rotor. IEEE 

Trans. on Power Apparatus and System, 274-282. 

- Marques, G. D. (1996). Performance Evaluation of the 

Slip Power Recovery System with a DC Voltage 

Intermediate Circuit and LC filter on the Rotor. 

Industrial Electronics Conference, ISIE 96 

Proceeding of the IEEE. 2, (pp. 862-866). 

- Akpinar, E. and Fillay, P. (1990). Modeling and 

Performance of Slip Energy Recovery Induction 

Motor Drive. IEEE Trans. on Energy Conversion. 

5, (pp. 203-210) 

- Amr, M. and Amin, A. Neural Network-based Tracking 

Control System for Slip Power Energy Recovery 

Drive. IEEE Catalog Number 97Tlt8280, ISIE 97- 

Guimaraes, Portugal, (pp 1247-1252). 

- Tunyasrirut, S., Kanchanathep, A. Ngamwiwit, J., Furuya, 

T. (1999). Fuzzy Logic Control for Speed of WRIM 

with Slip Power Energy Recovery. SICE Mrioka, ( 

pp 119-1203). 

- Mishra, A. K., Wahi, A K. (2004). Performance Analysis 

and Simulation of Inverter-fed Slip-Power 

Recovery Drive. IE (I) Journal-EL, 85, (pp 89-95). 

- Tunyasrirut, Satean and Ngamwiwit, Jngkol (2000). 

Adaptive Fuzzy-Neuro Controller for Speed of 

Wound Rotor Induction Motor with Slip Energy 

Recovery. Tencho proceedings, publisher country 

IEEE (MY) 3, (pp. 329-33). 

- Abdelfattah, M. Y. and Ahmed, M. M. (2002). An 

Artificial Neural Network-Based Chopper- 

Controlled Slip-Ring Induction Motor. IEEE 

MELECON, (pp. 142-146). 

[10] Sen, PC. and Ma, K. HJ. (1975). Rotor Chopper 

Control for Induction Motor Drive, TRC Strategy. 

IEEE Tran. on Industry Application, IA-11, (pp. 43- 

49). 

- Dubey, G. K. (2001). Power Semiconductor Controlled 

Drives. Alpha Science International Ltd, 2 nd ed. 

New Hersey: Prentice –Hall, Inc. 

- Basheer, I. A. and Hajmeer, M. (2000). Artificial Neural 

Networks: Fundamentals, Computing, Design, and 

Application. Journal of Microbiological Method, 

(pp. 3-31). 

- Fausett, L. (2000). Neural Networks Algorithms, 

Applications, and Programming Techniques. Person 

Education, Inc, 2 nd ed. New York. 

251


252 

يزؤت ناهَييزااةبةب واسككيي يزااةهطوو يةولاوخ 

يزةهَيوصب ؤب كيتاتض ياناوت ةكطيلخ يةوةندناِزةط 

نااةدسكتضةد ةزاوةد يةناخ 

وةتطيض َوب نااةدسكتضةد يةناخ يِزؤت ةب تنضةب تصي ةب تااةد ىون اةياطَيِز ةل ساب يةوةهيرَيوت مةئ 

ةتخوي 

يةوةندناِزةط كيهاةت 

ناهَييزااةبةب يزااةنسطوو ىواسككيي يةولاووخ يزَوج يزةهَيوصب ياسَيخ ندسا َلَوترنوا 

. ةولاووخ ياناوت ةكطيلخ 

ندسازاا خَودوزاب سَيذ ةل ةوةزةككَيي يِزوض نااةزةتضوسياض َوب َنيَيلوةخةد نووبيي يةشَوط ةياطَيِز مةئ 

نةيلاةل ةولاووخ ياناوتةكطيلخ يؤيةب ةزةهَيوصب ةزَوج مةئ يزااةهطوو يسبةش وةولاووخ ياسَيخ 

يِزَوطةن يِزوض ناهَييزااةبةب ةووتاي تضةدةب ةوةتطيض مةئ نااةتةفيض و ندسا زااةو 

لووخ ةل تااةد ضيئ ةواسا زايهصيي ةوةتطيض مةئ 

. ادشاوايج 

. ةواسا َلوترنؤا 

ادةولاووخ 

. زةكشَولخد طاب نااةووتاي تضةدةب ةوانجةئ ةو ةوَيشواي 

و ندسكصيئ ناضائ ةوةتطيض مةئ ؤب ةكيهاةت مةئ يست نااةدووض ةو ةيين ياسَيخ يةوةندهَيوخةب تيطيويي ةو ادةواسا 

. ادشاوايج ندسكصيئ خؤدوزاب سَيذةل ةوةتيض مةئ ؤب ةوةتةنواسكنووز ةنايزةطيزاا مةئ و شزةب يدزوو 

ةيعانصلا ةيبصعلا ايلاخلا ةكبش مادختساب فوفلملا راودلا كرحمل نكاسلا ةيقلازنلاا ةردقلا عاجرتسا 

كرحملا ةعرسب مكحتلا ةموظنمل ةيعانصلا ةيبصعلا ايلاخلا ةكبش ىلع دامتعلااب ةثيدح ةقيرط ثحبلا اذه لوانتي 


تاروتسرياثلل ةبسانملا حدقلا ايوز ةقيرطلا هذه نمخت . ةيقلازنلاا ةردقلا عاجرا ةينقت مادختساب فوفلملا راودلا ىذ ىثحلا 

كرحملا اذهل ىسيطانغمورهكلا مزعلا وا ةعرسلا طبض متي 

ةرئادلا مادختساب مكحتلا ةموظنمل ءادلاا صئاصخ ىلع لوصحلا مت 

لاف اذل ةحوتفم 

ةراد ىف لمعي حرتقلا رطيسملا 

. ةفلتخم 

لمع فورظ تحت سكاعلا ةرئاد ىف ةدوجوملا 

. راودلا فرط ىف ةيقلازنلاا ةردقلا ىلع ةرطيسلاب 

. ةدعاوو ةيضرم تناك ةلصحتسملا جئاتنلاو ةطيسبلا ةرمتسملا ةئفاكملا 

حيضوت مت امك. 

ةيلاعلا ةقدلا و نيوكتلا ةطاسب ىه رطيسملا اذهل ىرخلاا تازيمملا نم و ةعرسلا تاساسح ىلا جاتحن 

. 

ةفلتخملا ليغشتلا فورظ تحت رطيسملا اذه ةيلاعف


LOWER BOUND OF T-BLOCKING SETS IN PG(2, q ) AND EXISTENCE 

OF MINIMAL BLOCKING SETS OF SIZE 16 AND 17 IN PG(2,9) * 

ABSTRACT 

ABDUL KHALIK L. YASSEN * and CHINAR A. AHAMED ** 

* Dept. of Math., College of Science, University of Mosul, Mosul -Iraq 

** Dept. of Math., Faculty of Science, University of Zakho, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

(Received: November 16, 2010; Accepted for publication: August 14, 2011) 

In this paper we introduce the projective plane PG(2, q), q square the lower bound of 5 – blocking set when q > 

25 and q = 16. Then we improved the lower bound of 5 – blocking set when q � 10. 

Also we find the lower bound of a 

6 -blocking set when q > 36 and q = 16. Specially in projective plane PG(2, 9), we show that the minimal blocking set 

of size 16 with a 6 – secant and the minimal blocking set of size 16 of Rédei-type are exists and we classify the minimal 

blocking sets of size 17. 

KEYWORDS: blocking set, minimal blocking set, n-arc, Projective plane, affine plane. 

I 


n a finite projective plane of order q, a t- 

blocking set is a set of points such that 

each line contains at least t points of B and some 

lines contains exactly t points of B. A t – 

blocking set B is minimal or irreducible when no 

proper subset of it is a t – blocking set. In 

particular when t = 1 then B is called a blocking 

set.The name blocking set was originated in 

Game Theory, Richardson [6] was the first one 

to look at larger planes, he showed that the 

minimal size of a blocking set in PG( 2,3) is 6, 

and noted that Baer sub planes are examples of 

blocking sets of size q � q �1in 

projective 

planes of square order. Di Paola [4] introduced 

the idea of a projective triangle , which give an 

example of a blocking sets of size 3(q+1)/2 in 

Desargusian planes of odd order. That projective 

planes exist in these planes was shown by Bruen 

who also obtained the general lower bound 

q � q �1for 

the size of a blocking set in 

projective plane of odd order q . Bruen [3] gave 

the upper bound q q �1 

for a minimal 

blocking set in any projective plane of order q, 

and make the connection with Rédei's work on 

lacunary polynomials and small blocking sets in 

Desargusian planes. 

Specially in the projective plane PG(2, 9): 

First: We show that the minimal blocking set 

of size 16 with a 6 – secant and the minimal 

blocking set of size 16 of Rédei-type exists. 

Second: We classify the minimal blocking 

sets of size 17. 

* This paper is based on M.Sc Thesis of the second author. 


This Section briefly summarizes some of the 

basic notions concerning projective spaces and tblocking 

sets. We begin by the following 

definitions . A finite filed, is a field with a finite 

number of elements. A field E is an extension of 

a field F if there is an injective ring 

homomorphism from F into E.A non constant 

polynomial f(x) is an irreducible polynomial in 

F[x] if f(x) cannot be expressed in F[x] as a 

product g(x) . h(x) of non constant of each of 

degree less than the degree of f(x) .Let GF(p) = 

Z / pZ Zp, p prime number, and let f(x) be an 

irreducible polynomial 

GF(p),then 

of degree h over 

h 

GF(p ) �GF(p)[x]/ (F(x)) � 

h�1 � i 

� 

��aiλ :a i�GF(p);F(λ) 

�0� 

i�0 � � 

is called a Galois Field of order q ; q=p h . 

The elements of GF(q) satisfy the equation x q = 

x, and there exist λ in GF(q)={0,1,�,� 2 ,… ,� q-2 }. 

A (k,n) –arc K in PG(2,q) is a set of k points 

such that there is some n points but no n+1points 

are collinear . A t – blocking set B in a projective 

plane PG(2, q) is a set of points such that each 

line in PG(2, q) contains at least t points of B 

and some line contains exactly t points of B. 

A t-blocking set is trivial when it contains a 

line of PG(2,q). Specially If t=1, then B is called 

blocking set. If t=2, then B is called Double 

Blocking set. A t – blocking set B is minimal or 

irreducible when no proper sub set of it is a t – 

blocking set. A t-blocking set B of size b is 

small if b < t q + (q+3)/2. 

253


Theorem 2.1[1]. Let B be t- blocking set in a 

projective plane PG(2,q) , p > 3 where p is 

prime then : 

1 . if t � (p�1)/2, then (2t �1) 

(p �1) 

B � 

2 

2. if t � (p+1)/2, then B � ( t �1) 

p , B is the 

number of the points of B. 


projective plane PG(2,q), then : 

q�1 

1. 2 

�r �q 

� q �1, 

254 

i 

i�0 

q 1 

2. � � 

i�1 

q 1 

i�2 

q 1 

i r �b( 

q �1) 

, 

i 

� 

3. �i ( i �1) 

r �b 

( b �1) 

, 

� 

4. 

� � v 

i�1 

q�1 

5. � 

i�2 

q 

6. �� 

7. �� 

i q 

i 

�1, 

, 

( i �1) 

vi 

�b 

�1 

u �q 

�1 

, 

i 

i 0 

q 

iui 

i 1 

�b 

. 

where b : the number of the points of B. 

r i : the total number of i-secant of B, and isecant 

is the line of PG(2,9) that intersect B in i 

points. 

v i : the total number of i-secant through a point 

p of B. 

u i : the total number of i-secant through a point 

q of PG(2, q)\B. 

Theorem 2.3[4]. Let B be a t-blocking set B in 

PG(2,q), where t 3,q= p 2d ,then 

B � t( 

q � q �1) 

. 

Theorem2.4[2]. Let B be a t-blocking set B in 

PG(2,q),where 

�1/ 

3 1/ 

6 1/ 

4 

t � min( 2 q , q / 2) 

, if q = p 2d ,p 

= 2,3, d � 2,then B � t( 

q � q �1) 

. 

Theorem 2.5[2]. Let B be a t-blocking set in 

PG(2,q), and B contains no line, then 

B � tq 

� tq 

�1. 

Definition 2.6[5]. A unital in PG(2,q) is a set U 

of q q �1points, that every line joining two 

points of U intersect U in precisely q � 1. 

Theorem 2.7[4]. Let B be a minimal blocking 

set in PG(2,q). Then B �q 

q �1with 

equality if and only if B is a unital in PG(2,q), q 

is square . 

Theorem 2.8[5]. Let B be a minimal blocking 

set in PG(2,q). If q=p is a prime then �B �� 

(3p+1)/2. 

3. Lower Bounds of 5-Blocking and 6-Blocking 

Sets in a projective Plane PG(2,q) , where q 

is a square. 

In this section we find in the projective plane 

PG(2, q), q square the lower bound of 5 – 

blocking set when q > 25 and q = 16. Then we 

improved the lower bound of 5 – blocking set 

when q � 10 . Also we find the lower bound of 

a 6 – blocking set when q > 36 and q = 16. 

Theorem 3.1. Let B be a 5-blocking set in 

PG(2,q), such that through each of its points 

there are q �1 

lines, containing at least 

q � 5points 

of B and forming a dual Baer sub 

line : 

1. For q>25, B has at least 

5q � 2 q � 5points. 

2. For q = 16, B has at least 

5q � q �8 

points. 

Proof1. Call the lines meeting B in q � 5 or 

more points basic lines .If two basic lines meet 

outside of B, then B has at 

least: 

2( q � 5) 

� 5( 

q �1) 

� 5q 

� 2 q � 5 poi 

nts and the desired bound is obtained . So 

assume that two basic line meet in B. Take � , a 

basic line and P a point of B not on � . Then the 

basic line through P contain a dual Baer sub line 

meet � in a Baer sub line. Let Q be a point on 

this Baer sub line . Consider basic lines through 

a point on a 5-secant to Q these meet � in a 

another Baer sub line not containing Q. Two 

Baer sub lines meet in at most two points and so 

� has at least 2 q points. Since � was 

arbitrary, every basic line has at least 

2 q points and it follow that B has at least 

1� ( q �1)( 

2 q �1) 

� 4( 

q � q) 

� 6q 

�3 

q. 

But 

6q � 3 q � 5q 

� 2 q � 5for 

q �25 

so 

B �5q � 2 q � 5.□ 

Proof2. If two long lines meet outside of B , 

then B has at least


2 ( q � 5) 

� 5( 

q �1) 

� 5q 

� 2 q � 5 

points. Let P � B , through B, since there are 

q �1 

long lines through P. B has at least 

( q �1)( q � 4) �1� 4( q �1 � ( q �1)) � 

5q � q �5 

points. Now if B �89 

then ( k,12)-arc has 184 

points and it is impossible. 

If B �5q � q � 6 then k = 183, it is 

impossible . If B �5q � q � 7 ,then k 

=182, and it is impossible. Since k �� 181, hence 

B �5q � q � 8.□ 

The next theorem is an improvement to the 

lower bound of 5-blocking set in PG(2,q) 

when q �10 

. 

Theorem 3.2. Let B be a 5-blocking set in 

PG(2,q), having through every point at least 

q �1 

lines, containing at least 

q � 5 points of B and forming a dual Baer 

sub line. Then B has at least 

5q � 3 q � 5 points. 

Proof . Assume that B has at least 

5q � 3 q � 5 points. Call the lines meeting B 

in q � 5 or more points long lines. Take 15 

points of B, all lying on a long line � . there are 

at least 15 q( q � 4) 

points of B\ � lying on 

the long lines through these 15 points. Since 

B\ � has more than 5q � 2 q points .There 

exist more than 

15 q( q � 4) 

� 3( 

5q 

� 2 q) 

� 54 q 

points on four or more of the long lines through 

these 15 points counting with multiplicity .Let Pi 

be a point of B\ � joined to at least four of these 

15 points of � by long lines . Let Si be the points 

of � at which the long lines through Pi meet � . 

The set Si has at most q � 2 points otherwise Pi 

lies on at least q � 3 long lines and B has at 

least1+( q +3)( q +4)+4(q- q - 

2)=5q+3 q +5 points also Si contains a Baer 

sub line bi by hypothesis .Since there exist 

54 q points of B\ � [B\ � is the set of all points 

of B without points of the line � ] meeting at 

least four of the 15 points there exist 

54 q points the corresponding bi of which 

meet at least three of the 15 points. There are 

455 different sets of three points among these 15 

points and so there are points P1 and P2 

corresponding b1 and b2 of which meet in at least 

three points. Since two Baer sub line meeting at 

least two points b1 and b2are the same. If three 

long lines meet in a point outside of B, then B 

has at least 

3( q � 5) 

� 5( 

q � 2) 

� 5q 

� 3 q � 5 

points . So at most two long lines meet in a point 

outside of B. This implies that the long lines 

through P1 and P2 meet � in at most one point 

outside of B and that point lies on the long line 

joining P1 and P2 . 

Let S be the set of points of � � B at which 

b1 = b2 meet � � B then S has q or 

q �1 

points .We shall now prove that � has 

at least q � 7 points. Assume, firstly that it 

has less than q � 7 points. Let T be the set of 

points in B\ � that lie on a non-long line meeting 

S. By considering the points on non – long lines 

through a point of S, it follows that there are at 

least 4( q � q �1) 

points in T. 

Suppose that � has exactly q � 5 points of B. 

the long lines through a point of T can meet at 

most two points of S and so at most seven points 

of � � B. This follows from the fact that two 

different Baer sub lines meet in at most two 

points. Let n be maximal such that n points of T 

are collinear. Each point of B lies on at least 

q �1 

long lines and so each point of T has at 

least q � 6 long lines meeting � \B. There 

are q �1 � ( q � 5) 

points in � \B and so 

n ( q � 6) 

�q 

� q � 4 , which implies that 

n� q � 6 for q �19 

. 

Now , since every point of T has at least 

q � 6 long lines meeting � outside B and at 

most 

that 

q � 6 of them are collinear , it follow 

4( q � q �1) 

q � 6 

�q 

� 

q � 6 

q � 4 �q 

� q �1 

for q �10 

, since � was arbitrary , every long 

line contains at least q � 6 points of B .Now 

255


if 

then 

q � 2of 

these long lines meet in a point 

B �1 � ( q � 2)( q � 5) � 4( q � q �1) � 

5q �3q �7 

So assume that every point of B lies on exactly 

q �1 

long lines. Let � be a line meeting 

exactly q � 6 points of B. Define S, T and n 

as before. n( 

q � 6) 

�q 

� q � 4as 

before, 

4( q � q �1) 

q � 6 

�q 

� 

q � 6 

q � 5 �q 

� q �1 

For q �10 

, since � was arbitrary , it has 

shown that every long line has at 

least q � 7 points . By counting the points of 

B on lines through a point of B. It follow that 

B �1� ( q �1)( 

q � 6) 

� 4( 

q � q) 

� 5q 

�3 

q � 7 

and the result follows . □ 

Theorem 3.3.[6]. Let B be a 6-blocking set in 

PG(2,q) such that through each of it is points 

there are q �1 

lines , containing at least 

q � 6 points of B and forming a dual Baer 

sub line : 

1. For q �36 

, B has at least 6q � 2 

points. 

q � 6 

2. For q = 16, B has at least 

6q � q � 

256 

9points 

. 

4.The Minimal Blocking set of size 16 in a 

projective plane PG(2,9). 

Let B be a minimal blocking set of size 16 in 

PG(2,9) 

Theorem 4.1.[1].Let V be a vector space of 

dimension n over a finite field GF(q) , then any 

sub set of V intersect every prime of V contain 

at least n(q – 1)+1of points . 

Theorem 4.2. Any point of B lies on at least 

three tangents. 

Proof .Let P and let � be a tangent line to B 

at P. Consider PG(2,9)\ � and call this AG(2,9). 

Then a set B\ � of size 15 remains. A minimal 

blocking set in AG(2,9) contains at least 17 

points [3]. This means that we have to add at 

least two points to B\ � to get a blocking set in 

AG(2,9). The external lines to B\ � in AG(2,9) 

are the tangent to B at P, different from � . 

Hence P lies on at least three tangents to B. □ 

Lemma 4.3 Gács [1]. In PG(2,q) , let B be a 

minimal blocking set of size q +k , and suppose 

there is a line L intersecting B in exactly k-1 

points. Then there is a point O � B such that 

every line joining O to a point of L\B contains 

two points of B . Hence k � ( q � 3) 

\ 2. 

The following theorem proves the existence of 

minimal Blocking sets of size 16 in PG(2,9) . 

Theorem 4.4.There is a minimal blocking set of 

size 16 in PG(2,9) having 6-secant. 

Proof . Let (x,y,z) denote the coordinates of a 

projective point. Let � be a 6-secant . Let � be 

the line at infinity of the corresponding affine 

plane [If � n�1 

is any prime in PG(2,9), then the 

affine plane AG(2,9) = PG(2,9)\ � n�1 

], and let 

� B�{ 

P , P , P , P } . By lemma 4.3 , there is 

\ 1 2 3 4 

an affine point for which the lines O Pi , 

i= 1,2,3,4, are bisecant. These lines contain eight 

affine points of B. Let U1 and U2 are the 9 th and 

10 th affine points .Since the points Pi lie on one 

2-secant and eight tangents , the lines U1Pi are 

tangents for i= 1, 2, 3 ,4. Furthermore , the line 

OU1 is a line passing through the point 

(1,1,0).We select the reference system in the 

following way. Let P1 = (0, 1, 0), P2 = (1, 0, 0), 

P3 = (1, 2� 3 , 0) , with � 2 = � + 1. Since the sub 

group of PGL(2,9) [PGL(2,9) is the set of all 

projectivities of PG(1, 9)] stabilizing {P1, P2, 

P3}, acts transitively on the seven other points of 

� , let OU1 pass through ( 1, 1 ,0) . We will set 

P4 = (1, � 3 , 0) . Let O = (0,0,1). Using the 

perspectivities with axis � and center O,we can 

assume that U1 = (1, 1, 1). 

Consider now the affine plane PG(2, 9)\ � . Let 

B' = B\(� � �{U1, U2}). Then two points of B' lie 

on the line X = 0, and two points lie on the line 

Y = 0, and two on the line Y = 2� 3 X , and two 

on the line Y = � 3 X .Since these are the lines O i 

, i= 1,2,3,4. Moreover , on every horizontal line 

Y =k , and on vertical line X = k ,and on every 

line Y = 2� 3 X + k and Y = � 3 X + k , with k � 

0there is one point on B . In piratical on the lines 

X= 1, y = 1, Y = 2� 3 X + 2� 2 ,Y = 2� 3 X + 

2� 2 ,Y=X which all pass through U1 there are no 

points of B'.this cancels a lot of points of AG 

(2,9).


(0, 0) (0, 1) (0, 2) (0, �) (0, 2�) (0, � 2 ) (0, 2� 2 ) (0, � 3 ) (0, 2� 3 ) 

(1, 0) (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, �) (1, 2�) (1, � 2 ) (1, 2� 2 ) (1, � 3 ) (1, 2� 3 ) 

(2, 0) (2, 1) (2, 2) (2, �) (2, 2�) (2, � 2 ) (2, 2� 2 ) (2, � 3 ) (2, 2� 3 ) 

(�, 0) (�, 1) (�, 2) (�, �) (�, 2�) (�, � 2 ) (�, 2� 2 ) (�, � 3 ) (�, 2� 3 ) 

(2�,0) (2�, 1) (2�,2) (2�,�) (2�, 2�) (2�,� 2 ) (2�, 2� 2 ) (2�,� 3 ) (2�, 2� 3 ) 

(� 2 , 0) (� 2 , 1) (� 2 ,2) (� 2 ,�) (� 2 , 2�) (� 2 ,� 2 ) (� 2 , 2� 2 ) (� 2 ,� 3 ) (� 2 , 2� 3 ) 

(2� 2 ,0) (2� 2 ,1) (2� 2 ,2) (2� 2 ,�) (2� 2 ,2�) (2� 2 ,� 2 ) (2� 2 ,2� 2 ) (2� 2 ,� 3 ) (2� 2 ,2� 3 ) 

(� 3 , 0) (� 3 , 1) (� 3 , 2) (� 3 , �) (� 3 , 2�) (� 3 , � 2 ) (� 3 , 2� 2 ) (� 3 , � 3 ) (� 3 , 2� 3 ) 

(2� 3 ,0) (2� 3 ,1) (2� 3 ,2) (2� 3 ,�) (2� 3 ,2�) (2� 3 ,� 2 ) (2� 3 ,2� 2 ) (2� 3 ,� 3 ) (2� 3 ,2� 3 ) 

On Y = 2� 3 Xwe need to select two points from 

the set: 

2 3 2 3 2 3 

� �{(2�, 

2), (λ , λ), (λ , λ ), (2λ , 2λ ), (2, λ )} 

1 

These points with the six points of B � � : 

2 

{(1,1,0),(1,2,0),(1, �,0),(1,2 �,0),(1, � ,0), 

On Y = � 3 X we need to select two points from 

the set: 

3 

2 

2 3 2 

� 2 �{(2, 

2� 

), ( �, 

2), (λ ,2λ 

), (2λ , λ ), ( � , 2λ 

)} 

On X = 0 we need to select two points from the 

set: 

{(0, 2), (0, 2λ), 

(0, λ 

2 

), (0, λ 

3 

), ( 0, 2λ 

3 

)}. 

3 � � 

We also need to select two points on the line Y 

=0 to be in B 'this gives the following ten 

possibilities: 

1. (�, 0) 

and ( 2� 

, 0) 

. This choice 

eliminates ( 2�, 

2) 

of � 1and (�, 2) 

of � 2. 

Since we cannot have two points of B' on the 

same horizontal line different from the first line . 

On Y = � 3 X+1, Y = � 3 X+2, Y = 2� 3 X+1, Y = 

2� 3 X+2, the two lines through P3, P4 and (λ,0) , 

(2λ,0) , we cannot select any other point of B' 

since lines must be tangents to B .This 

eliminates two other points (2λ,2) of � 1 and 

(λ,0)of � 2 and (0,2) from � 3 . Hence this choice 

give us the points (λ,0) , (2λ,0) and the points 

(� 3 , � 2 ), (2� 3 , 2� 2 ) , (� 2 , �) , (2, � 3 ) from 1 � and 

(� 3 , 2� 2 ), (2� 2 , �),(� 2 , 2�), (2, 2� 3 ) from � 2 and 

(0, 2�) ,(0, � 2 ),(0, � 3 ), (0, 2� 3 ) from � 3 . If we 

choose two points from Y =0 and two points 

from � 1 and two points from � 2 and two points 

from � 3 . We will have 216 possibilities for 

eight point of B'. So we choose (λ,0) , (2λ,0) 

from Y=0 and (� 3 , � 2 ), (2� 3 , 2� 2 ) from � 1 and 

(2� 2 , �),(� 2 , 2�) from � 2 and (0, � 3 ) , (0, 2� 3 2 

(1,2 � ,0)} with the point U1 = (1, 1, 1),this 

give us 15 points of B and with the point U2 = 

(1, 1, 2) ,we have a minimal blocking set of size 

16 having 6-secant. □ 

Definition4.5. An elation of PG(2,q) is an 

automorphism that fixes all points on a line � , 

and that fixes all lines through a certain point P 

of � is called the axis of the elation, and the 

point P is the center of the elation . 

The order of an elation � of PG(2,q), q=p 

) 

from � 3 .To be eight affine points from B'. Since 

theses points are affine we change these points 

to the projective points: 

3 3 3 2 

{(0, � ,1),(0,2 � ,1),( �,0,1),(2 �,0,1),( � , � ,1), 

3 2 2 2 

(2 � ,2 � ,1),( � ,2 �,1),(2 � , � .1)} 

h , p 

prime, is equal to the prime p. 

Theorem4.6. There is minimal blocking 16-set 

of Re'dei – type in PG(2,9). 

Proof . Let ( x, y , z) denote the coordinates of a 

projective point Let � : Z = 0 be the Re'dei- Line 

and let Pi = (xi, yi, 1) �� (xi, yi), i= 1,2,…,9 , be 

the affine points of the blocking set B . 

Let A = ( 0,1,0) , B = ( 1,0,0) and C = ( 1,2,0) be 

the three points of � \ B . Since all affine line 

X = aZ through A and Y = bZ through B contain 

exactly one affine point of the blocking set, we 

have xi � xj , yi � yj if i � j. Since C does not 

belong to B, all affine lines X + Y + aZ = 0 

contain exactly one point (xi, yi, 1) of B, So all 

the sum xi + yi = a , are different so for every a 

in GF(9) , there is one solution xi + yi = ��a , So 

xi + yi � xj + yj , if i � j. These three condition 

will be used in the search for minimal blocking 

set of Re ' dei-type of size 16 .We now select the 

first three affine points. Suppose the 9 points of 

B\ � from a 9-arc, since they only lie on tangents 

to B \ � but a 9-arc in PG(2,9), consists of 9 

point conic so can only be extended by the tenth 

point of this conic to a 10-arc in one way. So 

there are at least three collinear points in B\ � . 

The line containing these collinear points 

intersects � in a point of B. We can assume that 

(0,0,1) lies in the blocking set B'. We can again 

assume that at least three of the nine remaining 

points of the blocking set ( not lying on Z=0) are 

257


collinear. Assume that such a line contains at 

least three of those collinear points passes 

through (0,0,1). They are collinear with one of 

the points on Z=0 different from (1,0,0), (0,1,0), 

(1,2,0). We can assume that they are collinear 

with a point Since the subgroup fixing {A1, A2, 

A3} contain at most six elelment which is the 

group � S3 where : 

T1: (x, y, z) � (y + z, x + 2z, 0) 

T2: (x, y, z) � (2y + z, x +y, 0) 

This give us two elations the first one contain 

the set of points: 

2 2 3 

{(1, �,0),(1,2 �,0),(1, � ,0),(1,2 � ,0),(1, � ,0), 

3 

(1,2 � ,0)} and the second one contain the set 

� 1, 

1, 

0) 

� 

( . We choose the point (1,�,0) from first 

elation and we assume that this point lie on the 

same line that the three points lie on it with the 

point (0,0,1). Now let P1 = (0,0). Using 

perceptivities with axis � and center P1, we can 

set P2 = (1,�) also using percepectivities with 

axis � and center P2 we can set P3 = (2, 2�) . 

Using the elation: 

� : (x, y, z) � (x + z, y + �z, z) with axis � and 

center (1,�, 0)which interchanges P1, P2, P3. It 

also interchanges (�,� 2 ), (� 2 , � 3 ), (2� 3 , 1) and 

interchanges the points (2�,2� 2 ), (� 3 , 2), (2� 2 , 

2� 3 ).Now we assume that the points P1, P2, P3 

B', and P4 � {(�,� 2 ), (2�, 2� 2 )}. First we choose 

P4 = (�,� 2 ) and it is similar in the case of P4 = 

(2�,2� 2 ) .The criteria for selecting a next point 

Pi = (xi, yi), i= 5,…, 9 to be points of B' is that : 

1. xi � {x1, … , xi�1} 

2. yi � {y1, … , yi�1} 

3. xi + yi � {x1 + y1, … , xi�1 + yi�1}. 

We choose the points P1, P2, P3, P4 in B' then 

xi: 0, 1, 2, �and yi :0, �,2�,� 2 , xi + yi: 0, � 2 , 2� 2 , 

� 3 .For the point P5=(2�,y5) we have y5�{1, 2, 

2� 2 , � 3 , 2� 3 },and 2� + y5� {� 3 , 2� 2 , 2� 3 , � 2 , 2} 

and by the three condition we have either P5 = 

(2�, 2� 2 ) or P5 = (2�, 2� 3 ) . we choose 

P5=(2�,2� 3 ) then xi : 0, 1, 2, �, 2� and yi: 

0, �,2�,� 2 , 2� 3 and xi + yi: 0, � 2 , 2� 2 , � 3 , 2. 

For the point P6 = (� 2 , y6) we have y6 � {1, 2, 

258 

2� 2 , � 3 } and � 2 + y6�{2� 3 , �, 0, 2}by the three 

condition we have two possibility for P6 which 

are P6 = (� 2 , 1) and P6 = (� 2 , 2) we choose P6 = 

(� 2 , 2) then the used xi are 0, 1, 2, �, 2�, � 2 and 

the used yi are 0, �,2�,� 2 , 2� 3 ,2 and the used xi + 

yi are 0, � 2 , 2� 2 , � 3 , 2, � , for the point P7 = 

(2� 2 , y7) we have y7 � {1, 2� 2 , � 3 }and 2� 2 + y7 

� {2�, � 2 , �},by the three condition we have 

only one possibility for P7 which is P7 = (2� 2 , 

1).If we take P7 = (2� 2 , 1) then xi are 0, 1, 2, �, 

2�, � 2 ,2 � 2 and the used yi are 0, �,2�,� 2 , 

2� 3 ,2,1and the used xi + yi are 0, � 2 , 2� 2 , � 3 , 2, 

�,2� . For the point P8 = (� 3 , y8) we have 

y8�{2� 2 , � 3 }and � 3 + y8�{�, 2� 3 }by the 

three condition we have only one possibility for 

P8 which is P8 = (� 3 , � 3 ) . If we take P8 = (� 3 , � 3 ) 

then the used xi are 0, 1, 2, �, 2�, � 2 ,2 � 2 , � 3 and 

the used yi are 0, �,2�,� 2 , 2� 3 ,2,1,� 3 ,and the used 

xi + yi are 0, � 2 , 2� 2 , � 3 , 2, �,2�,2� 3 .By the three 

condition we have only one possibility for P9 

which is P9 = (2� 3 , 2� 2 ) . So the used xi are 0, 1, 

2, �, 2�, � 2 ,2 � 2 , � 3 ,and the used yi are 0, 

�,2�,� 2 , 2� 3 ,2,1,� 3 ,and the used xi + yi are 0, � 2 , 

2� 2 , � 3 , 2, 2� 3 . Hence we get to the nine affine 

points: P1 = (0, 0), P2 = (1, �), P3 = (2, 2�), P4 = 

(�, � 2 ), 

P5 = (2�, 2� 3 ), P6 = (� 2 , 2), P7 = (2� 2 , 1), P8 = 

(� 3 , � 3 ), P9 = (2� 3 , 2� 2 ) . 

These points together with seven points of 

B � � give us a minimal blocking 16-set of 

Re'dei – type in PG(2,9).□ 

REFERENCES 

- J. Barát and S. Innamorati ,Largest minimal blocking sets 

in PG(2, 8), J. Combin. Designs. (2003), 11: 162- 

169. 

- A. Blokhuis ,Note on the size of a blocking set in PG(2, 

p), Combinatorica. 14, (1994), 111-114. 

- A.A. Bruen, Arcs and multiple blocking sets, 

Combinatorica, Symposia, Mathematic 28, 

Academic Press, (1986),15-29. 

- J. Di Paola,On minimum blocking coalitions in small 

projective plane games, SIAM J. Appl. Math., 17, 

(1969), 378-392. 

- J.W.P.Hirschfeld,Projective Geometries over Finite 

Fields Oxford University Press, Oxford, (1979). 

- M. Richardson, On finite projective games, Proc. Amer. 

Math. Soc., 7, (1956), 458-465.


َىمةد ىرك كؤمب-5 

نَيرونس 

ةم اسةورةه 

انووبةه اد 

ىطاقسا 

اموك ؤب ىرَيذ نَيرونس ،راجوود 

. 

q �10 

q 


َىتخةتور د نركرايد ةم د ىتةبيات ب 

، 

PG(2, q) 

اد ىطاقسا َىتخةتور د ةم ،ادَىنيلوكةظ َىظد 

ذ ىرَيذ نَيرونس اد فيود ل 

. q=16 

Redei َىروج ذ 66 َىرابةق ذ ىرك كؤمب اموك نيتركوضب و رةرب-6 

ةيييجيلاقلا ةييع ي ي ل ىييار ا ميييجقلا رايي داق اييجيا ييق ع رميييع 

. 

q �10 

. نرك ينلوث ةناد 

PG(2,q) 

و 

لةطد 

q>36 

ةيلا ذيف ةجيسايخلا ةيجيلاقلا ةيع ي ي ل ىيار ا ميجقلا لجي ق ايجيا يث . 

ي يلا ذيف ةيصاص خ يصقو . 

q = 16 

ةيجيلاا ةيع ي ع ر يدوو داجيسامس داياطاا ي يت 

. 

67 

و 

q > 36 

66 

q 

، 

67 

66 

. ينساين ةناد 


q=16 

و 

ةتخوث 

q>25 

اموك ذ ىرَيذ 

َىرابةق ذ ىرك كؤمب اموك نيتركوضب 

َىرابةق ذ ىرك كؤمب نَيموك نيتركوضب ةم و 


ذطاقييس ا يي يلا ذيييفو سيي يلا احيي ذييف 

q = 16 

اعميجع ةجيسام لا ةيجيلاقلا ةيع ي ي ل ىيار 

ي ا ةد تيصأ ةيجيلاا ةيع ي ع ر يدو ايج يثأ ، 

ا ةد تصلأا ةجيلاقلا جعا يلا فججص ق اجيا ايك. 

مد 

و 

– ع ا لع 

q > 25 

اعميجع ةجيسايخلا 

ا ميجقلا راي داق ايجيا اييك 

PG(2, 9) 

66 

ذطاقيس ا 

ا ةد تصأ 

259


062 

A MULTIPLE CLASSIFIER SYSTEM FOR SUPERVISED 

CLASSIFICATION OF REMOTELY SENSED DATA 

AHMED AK. TAHIR 

Dept. of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Duhok, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

(Received: February 2, 2011; Accepted for publication: August 14, 2011) 

ABSTRACT 

In this paper a new scheme of multiple classifier system (MCS) for remote sensing data classification is proposed. 

It includes four member classifiers; maximum likelihood, minimum distance and two differently trained supervised 

artificial neural networks of type adaptive resonance theory ART_II. The system is based on newly developed method 

of integration, named Local Ranking (LK). This method is categorized as dynamic classifier selection (DCS) approach 

and based on ranking the classifiers for each class on the basis of pre-estimation of the class mapping accuracy from 

training data. The system is applied to multi-spectral image, taken by landsat-7 with ETM+ sensor, of Duhok city in 

Kurdistan region to classify seven cover types (residential area, water surface, dense vegetation, less dense vegetation, 

spars vegetation, wet soil and dry soil). The results have shown the superiority of the system performance over the 

performance of the individual classifiers in term of class and average accuracy. The increase in system performance 

for the seven classes compared to the highest class accuracy provided by any of the individual classifiers was 1.59%, 

0.0%, 0.7%, 5.14%, 13.21%, 4.67%, 2.02% respectively. While the increase in the average accuracy compared to the 

highest average accuracy provided by maximum likelihood classifier was 4.30%. This increase correspond to an area 

of (10.15) km 2 . The efficiency of the local ranking (LR) method is compared to the well known methods, local 

accuracy (LA) and majority voting (MV). The results have shown the superiority of the developed method (LR) over 

LA and MV in terms of average and class accuracy. The average accuracies of LR, LA and MV were (94.68%), 

(91.54%) and (91.57%) which correspond to (3.14%) and (3.11%) improvements in the favor of LR over LA and MV. 

These improvements are equivalent to areas of (7.4) km 2 and (7.34) km 2 . For individual class accuracy, LR method 

provided highest accuracy for three classes, LA method provided highest accuracy for two classes and MV provided 

highest accuracy for only one class, while all three methods provided same accuracy for one class. 

KEYWORDS: remote sensing, image classification, multiple classifier system, statistical methods, artificial neural network. 

S 


upervised classification of remotely 

sensed data, namely satellite images, is a 

technique of potential use in applications 

concerning the mapping of earth surfaces (e.g. 

land cover, vegetation areas and forest areas) and 

in environmental and atmospheric studies (e.g. 

monitoring of burned areas and cloud 

classification). Methods of supervised 

classification ranges from statistical methods, 

such as maximum likelihood, minimum distance 

and k-nn neighbor, [Dengsheng et al., 2004 and 

Jain et al., 2000], to non-statistical methods such 

as artificial neural networks (ANN), [Mather et 

al., 1998 and Ashish et al., 2009], support vector 

machine,(SVM), [Chi et al., 2008 ] and expert 

system, [Kahya et al., 2010]. The point of most 

concern in applying any of the classification 

methods is the accuracy of the classifier. 

Previous studies, e.g. [Benediktsson et al., 1990, 

Wilkinson and Kanellopoulos, 1995 and Serpico 

et al., 1996] concerning comparisons between 

statistical and non-statistical methods, have 

shown that there is no such a classifier that 

performs well in all situations because of the 

unstable nature of the data distribution. For 

instance, methods of statistical approach, 

specifically Maximum likelihood method, 

perform well for data of simple distribution 

while non-statistical methods, specifically 

artificial neural networks, perform well for data 

of complex distribution. Those studies have also 

shown that non-statistical methods suffer one 

major limitation concerning the understanding of 

their behaviors. The outcomes of these studies 

brought the attention of remote sensing 

community towards the concept of multiple 

classifier system (MCS). The idea of MCS is 

based on integrating the performance of two or 

more classifiers to achieve better classification 

accuracy. Several systems of multiple classifiers 

have been developed using different 

combinations of classifiers. Examples of these


systems can be found in [Giacinto et al., 2000, 

Liu et al., 2002, Pasquariello et al., 2002, Qiu 

and Jensen 2004, Meher et al 2006, Shankar et al 

2006, El-Melegy and Ahmed, 2007, Maulik and 

Chakraborty, 2010 and Ghosh et al., 2010]. The 

performance of any MCS depends on two main 

factors, selection of member classifiers and 

integration of their outputs. Member classifiers 

are preferred to be based on fundamentally 

different approaches, [Wilkinson and 

Kanellopoulos, 1995 ]. Two approaches are used 

for the integration of the classifiers, combined 

based and dynamic classifier selection based 

approaches. In the combined based approach all 

the outputs from the member classifiers 

contribute to the final decision of MCS. In the 

selection based approach the output of only one 

classifier is selected as a final decision of MCS. 

The success of either approach is determined by 

the nature of outputs produced by the member 

classifiers and the errors scored by the 

classifiers. Methods of combined based 

approach are based on the assumption that the 

member classifiers score independent errors. 

This may represent a serious shortcoming of this 

approach, since in real applications the selection 

of member classifiers that produce independent 

errors is rather a difficult task and may require 

large number of classifiers. On the other hand, 

methods of dynamic classifier selection based 

approach are not based on this assumption. 

However they are based on k-nn strategy. 

Therefore their successes are constraint by a 

proper selection of K value and improper 

selection may cause undesired results. In 

addition, dynamic classifier selection based 

Classifier 1 

Sample 

Classifier 2 

Integration of classifier outputs 

Final decision 

Fig. (1): General Scheme of MCS 

approach suffers the shortcoming of the 

appearance of many tie cases, that is more than 

one classifier may share the same rank. 

However, this shortcoming can be limited by 

using small number of member classifiers, 

[Benediktsson et al., 2007]. 

The aim of this paper is to develop a multiple 

classifier system (MCS) consisting of four 

member classifiers, (maximum likelihood, 

minimum distance and two ART-II neural 

networks). The system is based on a newly 

developed method for classifier integration, 

named local ranking (LR) which is categorized 

as dynamic classifier selection based method. 

The paper is organized as follows: section-2 

covers general scheme of MCS and description 

of the most commonly used of integration 

methods, section-3 covers the proposed MCS 

and describes the components of the proposed 

system, section-4 presents the results and 

section-5 covers the outcome conclusions. 

2. GENERAL SCHEME OF MCS 

The general scheme of MCS is shown in 

figure (1). The sample (image pixel) is entered to 

all member classifiers then the outputs of the 

classifiers are integrated to produce the final 

result as to which class the pixel should be 

assigned. Usually two or more classifiers are 

incorporated in MCS. However, incorporating 

many classifiers should not slow down the 

process of classification. 

Classifier M 

062


The most important issue in developing MCS 

is the integration method, which must take 

advantage of the strengths of the individual 

classifiers and avoid their weaknesses. Several 

methods of both approaches are available. The 

applicability of any method is determined by the 

nature of the outputs produced by the involved 

classifiers. Generally speaking, there are three 

levels of output information, abstract level, rank 

level and measurement level. In the abstract 

level, each classifier produces a unique label. In 

the rank level, each classifier produces a set of 

labels in a queue with the label at the top being 

the first choice. In the measurement level each 

classifier produces a set of measurements which 

can be arranged according to their values. 

2.1 Combined Based Approach 

The most commonly methods of the 

combined based approach are: 

1) Majority voting rule, [Maulik and 

Chakraborty, 2010], which assigns the label 

scored by majority of the classifiers to the test 

sample. It can be applied to abstract and rank 

levels outputs. 2) Bayesian function, [Giacinto et 

al., 2000] which calculates the average posterior 

probabilities produced by the classifiers for each 

class and assigns the test sample to the class that 

has maximum average posterior probability. 

This method is applied to outputs at 

measurement level. 3) Belief function, [Smits, 

2002] which is knowledge based method. It is 

based on probability estimation provided by the 

confusion matrix derived from training data set. 

The test sample is assigned to the class that 

maximized the scalar product of these 

probabilities. However, Bayesian and belief 

function methods require comparable outputs, 

[Maulik and Chakraborty, 2010]. 

2.2 Dynamic Classifier Selection (DCS) Based 

Approach 

The most commonly methods of the selection 

based approach are: 

1)Behavior-Knowledge Space (BKS) method, 

[Huang and Suen, 1995] which divides the Ndimensional 

space made by the decisions of the 

classifiers into units representing all possible 

combinations of the individual classifier 

decision. Then for each class, training samples 

are classified by the individual classifiers and 

accumulated in these units. When a test sample 

is passed over the classifiers, the decisions of 

individual classifiers index a unit and the sample 

is assigned to the class with most of the training 

samples in that unit. It can be applied to abstract 

and rank level outputs. 2) Classifier Rank (CR) 

060 

approach, [Sabourin et al., 1993] takes the 

decision of the classifier that correctly classifies 

most of the training samples neighboring the test 

sample. It is applied to both abstract and rank 

level outputs. 3) Dynamic classifier selection 

based Local Accuracy (DCS-LA), [Smits, 2002 

and Woods et al., 1997] which is based on an 

estimation of local accuracy in the local region 

of feature space surrounding the test sample. The 

decision is made by selecting the output of the 

classifier that produces maximum local 

accuracy. 

3. THE PROPOSED MCS 

In the present work a multiple classifier 

system for supervised classification of multispectral 

dataset is proposed. The system includes 

four individual classifiers, maximum likelihood 

and minimum distance classifiers and two ART- 

II networks trained with two different values of 

vigilance parameter. These classifiers are 

selected because they perform differently for 

surfaces of different homogeneity. Maximum 

likelihood is effective for classifying surfaces 

whose spectral signatures reside the Gaussian 

distribution in the feature space. Minimum 

distance is effective for very homogeneous 

surfaces whose spectral signature reside a point 

in the feature space. On the other hand ART-II is 

effective for surfaces whose spectral signature 

distribute randomly in the feature space. The 

system is based on newly developed method for 

classifier integration, named the Local Ranking 

method which is of dynamic classifier selection 

type. The components of the proposed system 

are described in the following sections. 

3.1. Maximum Likelihood Classifier (MLC) 

MLC is a statistical method which is based 

on Bayesian probability theory which makes use 

of statistical measurement (mean and 

variance/covariance matrix). It provides good 

results for classes of simple distribution. 

Mathematically, for equal priori probabilities of 

the classes, it is represented according to 

[Shankar et al., 2006] by the following equation. 

1 

P( 

x | ci 

) � 

( 2� 

) n/ 

2 

� i 

1/ 

2 

�[( 

x�� 

) T �1 

i � i ( x��i 

)] 

e 

Where; 

Р(x | ci) is the conditional probability. 

ci is the i th class where i refers to class number, i 

= 1,2,…n and n is the total number of classes 

/ 2 

( 1)


x is the testing sample (sample to be classified). 

µi is the mean vector for class i 

Σi is the covariance matrix. 

For computation purpose, equation (1) is 

usually modified to a form of discriminate 

function, [Chen and Ho, 2008] by applying the 

natural logarithmic (ln) which is a monotonic 

function on both sides and discarding the 

constant term. This will require changing the 

rule to choose minimum instead of maximum: 

T �1 

Fi ( x) 

� ln( � 

i ) � ( x � �i ) � 

i ( x � �i 

) 

( 2) 

Where, Fi(x) is substituted for ln(P(x|ci)). The 

rule of classification is to choose x that 

minimizes Fi as follows: 

x Є class i, if Fi (x)


3.3.1. ART-II Training Phase 

1. Read training data (feature vectors a t (i), 

i=1…M) each with its class code b t ., where M is 

the number of spectral images used in the 

classification and t is the index of the feature 

vector in the data file. 

2. Normalize the feature vectors and take its 

complement to produce 2M length input vectors 

A t (i), i=1…2M. 

3. Select the first input vector A 0 (i) at t = 0 and 

its class code b 0 . Set the initial value of the 

Wijk , k 

dynamic learning rate parameter β and the 

choice parameter α. 

4. Use the current input as the initial weights of 

the newly committed category node jk at stake 

k=b as follows: 

Where C(k) is the number of committed node in 

stack number k and L is the total number of 

stakes (output classes) 

5. Set the initial values of the Vigilance 

parameter ρ. 

6. Set t = t+1 and select the next input vector 

At(i) with its associated class code bt, if the end 

of file is reached goto step 14. 

7. Calculate the choice value of the committed 

nodes ( 

T 

) in all the stakes using the 

j k 

k 

following equation: 

2M 

� ( 

i 

Ai 

�W 

) 

ijk 

k 

T k 

� 

�1 

; j � 1...C(k); 

k � 1...L 

(5) 

jk 2M 

k 

α � � 

i�1 Wijk k 

The symbol ^ means take-minimum-of. 

8. Select the node of maximum choice value Tjk 

of each stack using the following relation: 

T jk 

� max{ T k 

; j �1... 

C( 

k); 

k �1... 

L} 

jk k 

These maximum values are the candidates of 

their stacks 

9. The maximum of all maximums is chosen to 

represent winning node, that is: 

T JK 

� max{ T Jk 

; Jk 

� J1 

... J L 

} 

10. The match value is computed for the winning 

node using the following equation: 

MV ( � i W 

062 

0 

� 

A ( t); 

jk 

2M 

� � 

i�1 

� 

1... 

A iJK 

C( 

k); 

k 

) / M 

1... 

(6) 

11. Perform match value and class matching: 

� 

L 

if {(MV >= Vigilance parameter ρ).and.(the 

class of current input b = the 

class of winning node K)} then 

//Update the weights of the winner node 

as follow: 

new old 

old 

WiJK 

� � ( Ai 

�W 

iJK 

) � ( 1� 

� ) WiJK 

; i � 1... 

2M 

(7) 

Return to step 6 

Else perform match tracking 

goto step12 

end if 

12. Perform match tracking 

If {(MV < Vigilance parameter ρ .or. input 

class b ≠ output class K ) then 

Put the current node out of 

competition 

Select the node with the next 

maximum choice value of the winning stack 

Set the value of ρ to the match value plus ε 

then go to step 9 

end if 

13. Match tracking failure 

If the match tracking is failed for all the 

committed nodes in all stakes then 

The number of committed nodes in the stack 

is increased by 1 

C ( b) 

� C( 

b) 

�1 

goto step 5 

else 

current input pattern; W � A ; i �1... 

2M 

i, 

C( 

b), 

b i 

//set the initial weights as input pattern, this 

means that initial weight values are not 

required. 

Goto step 5 

end if 

14. Stop 

3.3.2. ART-II Testing Phase 

1. The input pattern vector is submitted to the 

network and the choice values for all committed 

nodes in all stacks are computed using equation 

(5). 

2. The node with highest Tjk k is selected as 

winner. 

3. The MV of the winning node is computed 

using equation (6). 

4. Check vigilance test 

If {MV >= ρ} then 

The current input pattern belongs to class K 

else 

The network fails to classify the input pattern 

end if.


3.4. Local Ranking (LR) method 

The outputs of the member classifiers used in 

the proposed MCS are not comparable. ART-II 

network produces only one class at a time 

(output of abstract level) while maximum 

likelihood and minimum distance produce 

measurement outputs for all possible classes. 

Therefore, among the combined based methods 

only majority voting rule can be adapted to the 

system. However, this rule may show one of 

two major shortcomings depending on the 

degree of correlation among the errors made by 

individual classifiers. When these errors are 

correlated, that is when all classifiers produce 

incorrect but similar outputs the rule of majority 

will lead to incorrect decision. When these errors 

are uncorrelated, that is when each classifier 

produces a unique output, the rule of majority 

leads to a failure. On the other hand, most of the 

previous methods of dynamic classifier selection 

based approach use nearest neighboring samples 

for selecting the best classifier. Therefore their 

performance depend the size of neighboring 

samples (K) and the choice of an appropriate 

size is rather a difficult task. 

The new dynamic classifier selection based 

method developed in this study takes the 

effectiveness of individual classifiers into 

account. It is named Local Ranking (LR) and 

Table (1): A model of ARM 

based on ranking the classifiers for each class 

according to the mapping accuracy of the class 

by each classifier. The mapping accuracy of the 

class is measured through the confusion matrix 

of the training data taking into account the 

omission and commission errors using the 

following equation: 

pcorr 

MA � (8) 

p � p � p 

corr 

om 

com 

Where Pcorr represents samples classified 

correctly to the current class, Pom is omission 

error representing samples from the current class 

but classified as other classes and Pcom is 

commission error representing samples from 

other classes falsely classified to the current 

class. Then for each class a rank of (1) is given 

to the classifier that offers highest mapping 

accuracy and a rank of (m) is given to the 

classifier that offers least mapping accuracy, 

where m is the number of member classifiers. 

The mapping accuracy and the classifier ranks 

are arranged in a table named the accuracyranking 

map (ARM) which is used for the 

implementation of Local Ranking method. A 

model of this map for m classifiers and n classes 

is shown in table (1), where MA and R, 

respectively are the mapping accuracy and 

ranking of the classifiers. 

Classifier Class 1 Class 2 . . . . . Class n 

Classifier 1 MA11 R11 MA12 R12 MA1n R1n 

Classifier 2 MA21 R21 MA22 R22 MA2n R2n 

. 

. 

In order to reduce the occurrence of tie cases, 

the classifier rank and the mapping accuracy are 

used in the process of classifier selection. 

However, the first priority is given to the 

classifier rank within each class while the 

mapping accuracy of the classifiers is given the 

second priority. This strategy is adopted in order 

to prevent the domination of classes that have 

high accuracy over those having low accuracy. 

The rule of local ranking (LR) method is as 

follows: 

Let m represents the number of member 

classifiers and n is the number of classes, then, 

x Є class j if Rij < Rkl for all i ≠ k 

. 

. 

Classifier m MAm1 RM1 MAmn Rmn 

. 

. 

. 

. 

Where, i & k refer to the classifier number (i&k 

= 1,2,,,,m) and j &l refer to the class number 

(j&l =1,2,,,,n). 

To limit the occurrence of ties, the following 

cases are considered during the execution of the 

rule: 

1. When two or more classifiers share the 

highest rank and produce same output class, the 

image pixel is assigned to that class, that is: 

x Є class j if Rij = Rkl and j = l. 

2.When more than one classifier share the 

highest rank but produce different output classes, 

the accuracy of the classifiers are considered. 

The output class of the classifier with highest 

accuracy will be taken as the winner class to 

. 

. 

062


which the image pixel should be assigned, that 

is: 

if Rij = Rkl and j ≠ l. then 

x Є class j if Aij > Akl 

else if Aij < Akl 

x Є class l 

end if 

3.When the member classifiers produce different 

output classes but have same rank and same 

accuracy, the image pixel is assigned arbitrarily 

to one of the output classes, that is. 

if Rij = Rkl and Aij = Akl while j ≠ l. then 

066 

Fig. (3): The six original bands of Duhok City 

Seven classes were identified through the 

visual interpretation of two false color composite 

images (band4, band3, band2 as RGB) and 

Table (2): Class Identities in Duhok City 

Class No. Identity 

1 Residential area 

2 Duhok Dam 

3 Dense vegetation 

In order to achieve better classification 

confidence, two sets of training data representing 

these classes are selected interactively through 

two false color composite images. The first 

training data set is used for training two ART-II 

classifiers and calculating the statistical 

measurements for minimum distance and 

4 Less dense vegetation 

5 Sparse vegetation 

6 Wet soil 

7 Dry soil 

Classify x arbitrarily either to class j or class l. 

4. RESULTS WITH APPLICATION TO 

ETM+ IMAGES of DUHOK CITY 

The developed MCS is applied to 512 by 512 

ETM+ images of Duhok city in the Kurdistan 

Region of Iraq. These images were taken in June 

(the summer season) of 2001. Figure (3) shows 

the six bands used in this study (band1, band2, 

band3, band4, band5, band7). 

(band7, band5, band1 as RGB). These classes 

are shown in table (2). 

maximum likelihood classifiers. The second 

training data set is used to calculate the 

accuracy-ranking map. The size of the first 

training data set is (2400) samples with class 

samples ranging from 230 to 450. The size of 

the second training data set is (2423) samples 

with class samples ranging from 280 to 494.


However, ART-II is trained twice, once using 

the control parameters (α=0.02, β=0.1 and 

ρ=0.96) and another using the control parameters 

(α=0.02, β=0.1 and ρ=0.96). Increasing the 

vigilance parameters (ρ) will change the 

Fig. (4): Classification results, A- Maximum Likelihood, 

B- Minimum Distance, C- ART-II ρ = 0.96, D- ART-II ρ = 0.92 

These results show that the majority of the 

differences between the four classification 

results are manifested in the classes of less dense 

vegetation, spars vegetation, wet soil and dry 

soil. This can be realized by comparing the four 

Table (3): Confusion matrices of the individual classifiers 

A: Maximum likelihood 

behaviors of ART-II and higher number of nodes 

in the stake will be generated. 

4.1 Results of the Four Individual Classifiers 

Figure (4) shows the results of the four 

classifiers when applied separately. 

images for the colors yellow, cyan, magenta and 

brown. The confusion matrices of the four 

classifiers using the second set of the training 

data are shown in table (3). 

Residential Water Dense V. L. dense V. Sparse V. Wet soil Dry soil 

Residential 429 0 0 0 7 1 2 

Water 0 280 0 0 0 0 0 

Dense V. 0 0 276 6 0 0 0 

L. dense V. 0 0 6 465 19 2 0 

Sparse V. 0 0 1 12 310 24 5 

Wet soil 2 0 0 0 3 261 18 

Dry soil 0 0 0 0 0 14 278 

062


062 

B: Minimum distance 


Residential 408 0 0 2 13 9 7 

Water 0 280 0 0 0 0 0 

Dense V. 0 0 256 16 10 0 0 

L. dense V. 0 0 2 461 28 2 1 

Sparse V. 8 0 0 8 296 40 0 

Wet soil 3 0 0 2 6 260 13 

Dry soil 0 0 0 0 1 28 263 

The diagonal elements represent the number 

of pixels that are correctly classified. The offdiagonal 

elements in the row of the class 

represent the number of pixels that are 

incorrectly classified to other classes, known as 

omission error. The off-diagonal elements in the 

column of the class represent pixels that are 

falsely classified to the current class, known as 

commission error. 

The accuracy ranking map is derived from 

the Mapping Accuracy (MA) of the classes. First 

the Mapping Accuracy of the class is calculated 

using equation (8). The derived accuracy ranking 

map is shown in table (4). For each class the 

highest accuracy provided by one of the four 

C: ART-II with ρ=0.96 


Residential 428 0 0 0 3 5 3 

Water 0 280 0 0 0 0 0 

Dense V. 0 0 279 3 0 0 0 

L. dense V. 0 0 3 428 63 0 0 

Sparse V. 1 0 0 59 275 16 1 

Wet soil 0 0 0 0 10 245 29 

Dry soil 0 0 0 0 0 8 284 

D: ART-II with ρ=0.92 


Residential 427 0 0 0 2 7 3 

Water 0 280 0 0 0 0 0 

Dense V. 0 0 272 8 2 0 0 

L. dense V. 1 0 1 419 73 0 0 

Sparse V. 0 0 0 90 231 28 3 

Wet soil 1 0 0 0 1 250 32 

Dry soil 0 0 0 0 0 20 272 

classifiers is shown in bolt font. According to 

this table, class 2 which represents the water 

surface of Duhok dam has a rank of (1) for all 

classifiers. This means that all classifiers have 

performed equally. This can be attributed to the 

homogeneity of water surface. A part from class 

2, maximum likelihood classifier shows the best 

performance, rank (1) for four classes and ART- 

II with (ρ = 0.96) shows the best performance 

rank (1) for two classes However, when talking 

on the pixel level, the performance of other 

classifiers (minimum distance and ART-II with 

ρ = 0.92) should not be underestimated during 

the integration operation. 

Table (4): The accuracy-ranking map of the four classifiers 

Class No./Color MLC MDC ART-II ρ = 0.96 ART-II ρ = 0.92 

1/Red 97.05% (2) 90.66% (4) 97.27% (1) 96.82% (3) 

2/Blue 100.0% (1) 100.0% (1) 100.0% (1) 100.0% (1) 

3/Green 95.50% (2) 90.14% (4) 97.90% (1) 96.11% (3) 

4/Yellow 90.82% (1) 88.13% (2) 76.97% (3) 70.77% (4) 

5/Cyan 81.36% (1) 72.19% (2) 63.80% (3) 53.72% (4) 

6/Magenta 80.30% (1) 71.62% (4) 78.27% (2) 73.74%0 (3) 

7/Brown 87.69% (1) 84.02% (4) 87.38% (2) 82.42% (3) 

Average 90.38% 85.25% 85.94% 81.94%


4.2 Results of Applying the Proposed MCS 

The proposed system of MCS is applied to 

the same multi-spectral image using three 

methods of integration, local Ranking (LR), 

method developed in this study, and two of 

previous methods, local accuracy (LA) and 

majority voting methods. For LA 

implementation, several values of K were tested 

and the value of (12) was found to provide the 

best results. For MV implementation, maximum 

voting of (2 out of 4) was taken for the decision 

making. However, for the cases when the four 

individual classifiers produce four different 

outputs, the decision is made arbitrarily. The 

classified images are shown in figure (5). 

Fig. (5): The results of the proposed MCS Using LR, LA and MV methods of integration 

The distribution of all classes in all three 

classified images show more homogeneity than 

in any of the individual classifiers which gives 

the sense of better performance of MCS with all 

three methods of integration. The increase in the 

performance of the developed MCS for the 

seven classes compared to the highest class 

accuracy provided by any of the individual 

classifiers was (1.59%, 0.0%, 0.7%, 5.14%, 

13.21%, 4.67%, 2.02%) respectively. While the 

increase in the average accuracy compared to the 

highest average accuracy provided by maximum 

likelihood classifier was 4.30%. This increase 

correspond to an area of (10.15) km 2 out of total 

area of (236 km 2 ), taking into account the image 

size (512 by 512) pixels and each pixel 

representing (900) m 2 . The execution time of the 

system for six multi-spectral bands of size 512 

by 512 , using P4 computer with 1.75 MHZ and 

Visual C++ programming language (version 

6.0), is shown in table (5). The total time is 

around 40 sec. The training time includes only 

the time required to train two (ART-II), which 

was around 2 minutes. Where as maximum 

likelihood and minimum distance classifiers do 

not need training. 

Table (5): The execution time of MCS 

classifiers 

Classifier Time (sec) 

Minimum distance 3 

Maximum likelihood 15 

ART-II (ρ = 0.96) 10 

ART-II (ρ = 0.92) 8 

Accuracy Map + LR method 4 

sum 40 

To compare the accuracy performance 

provided by the three methods of integration are 

shown in table (6). 

062


022 

Table (6): The class mapping accuracy of the proposed MCS 

Using LR, LA and MV methods of integration 

Class No. MCS by LR MCS by 

LA 

MCS by MV 

1 98.86% 96.68% 98.41% 

2 100% 100% 100% 

3 98.60% 99.29% 98.58% 

4 95.96% 90.11% 89.65% 

5 94.57% 77.18% 76.22% 

6 84.97% 87.29% 85.80% 

7 89.71% 90.23% 92.39% 

Average l 94.68% 91.54% 91.57% 

The average accuracy provided by the 

developed method (LR) is higher than that 

provided by (LA) and (MV). The improvement 

reached (3.14%) and (3.11%) over LA and MV 

respectively. These improvements correspond to 

areas of (7.4) km2 and (7.34) km2. In terms of 

class mapping accuracy, except class (2) for 

which all methods provided 100%, the 

performances of the three methods of integration 

are as follow: LR method provided highest 

accuracy for classes (1, 4 and 5). LA method 

provided highest accuracy for classes (3 and 6). 

MV method provided highest accuracy only for 

class (7). These results indicate superiority of 

LR method over LA and MV methods. 

5. CONCLUTIONS 

This study has shown that the combination of 

artificial neural network and statistical methods 

is an efficient method to improve the accuracy of 

the classification. Among the individual 

classifiers maximum likelihood produced 

highest average accuracy. However, in terms of 

class level, both maximum likelihood and ART- 

II with (ρ = 0.96) produced the best results. The 

proposed multiple classifier system with all three 

methods of integration performed better than the 

individual classifiers in terms of average and 

class mapping accuracy. In terms of average 

accuracy, the proposed system with the 

developed local ranking (LR) method of 

integration, performed better than the system 

with (LA) and (MV) methods. However, in 

terms of individual classes, the developed 

method (LR) showed highest mapping accuracy 

for three classes while (LA) showed highest 

mapping accuracy for two classes and (MV) 

showed highest mapping accuracy for only one 

class. This result urges the attention towards the 

development of new approach of multiple 

classifier systems that uses two levels of 

integrations, one for integrating the outputs of 

member classifiers and another for integrating 

the outputs of integration methods. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

This work was supported by the University of 

Duhok as a part of the scientific research plan of 

Physics Department for the year 2009/2010 

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020 

ةتخوث 

ًيترىشةم ايتزاظاظ ؛ةىاكَيئ ًَييتزاظاظ زاوض ذ ةيتاَكَيب وك ٌسكَيض ةتاٍ ىوى َىي ىيةسف َىكةمةتطيض ادَيييلوكةظ َىظ د 

ب ) ART-II( 

ٌاضائ اييشزةل َىزوج ذ زايتضةٍ ًَيزوت ذ ىتاَكَيث ًَييتزاظاظ وود و ىتاسيود ًيترنيك ايتزاظاظ و ظىةض 

ةتاٍ و ىتفةكزةد ًَييتزاظاظ اىسكموك ؤب ٌاىاد ةتاٍ ىوى اكةكَيز . (�) َىيضستةم َىكلوكفةٍ 

ذ زوج و ةزوج ًَيياَب وود 

ل ٌاييئزاكب ةييتاٍ ًَييتزاظاظ ذ َىكةيتزاظاظ زةٍ ؤب ٌسكصَيز ةيتاٍ ًتزاظاظ َىكَيز َىظ ب 

. ىيوخفاى اىسكصَيز ب ٌسكظاى 

ًتزامذةٍ ةتيٍ َىد ًيترشاب ،ٌووب ظةٍ كةو ًتزاظاظ وود زةطةئ . ايتزاظاظ تَيي ىكَيجضةد ًَيىادَيث ذ وانجةئ ًيترشاب فيود 

تَيي ) LANDSAT 7( 

تسكضةد اظيةٍ ًَيطىةبةش ًَييَيو زةطل ٌاييئزاكب ةتاٍ ةمةتطيض ظةئ 

. اَب ًيترشاب فيود ل 

،ةىةظةئ ىذ وةئ وك ىدزةئ زةطل ًَيزوج تفةح ايتزاظاظ ؤب َىقايرع اىاتضدزوك انَيزةٍ ل َىكوٍد َىسَيذاب ؤبيتسط ةييتاٍ 

. كشٍ اخائ و زةت اخائ ،هَيك اىدىاض ًَيَج ،ىدىةظاى اىدىاض ينَج ،ىرت اىدىاض ينَج ،دزةئ زةض اظائ ،َىىدىاوةح ًَيَج 

ايشاب ذ امانجةئزةد اياسكَيت ايشاب و ايتزاظاظ ايشاب ذ َىكةيتزاظاظ زةٍ ؤب ٌاييئ ةظضةدب شاب ًَيمانجةئزةد ىوى َىمةتطيض ىظ 

ظيودل ايتزاظاظ تفةح زةٍ ؤب ) 3503% 

, 55.0% 

, 92539 % , .595% 

, 050% 

, 050% 

, 95.1% 

( 

َىيشاب ارَيز ايتزاظاظ 

ًَييتزاظاظ ًَيمانجةئزةد ذ . وانجةئ ًيترشاب ذ ) 4.30% ( َىيشاب ارَيز َىيشاب اياسكيت َىتضائ زةض ل اضةو زةٍ . ٌووب كَيئ 

2 

لةةطد ٌسكدزةوازةةب ةتاٍ ةكَيز ظةئ .) هك10.14( 

َىزةبَيز زةبمازةب ةتيظةكد ةيٍةدَيش ظةئ . تنفةكتضةد ةتاٍ ةىاكَيئ 

اةي َىيترةشاب اةياسكَيت ادةَييدزوازةب َىةظد . زايضاى تَيي ٌادطىةد ًيترشاب و وانجةئ ًيترشاب اىسكموك ًَيكَيز وودزةٍ 

) 91.54% ( 

ىزةطل ىسكزايد ًَيوةئ ًظةك ًَيكَيز وودزةٍ َلىةب ،تفةكتضةد ىوى اكَيز ؤب 

) 94.68% ( 

ىتفةكتضةد 

3 و ) هك7.4( 

اىووبةدَيش َىزةطةئ ةتيب وك ) 3.11% ( و ) 3.15% ( ارَيز اىووبةدَيش وكىائ ،اىووب تفةك تضةد ) 91.57% ( 

ادةىةبصَيز اةكَيز ب اةيتزاظاظ َىض زةض ل تفةكزةض ىوى اكَيز ادوج ادوج ًَييتزاظاظ ايشاب ذ اضةو زةٍ 

3 .) هك7.34( 

ؤب ٌووبظةٍ كةو كَيز َىض زةٍ َلىةب . َىيتزاظاظ كَيئ ؤب َىىادطىةد 

اكَيز و ايتزاظاظ وود ؤب ىيوخفاى ايترشاب و ىيوخفاى 

. 

ىيام ايتزاظاظ


, 

بذ ولا ةذعثكترا دتذ 

نعذذت تتخ نعذذتمعو 

: 

ART-II 


ذه ص تذ يذ تا نذ عبذأ ذي ك ذدت دعتذ ف نصذ م ظا ثتذحت إذثحلا ااذه نمضتي 

ذذ عأتلا 

نعم ذذلا بذذم يذذلكبملا ةعحذذ دلا صأحذذتلا نذذ نع تذذ و 

ذف . ةذعتثملا ذف لا ةوي ط تعمح ص ت ملا هاه صك خ ل صأتل ة ي ك ةوي ط ظا ثتحت مف ذت . (�) 

, 

ذذم را ةلأصذذحملا دتذذ 

ةتبطخلا ل صدمل 

ص تذ ملا هاذلل ةك ختحملا ةق لا قفو دعت تلا ف ةتخا لا فصتصرا ن دتص لأل ص ت ملا عف ف متي ةوي طلا هاه 

مذفو . ةذق لا معذق ذلت بك لصذ ل صدتلا 

ا ذدلا عصتذح تبك معذتقا ذف بذه ةتي مل 7- 

ةطذذحبت ةذذععاتا قطصذذت 

, ةذذ عثك ةذذععاتا قطصذذت 

حك متي دت ن ثكر ف لا يوصحف لصلأ فو . فصتصرا نع ةعلوا صعطد ن 

صح ملا عصتط لا مولص ةطوتت فصعطرا ة دت ةتبص تع نص تلا قعحطف 

, ةعثطذذح هصذذع 

, ةعتأذذح قطصذذت 

: 

ذذه ذذ لا صذذطضلا نذذ ابذذما يحذذح دعتذذ تل 

نصذذذ تتل دعتذذذ تلا ةذذذق نذذذحثف نذذذع نسصذذذتتلا ذذذلظاو . ةذذذح صي ةذذذ فو , ةذذذحطت ةذذذ ف , ةذذذفصثألا ةذذذتعتق ةذذذععاتا قطصذذذت 

, ةذذذفصثألا 

ذحم تذمصك فصتذصرا ةذق إعلأ نمف . ةق لا ل د و فصتصرا ةق إحلأ ن ة تملا ص ت ملا ن لك نع ظ ثتحملا 

ذذذتع صذذذ ا . 

لابذذذتلا ذذذتع ةدحذذذحلا 

فصتذذذصلأل ) 3.03% 

, 5..7% 

, 92.39 % , ..95% 

, 0.7% 

, 0.0% 

, 9..1%( 

ة صذييلا هاذهو . ة ذ تملا ص تذ ملا نسصذتم نعذ نذ ةذمعتم لذضفا نذع 

(4.30%) 

3 

نذ نعتتم ذ صذلتمتصو مذف لذ صأتتل ةم ثتذحملا ةذعتثملا ذف لا ةذوي ط ة صذ ك تصذحتخلإ . مذك ) 90.9. ( 

ةذوي طلا بذ ف نذع ةمتصوملا لظاو . ةعحتغرا تيب ت ل صأتلا ةوي طو ةعتثملا ةق لص ل صأتلا ةوي ط 

ذتوي طل ةذق لا ل ذد عصذك صذمتع ةم ثتذحملا ةذوي طتل 

ذتلاو 

(3.11%) 

و 

(3.14%) 

صهتا ذو ة صيي يا . 

(94.68%) 

لابتلا 

تع 

نذذذحثتلا 

نذحثتلا ةحذحم تذمصك ةذق لا ل ذد بتذح 

صهتا ذو ةلأصذح ل صذدف 

هو ةو صحلا قسا طلا 

ةذق لا ل ذد عصذك ذت , ةذق لا ل ذد إذعلأ نذ ةم ثتذحملا 

(91.57%) 

3 

ةذوي طتل بذ تلا عصذأف ذ ت لأذت فصتذصرا ةذق إذعلأ نذ صذ ا . مذك 

صذمتع 

, 

و 

(91.54%) 

3 

(7.34) و مذك 

ذلأاو دتذ ةذعحتغرا تيبذ ف ةذوي طلو نع ت ةعتثملا ةق لا ةوي طل و فصتصا ةملاث 

ةعحتغرا تيب فو ةعتثملا ةف لا 

(7.4) 

صهتا ذو ةلأصذح ل صذدف 

) ةعتثملا ف لا( 

ةم ثتحملا 

. 

لأاو دت ل ةملاثلا قسا طلا ة ص ك وصحف 

022


274 

EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF PASCHEN CURVE AND FIRST 

TOWNSEND COEFFICIENT OF NITROGEN PLASMA DISCHARGE 

SABAH IBRAHIM WAIS 

Dept. of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Duhok, Kurdistan Region, Iraq 

(Received: February 27, 2011; Accepted for publication: August 10, 2011) 

ABSTRACT 

In the present work, an experimental study is performed to determine the first Townsend coefficient and Paschen 

curve for N2 gas using a parallel plate geometrical configuration. Paschen curve coefficients are derived by 

exponential fitting of first Townsend coefficients data of plasma discharge. The experimental data are acquired at 

different working pressure and various electrode gap separations. Furthermore, the amplification process of the gas 

gain in a uniform electric field is realized. 

KEYWORDS: Paschen Curve, Townsend Coefficients, Plasma discharge, Nitrogen gas 

T 

INTRODUCTION 

he average distance of an electron travels 

between ionizing collision is called the 

mean free path � for ionization, its inverse, the 

number of ionization collision per centimeter, is 

called the first Townsend coefficient α. This is a 

fundamental parameter, which determines the 

gas gain [Lieberman M. A., and Lichtenberg A. 

J. (2005)]. 

If No is the number of primary electrons in a 

uniform electric field, the number of electrons 

after distance d, under avalanche conditions, is 

given by [Sharma A. and Sauli F. (1993)]: 

N � NO 

exp( �d) 

………………. (1) 

In presence of a continuous source of 

ionization, the current is given by: 

I � IO 

exp( �d) 

………………. (2) 

where Io is the current produced by No 

primary electrons produced per unit time. The 

multiplication factor or gas gain G is obtained 

over a distance d by: 

G � 

N 

N 

O 

� 

I 

I 

O 

� exp( �d) 

………………. (3) 

The first Townsend coefficient α depends 

upon many parameters, the main ones being 

nature of the gas, electric field and pressure 

[Sharma A. and Sauli F. (1993), Burm K. T. 

(2007)]. 

The Townsend coefficient α is increased with 

electric field E. It depends on the pressure P. It 

can 

be demonstrated that in a wide range of E and P 

the ratio α/P is a unique function of E/P. The 

first Townsend coefficient describes the success 

rate for accelerated electrons to collide and 

ionize the background gas. The created positive 

ions may collide with the cathode creating new 

electrons, so-called secondary electrons, out of 

the electrode. The probability of a successful 

event is described with the second Townsend 

coefficient γ. As might be expected from the 

analogy of cross-sections, the first Townsend 

coefficient α is a function of pressure and 

accelerating field. The coefficient α is expected 

to behave conform [Burm K. T. (2007)]: 

const Eion 

� � exp( � ) 

� E� 

e 

e 

………………. (4) 

where λe is the mean free path for electron 

scattering off neutrals, Eλe is the energy gain in 

the electric field, and Eion is the energy needed to 

ionize the atoms. Note that the mean free path 

for electron scattering is inversely related with 

pressure. Further, voltage V equals the electric 

field multiply by the gap distance d. This yield 

� � 

Bpd 

Ap exp( � ) 

V 

………………. (5) 

where A and B are called Paschen coefficients 

and found to be roughly constant over a range of 

voltages and pressures for any given gas. 

Combining this result with the breakdown 

condition yields [Burm K. T. (2007)]: 

V breakdown 

Bpd 

� 

1 

ln( Apd ) � ln(ln( 1� 

)) 

� 

………. (6)


This useful relation suggests that for a given 

gas the voltage at which the breakdown occurs 

depends on the product of pressure and electrode 

separation (that is, Pd). It is generally known as 

Paschen’s law and a curve drawn from this 

equation between Pd and Vbreakdown is referred to 

as Paschen curve. The Paschen curve has a 

minimum below which breakdown cannot occur. 

The Paschen curve is a function of the gas and 

weakly of the electrode material [Shuping Z., 

Bruyndonckx P., Goldberg M. and Tavernier S. 

(1994)]. 

Many efforts have been done for the 

determination of α and a lot of current-voltage 

(I-V) characteristics data exist for a wide variety 

of gases and mixtures using different 

geometrical configuration of the electrodes. The 

data that exist for high field have been obtained 

with chambers having non-uniform electric field 

[Sharma A. and Sauli F. (1993), Burm K. T. 

(2007)]. 

The present work is devoted to determine 

Paschen coefficients A and B and first 

Townsend α of a plasma discharge in pure 

nitrogen for different parallel plate gap 

separation d and small data spacing. In order to 

satisfy this requirement through a suitable 

design, fast automatic data acquisition system is 

built to acquire the experimental data with high 

current-voltage sampling density. To access the 

values of α/P experimentally, and avoid having 

excessively high working voltage, the data have 

been acquired at low electric field and high 

Fig. (1): Schematic diagram of the measurement system. 

working pressure. A Matlab program was 

performed for fitting the acquired data. 

EXPERIMENT SET-UP AND 

TECHNIQUE 

The experimental setup is shown in figure 

(1). It consists of 50 cm long, 4 cm diameter 

Pyrex glass tube fitted with a 3.2 cm fixed planer 

circular electrode on both sides (Parallel plate 

geometry). The electrode fittings are capable of 

withstanding up to three atmospheric pressures 

inside the tube. The tube has one gas in and one 

gas out ports. The high tension ac voltage supply 

consists of a 110/33000 volts transformer of the 

type used in mains grid utilities. This HT 

transformer is activated from the mains 220 

voltage line through a 220/110 transformer. This 

later transformer also serves as an isolation 

transformer which eliminates double earthing 

problems between the HT circuit and the 

computer. The discharge polarity can be 

switched by simply reversing the direction of the 

HT diode connected in series between the HT 

transformer output and the discharge tube. This 

setup allows the voltage to sweep between zero 

and the transformer peak output voltage during 

each cycle lasting 1/50 sec. Such relatively fast 

measurements result in less external and internal 

effects. 

275


The voltage sampling is carried out through 

100:1 R1 and R2 resistors potential divider 

connected across the HT transformer primary. 

This divider ensures that the maximum value of 

the voltage sample used for data acquisition not 

to exceed one volt. Current sampling is made by 

a series resistor R connected to the fixed 

electrode. Here again, the value of the resistor is 

chosen such that the peak voltage across this 

resistor is always less than one volt. These one 

volt limits are dictated by the fact that computer 

sound card used as our data acquisition analog to 

digital converter device has a maximum input 

voltage rating of one volt. The voltage and 

current data acquired by the sound card through 

the use of Matlab data acquisition tool box are 

calibrated using ordinary digital voltmeter and 

ammeter readings prior to operation. Calibration 

parameters are invoked into the Matlab software 

written for the purposes of both data acquisition 

and data presentation. The data sampling rate 

used is 8000 Hz. This means that over the entire 

voltage sweep between 0 and 60 kV, at 50 Hz, 

160 data points are acquired. This gives an 

average voltage data point’s separation of about 

375 volts. Such relatively small data spacing 

enabled us to perform more reliable fits to the 

data. The tube is flushed with nitrogen gas 

99.9% purity for five minutes before each run. 

Acquired data for each run are directly saved by 

the program on hard disc for further analysis. 

All measurements are made at room 

temperature (T=24-27◦C) and humidity of about 

(50-55 %) with different nitrogen pressure 

276 


Many investigations have been published to 

report the influence of several parameters such 

as pressure, temperature, type of electrode and 

nature of gas on the behavior of discharge (I-V) 

characteristic and their shifting in determination 

the Paschen curve and the first Townsend 

coefficient [Sharma A. and Sauli F. (1993)]. 

In present work, the experimental data of the 

first Townsend coefficient α is calculated using 

equation (2). The current of the discharge is 

measured with a meter having a sensitivity of the 

order 10 -12 A. One plate is kept at ground 

potential while the amplification field is 

provided by HV on another Plate. The drift field 

is kept constant during the measurements. The 

discharge current is measured and after 

subtraction of the leakage current (current before 

breakdown) the value of current at no gain Io is 

determined. As the applied voltage goes up, one 

gets into the multiplication region, the ratio of 

the two current is the absolute gain (equation 3). 

As well known breakdown appears at a certain 

amount of charge, the breakdown voltage is 

decreased, the current is measured again at the 

same field for normalization and the 

measurement is continued. With the geometry 

described above, the electric field intensity E 

was calculated as a function of the distance 

between the plate electrodes as E (d) =V/d 

[Raizer Y. P. (1991)]. 

The electric field in the chamber is maximal 

on the surface of the cathode and decreases 

rapidly, as d-1 toward the anode. Due to the 

electric field between the electrodes, the charges 

quickly gain energy between collisions. If the 

total energy of an electron or an ion becomes 

higher than the ionization potential of the gas 

atoms, it can ionize an atom, thus creating 

another charge pair. 

The experimental data are exposed by means 

of the ionization coefficient per the working 

pressure P, (α/P), as a function of reduced 

electric field, (E/P), for a fixed value of applied 

voltage V between the electrodes. Accordingly, 

the influence of the working pressure expresses 

the effect of (α/P) versus (E/P) variation in 

different gap separation as shown in figure (2). 

The variation of the first Townsend coefficient α 

is attributed to the ion mean free path length λ in 

the ionization region and drift region which in 

turn have a significant consideration of the 

working pressure and electrode gap separation 

[Drakoulakos D. G. (1997)].


/P (cm -1 Torr -1 ) 

/P (cm -1 Torr -1 ) 

0.0012 

0.001 

0.0008 

0.0006 

0.0004 

0.0002 

0 

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 

E/P (V cm -1 Torr -1 ) 

P=760 Torr 

d= 5 cm 

d= 10 cm 

d= 15 cm 

d= 20 cm 

d= 25 cm 

d= 30 cm 

d= 35 cm 

d= 40 cm 

Fig. (2): Measured (α/P) versus (E/P) curves for various working pressure P and different 

electrode gap separation d. 

Paschen curve coefficients A and B are 

derived from the exponential fitting of equation 

(5) by means of the experimental data of α. 

Figure (3) shows the behavior of the Paschen 

coefficients with electrode gap separation at 

different gas pressures. As the pressure goes up, 

A and B increase, thus producing a lower 

ionization rate close the cathode. Consequently, 

the current generated by the discharge decreased 

[Shuping Z., Bruyndonckx P., Goldberg M. and 

Tavernier S. (1994),]. It is found that the 

calculated Paschen coefficients, A and B, are 

good first estimates for the experimentally 

A (cm -1 Torr -1 ) 

0.0007 

0.0006 

0.0005 

0.0004 

0.0003 

0.0002 

0.0001 

0 

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 

0.0018 

0.0016 

0.0014 

0.0012 

0.001 

0.0008 

0.0006 

0.0004 

0.0002 

E/P (V cm -1 Torr -1 ) 

P1=760 Torr 

P2=1140 Torr 

P3=1520 Torr 

P4=1900 Torr 

P=1520 Torr 

d= 5 cm 

d=10 cm 

d=15 cm 

d=20 cm 

d=25 cm 

d=30 cm 

d=35 cm 

d=40 cm 

0 

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 

Electrodes Seperation d (cm) 

0 

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 

obtained Paschen coefficients as found in 

literature. 

An important consideration while choosing 

filling gas for a proportional chamber is the 

maximum attainable gain or multiplication 

factor. In the uniform field, the Townsend 

coefficient becomes a function of electrode gap 

separation. In that case the multiplication factor 

for an electron that drifts from point d1 to d2 can 

be calculated from [Burm K. T. A. L. (2007)]: 

� � 

� �� 

� 

�� 

�� 

2 d 

G exp �( 

x) 

dx 

d1 

………………. (7) 

Fig. (3): Paschen curve coefficients A and B versus electrode gap separation d at various working pressure P. 

/P(V cm -1 Torr -1 ) 

B (V cm -1 Torr -1 ) 

/P (cm -1 Torr -1 ) 

0.0009 

0.0008 

0.0007 

0.0006 

0.0005 

0.0004 

0.0003 

0.0002 

0.0001 

0.0006 

0.0005 

0.0004 

0.0003 

0.0002 

0.0001 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

E/P (V cm -1 Torr -1 ) 

0 

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 

E/P (V cm -1 Torr -1 ) 

P1=760 Torr 

P2=1140 Torr 

P3=1520 Torr 

P=1140 Torr 

d= 5 cm 

d= 10 cm 

d= 15 cm 

d= 20 cm 

d=25 cm 

d=30 cm 

d= 35 cm 

d=40 cm 

P=1900 Torr 

d=5 cm 

d=10 cm 

d=15 cm 

d=20 cm 

d=25 cm 

d=30 cm 

d=35 cm 

d=40 cm 

P4=1900 Torr 

0 

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 

Electrodes Seperation d (cm) 

277

Gain (%) 

Gain (%) 


Hence if it desires to compute the 

multiplication factor, the spatial profile of the 

first Townsend coefficient should be known. 

Although it is quite challenging to determine this 

profile analytically, it has been shown that the 

reduced Townsend coefficient has a dependence 

on the reduced electric field intensity (equation 

5). The multiplication factor (gain) that achieved 

in the present work for the N2 chamber and 

parallel plate geometry is expressed in figure (4). 

The experimental results showed a maximum 

gain is achieved at the short electrode gap 

160 

120 

80 

40 

278 

P=760 Torr 

0 

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 

160 

120 

80 

40 

0 

d= 10 cm 

d= 20 cm 

d= 30 cm 

d= 40 cm 

P=1520 Torr 

Applied Voltage (V) 

d=10 cm 

d=20 cm 

d=30 cm 

d=40 cm 

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 


separation and high pressure. However it is 

desired to achieve higher gain before the 

breakdown that is before the onset of multiple 

avalanches caused by a single primary 

avalanche. When the voltage is raised to high 

values to increase the gain, the free electrons can 

get enough energy to cause multiple avalanches. 

Therefore one must ensure that the active 

volume gets continuously depleted of these low 

energy free electrons [Rossnagel S. M., Guomo J. 

J., Westwood W. D. (1990)]. 

Fig. (4): Gain in N2 chamber operated at different working pressure and various electrodes gap separations. 

The large number of ions created during the 

avalanche drifts much slower than the electrons 

and therefore takes longer to reach the cathode. 

When these heavy positive charges strike the 

cathode wall, they can release more ions from 

the cathode material into the gas. The efficiency 

γ of this process is generally less than 10%. At 

moderate voltages, γ is not high enough to make 

significant increase in charge population 

[Drakoulakos D. G. (1997) and Ahmed S. N. 

(2007)]. A best fitting curve and high R2 value 

in this study is obtained at γ=0.025 which is 

chosen arbitrary. However at higher voltages the 

secondary ion emission probability increases, 

deteriorating the linearity of the output pulse 

with applied voltage. Further voltage increase 

Gain (%) 

Gain (%) 

160 

120 

80 

40 

P=1140 Torr 

d=10 cm 

d=20 cm 

d=30 cm 

d=40 cm 

0 

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 

160 

140 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

P=1900 Torr 

d=10 cm 

d=20 cm 

d=30 cm 

d=40 cm 


0 

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 


may start discharge in the gas. At this point the 

current goes to very high values and is limited 

only by the external circuitry, that is, the height 

of the pulse becomes independent of the initial 

number of electron ion pairs. To understand the 

breakdown quantitatively, equation (6) is used 

with determined coefficients A, B and α to 

express the Paschen curve (Vbreakdown versus 

Pd) as shown in figure (5).


Fig. (5): Paschen curve for N2 gas enclosed between pin-to-plane electrodes separated by distance d. The gas 

pressure is P and the second Townsend coefficient has been arbitrarily chosen to be 0.025. 

CONCLUSION 

The present work reflects the well-known 

fact that the function α /P = f (E/P) is saturated at 

a high reduced electric field. At a high reduced 

electric field, where drifting electrons have large 

energy and scatter mostly in the forward 

direction, the first Townsend coefficient should 

almost entirely depend on the electron mean free 

path. It is experimentally demonstrated that gas 

gain in parallel plate chamber at different 

working pressure becomes higher at the short 

electrode gap separations of the same applied 

voltage. It is found that the calculated Paschen 

coefficients, A and B, are good first estimates 

for the experimentally obtained Paschen 

coefficients as found in literature. The 

parameters A and B are mainly determined by 

fitting the experimental data of the first 

Townsend coefficient. 

REFERENCES 

� Ahmed S. N. (2007). Physics and Engineering of 

Radiation Detection. (Elsevier: UK). 

� Burm K. T. A. L. (2007), Calculation of the Townsend 

Discharge Coefficients and the Paschen Curve 

Coefficients. Contrib, Plasma Phys, 47, 177–182. 

� Drakoulakos D. G. (1997), The Townsend Coefficient 

and Optimization of the Gas Gain in MDT-Muon 

Chambers, Atlas Internal Note, No-140. 1-21. 

� Lieberman M. A., and Lichtenberg A. J. (2005), 

Principles of Plasma Discharge and Material 

Processing, Second Edition, (New Jersey: Wiley). 

� Raizer Y. P. (1991), Gas Discharge Physics, (Springer- 

Verlag: Germany). 

� Rossnagel S. M., Guomo J. J., Westwood W. D. (1990), 

Handbook of Plasma Processing Technology, (New 

Jersey: Noyes). 

� Sharma A. and Sauli F. (1993), First Townsend 

Coefficient Measured in Argon based Mixture at 

High Field, Cern-PPE/93-50. 

� Shuping Z., Bruyndonckx P., Goldberg M. and Tavernier 

S. (1994), A measurement of the First Townsend 

Coefficient as a Function of the Electric Field for a 

TMAE-He Mixture, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON 

NUCLEAR SCIENCE. 41, 2671. 

279


280 

ازاط امزلاث انركلاتةب وب ىكَيئ َىي نوسنوات ىكلوكفةهو َىنشاث نَيفرَيك انانيهرةد وب ىكيتكارث اكةندناوخ 

ىنيجوترَين 

وب ىكَيئ َىي نوسنوات ىكلوكفةهو 

َىنشاث نَيفرَيك انانيهرةد وب نرك ةتاه ىكيتكارث اكةندناوخ َىنيلوكةظ َىظ ل 

نَيي ىكيتكارث نَيتاد ايناوتب تنيد ةنتاه َىنشاث نَيفرَيك 

ةتخوث 

. بيرةتفةه نَيرةسموج انانيئراكب ىنيجوترَين ازاط امزلاث 

اسيسورث َىدنه ىةرارةس . زاويج نَييتاريدو وتسيبةلاث نيدنةج وب نترطرةو ةنتاه اتاد . َىكَيئ نَيي ىنوسنوات َىكلوكفةه 

. ىتسخكَير ابةراك َىراوب انانيئراكب تنيد هنتاه ىانيئراكب ازاط نَيتفةكسةد 

نيجورتنلا زاغ امزلاب غيرفتل يلولاا نوسنوات لماعمو نشاب تاينحنم داجيلا ةيبيرجت ةسارد 

نيجورتينلا زاغ امزلاب غيرفتل 

نشاب تاينحنمو يلولاا نوسنوات لماعم داجيلا يبيرجت لمع زاجنا ةساردلا هذه يف مت 

ةيبيرجتلا تانايبلل ةيسوا ةمئلام للاخ نم نشاب تاينحنم داجيا مت 

طوغض دنع تبستكا لمعلا اذه يف ةيبيرجتلا تانايبلا 

انركنزةم 


. ةيزاوتم حاولا ةئيه ىلع باطقا مادختساب 

. يلولاا نوسنوات تلاماعمل يمزلابلا غيرفتلا نم ةصلختسملا 

مدختسملا زاغلا حبرل ميخضت ةيلمع نا , كلذ ىلا ةفاضلااب . ةيزاوتلا باطقلال ةفلتخم تافاسمو 

نيجورتنلا زاغل ةفلتخم 

. 

مظتنملا يئابرهكلا لاجملا يف دجوا دق


NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF GRAY-SCOTT 

MODEL BY A.D.M. AND F.D.M. 

SAAD A. MANAA and CHULLY M. R. 

Faculty of Science, University of Zakho, Kurdistan Region - Iraq 

(Received: March 7, 2011; Accepted for publication: September 20, 2011) 

ABSTRACT 

In this paper, Gray-Scott model has been solved numerically for finding an approximate solution by Adomain 

decomposition method and Finite difference method. Example showed that Adomain decomposition method is much 

faster and effective for this kind of problems than Finite difference method. 

M 

INTRODUCTION 

any physical, chemical and engineering 

problems mathematically can be 

modeled in the form of system of partial 

differential equations or system of ordinary 

differential equations. Finding the exact solution 

for the above problems which involve partial 

differential equations is difficult in some cases. 

Here we have to find the numerical solution of 

these problems using computers which came 

into existence. [8] 

In [7] a linear adaptive control strategy was 

applied to the Gray-Scott model in order to 

control the formation of patterns in a onedimensional 

domain, while an experimental 

application of linear modal feedback control for 

suppressing chaotic temporal fluctuation of 

spatiotemporal thermal pattern on a catalytic 

wafer was reported in [3]. 

MATHEMATICAL MODEL: 

A general class of nonlinear-diffusion system 

is in the form 

�u 

� d1�u 

� a1u 

� b1v 

� f ( u, 

v) 

� g1( 

x) 

�t 

�v 

� d2�v 

� a2u 

� b2v 

� f ( u, 

v) 

� g2 

( x) 

�t 

with homogenous Dirchlet or Neumann 

boundary condition on a bounded domain Ω , 

n≤3, with locally Lipschitz continuous boundary. 

It is well known that reaction and diffusion of 

chemical or biochemical species can produce a 

variety of spatial patterns. This class of reaction 

diffusion systems includes some significant 

pattern formation equations arising from the 

modeling of kinetics of chemical or biochemical 

reactions and from the biological pattern 

formation theory. 

In this group, the following four systems are 

typically important and serve as mathematical 

models in physical chemistry and in biology: 

a. Brusselator model: 

where a and b are positive constants. 

b. Gray-Scott model: 

where F and k are positive constants. [9] 

c. Glycolysis model: 

d. Schnackenberg model: 

[9] 

Then one obtains the following system of two 

nonlinearly coupled reaction-diffusion 

equations, 

�u 

2 

� d1 

�u 

� ( F � k) 

u � u v , t �0 

�t 

x �� 

�v 

2 

� d1 

�v 

� F( 

1� 

v) 

� u v , t �0 

�t 

x �� 

(1) 

Where the boundary condition 

And the initial condition 

�u 

�v 

� � 0 

�x 

�x 

. 

172


Where d 1 , d2, 

F and k 

constants [9]. 

are positive 

Most chemical reactions can present rich 

phenomena in vessels, such as chemical 

oscillations, periodic doubling, chemical waves, 

and chaos. Analysis of forced nonlinear 

oscillations plays an important role in 

understanding their dynamical phenomena of 

electronic generators, mechanical, chemical and 

biological systems. Even small external 

disturbances are likely to change behaviors of 

dynamical systems [6]. 

171 

Finite difference methods are found to be 

discrete technique, when in the domain of point 

interest is represented by a set of points or nodes 

and information between these points is 

commonly obtained using Taylor series 

expansions [4]. 

The finite difference Scheme, generally 

reduces a linear, nonlinear partial differential 

equations into system of linear , nonlinear 

equations and various methods were developed 

to find the numerical solution and acceleration 

the convergence [5]. 

FINITE DIFFERENCE APPROXIMATIONS [5] 

The grid spacing is uniform in every row: p�1� p � x � x �h 

), and it is uniform 

in every column: 1 

�u 

ui, 

j�1 

� ui, 

j 

� 

�t 

�t 

�v 

vi, 

j�1 

� vi, 

j 

� 

�t 

�t 

2 

� u ui�1, 

j � 2ui, 

j � u 

� 2 

2 

�x 

( �x) 

x x h and ( �1 tq��tq �k 

and ( tq�1�tq �k 

). 

i�1, 

j 

2 

� v vi�1, 

j � 2vi, 

j � vi�1, 

j 

� 2 

2 

�x 

( �x) 

Then the system ( 1 ) can be written as: 

ui, 

j�1 

� ui, 

j ui�1, 

j � 2ui, 

j � ui�1, 

j 

� d1 

� ( F � k) 

u 

2 

�t 

( �x) 

v 

u 

v 

i, 

j�1 

i, 

j�1 

i, 

j�1 

� v 

�t 

� u 

i, 

j 

i, 

j 

i, 

j 

� ( u 

d2�t 

� vi, 

j � [ v 2 i�1, 

j 

( �x) 

� 2vi, 

j � vi�1, 

j ] � �tF 

( 1� 

v 

d1�t 

r1 

� 

( �x) 

d2�t 

and r2 

� then 2 

( �x) 

Let 2 

u 

v 

u 

v 

u 

v 

i, 

j�1 

i, 

j�1 

i, 

j�1 

i, 

j�1 

i, 

j�1 

i, 

j�1 

� u 

� v 

� v 

i, 

j 

i, 

j 

� u 

i, 

j 

i, 

j 

) 

2 

i, 

j 

vi�1, 

j � 2vi, 

j � vi�1, 

j 

� d2 

� F( 

1� 

vi, 

j ) � ( u ) 

2 

( �x) 

d1�t 

� [ ui 

1, 

j 2ui, 

j ui 

1, 

j ] t( 

F k) 

u 

2 � � � � � � � 

( �x) 

� r [ u 

1 

� r [ v 

2 

� ru 

� r v 

i�1, 

j 

i�1, 

j 

1 i�1, 

j 

2 i�1, 

j 

� 2u 

� 2v 

i, 

j 

i, 

j 

� 2ru 

1 i, 

j 

� 2r 

v 

2 i, 

j 

� u 

� v 

� [ 1� 

2r 

� �t( 

F � k)] 

u 

1 

i�1, 

j 

i�1, 

j 

� ru 

� r v 

i, 

j 

� �tF 

�[ 

1� 

2r 

� �tF 

] v 

For j=1, 2, 3… and i=2, 3, 4,…. 

And by boundary conditions 

2 

i, 

j 

] � �t( 

F � k) 

u 

] � �tF 

( 1� 

v 

1 i�1, 

j 

2 i�1, 

j 

� r [ u 

1 

� r [ v 

2 

i, 

j 

i, 

j 

� �t( 

F � k) 

u 

� �tF 

� �tFv 

i�1, 

j 

i�1, 

j 

� u 

� v 

i�1, 

j 

i�1, 

j 

2 

i, 

j 

i, 

j 

i, 

j 

v 

) � �t( 

u 

v 

i, 

j 

i, 

j 

� �t( 

u 

) � �t( 

u 

� �t( 

u 

i, 

j 

i, 

j 

] � �t( 

u 

2 

i, 

j 

) 

2 

i, 

j 

� �t( 

u 

� �t( 

u 

] � �t( 

u 

) 

2 

i, 

j 

2 

i, 

j 

) 

2 

i, 

j 

) 

v 

v 

i, 

j 

) 

2 

i, 

j 

) 

) 

2 

i, 

j 

v 

2 

i, 

j 

i, 

j 

v 

i, 

j 

i, 

j 

v 

) 

v 

i, 

j 

v 

i, 

j 

p p 

v 

i, 

j 

i, 

j


�u 

ui, 

j � u 

� 

�x 

�x 

u � u 

i�1, 

j 

�u 

1, 

j 

i�1, 

j 

�u 

11, 

j 

i, 

j 

� u 

2, 

j 

i, 

j 

� u 

10, 

j 

i�1, 

j 

And 

�u 

ui�1, 

j � u 

� 

�x 

�x 

u � u 

And also for v 

�v 

vi, 

j � vi� 

� 

�x 

�x 

v � v 

i�1, 

j 

�v 

1, 

j 

i�1, 

j 

�v 

11, 

j 

i, 

j 

� v 

2, 

j 

And 

�v 

vi�1, 

j � v 

� 

�x 

�x 

v � v 

u 

v 

1, 

1 

1, 

1 

i, 

j 

� v 

10, 

j 

i, 

j 

1, 

j 

i, 

j 

� 0 

� 0 

� 0 

� 0 

By initial condition: 

� u � u � u � u 

� v 

2, 

1 

2, 

1 

� v 

3, 

1 

3, 

1 

� v 

4, 

1 

4, 

1 

� v 

5, 

1 

5, 

1 

We define the operator [1] 

� u 

� v 

6, 

1 

6, 

1 

� u 

� v 

7, 

1 

7, 

1 

� u 

� v 

8, 

1 

8, 

1 

� u 

� v 

9, 

1 

9, 

1 

� u 

� v 

10, 

1 

10, 

1 

� u 

� v 

11, 

1 

11, 

1 

� u ( x) 

0 

0 

� v ( x) 

ADOMAIN DECOMPOSITION METHOD 

L t 

� 

�1 

� � Lt 

� 

�t 

� 

system (1) can be written as: 

2 

a) Ltu � d1 

Lxxu 

� ( F � k) 

u � u v}…. 

(2) 

2 

b) v � d L v � F( 

1� 

v) 

� u v 

Lt 2 xx 

t 

2 

(.) dt and Lxx 2 

0 

� 

� then 

�x 

By applying the inverse of operator L t on a system (2) we get: 

�1 

�1 

�1 

2 

a) u( t, 

x) 

� u( 

0, 

x) 

� d1Lt 

( Lxxu) 

� ( F � k) 

Lt 

u � Lt 

( u v) 

�1 

�1 

�1 

2 

b) v( t, 

x) 

� v( 

0, 

x) 

� d2Lt 

( Lxxv) 

� FLt 

( 1� 

v) 

� Lt 

( u v) 

By initial conditions in system (1) then system (3) can be written as: 

�1 

�1 

�1 

2 

a) u( t, 

x) 

� u0( 

x) 

� d1Lt 

( Lxxu) 

� ( F � k) 

Lt 

u � Lt 

( u v) 

�1 

�1 

�1 

2 

b) v( t, 

x) 

� v0( 

x) 

� d2Lt 

( Lxxv) 

� FLt 

( 1� 

v) 

� Lt 

( u v) 

By using Adomian decomposition method: 

u ( t, 

x) 

u ( t, 

x) 

and � � 

}…. (3) 

}…. (4) 

v ( t, 

x) 

v ( t, 

x) 

� 

� � 

� 

n�0 

n 

� 

n�0 

� 

n 

�1 

�1 

�1 

a) �u 

n ( t, 

x) 

� u0 

( x) 

� d1Lt 

( Lxx� 

un 

) � ( F � k) 

Lt 

�un 

� Lt 

� An 

n�0 

n�0 

n�0 

n�0 

}…. (5) 

� 

� 

172


�1 

�1 

�1 

b) �v 

n( 

t, 

x) 

� v0( 

x) 

� d2Lt 

( Lxx� 

vn) 

� FLt 

( 1� 

�vn 

) � Lt 

� B 

173 

� 

n�0 

� 

n�0 

Where n A and B n are Adomian polynomials. 

But n A = 2 

B n because both non-linear terms are u v 

Where 

A 

n 

n n 1 d � i � 

� ( ) 

! 

�F 

�� 

u 

n 

i 

n d� 

� 

� i�0 

� 

��0 

[2] 

n n n 

1 d � i i � 

But here An � ( , ) 

! 

�F 

�� ui 

�� 

vi 

� 

� because non-linear term have two functions u ( t, 

x) 

n 

n d � i�0 

i�0 

� ��0 

and v ( t, 

x) 

then by equation (5 a): 

u0 

� u0( 

x) 

… (6a) 

�1 

�1 

�1 

uk 

�1 

� d1Lt 

( Lxxuk 

) � ( F � k) 

Lt 

uk 

� Lt 

Ak 

where k � 0 

And by equation (5 b): 

v0 

� v0( 

x) 

…(6b) 

�1 

�1 

�1 

vk�1 

� d2Lt 

( Lxxvk 

) � FLt 

( 1� 

vk 

) � Lt 

Bk 

where k � 0 

0 0 0 

1 d � i 

i � 

A0 

� F( 

u , v ) 

0 

i i 

0! 

d 

� �� 

� 

� 

� i�0 i�0 

� 

� F( 

u , v ) � u v 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2 

0 

0 

0 

2 

0 

2 

� ( u ( x)) 

v ( x) 

� A 

� u 

k � 0 

u � d L 

1 

� d L 

�1 

1 t 

1 

�u 

1 

( L 

0 

v 

�1 

1 t 

( L 

by equation 

� [ d L 

1 

� B 

6 

Let : U1 

� d L 

1 

0 

u 

0 

0 

0 

0 

u ) � ( F � k) 

L u 

u ) � ( F � k) 

L u 

� ( F � k) 

u 

u 

0 

0 

�1 

t 

2 

0 

0 

�1 

t 

� d L u t � ( F � k) 

u t � u v t 

xx 

xx 

xx 

xx 

xx 

0 

0 

� ( F � k) 

u 

0 

0 

2 

0 

��0 

�1 

t 

� u v ] t 

0 

� u 

� L 

2 

0 

v 

... (7) 

�1 

t 

0 

2 

0 

A 

0 

� L ( u v ) 

�u1 

� U1t 

By equation (6a , 6b) and An � B n 

v 

�1 

� d L ( L 

�1 

�1 

v ) � FL ( 1� 

v ) � L B 

1 

� d 

� d 

�v 

1 

Let : V1 

� d 

�v 

1 

2 

2 

L 

L 

2 

�1 

t 

xx 

t 

( L 

� [ d 

2 

v t � Ft � Fv t � u v t 

0 

2 

� V1t 

xx 

L 

�1 

�1 

2 

v ) � FL ( 1� 

v ) � L ( u v ) 

xx 

2 

xx 

0 

v 

L 

0 

0 

xx 

� F � Fv 

v 

0 

t 

0 

t 

0 

0 

0 

� F � Fv 

2 

� u v ] t 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

� u 

t 

2 

0 

v 

0 

t 

0 

0 

0 

0 

... ( 8) 

… (9) 

� 

n�0 

� 

n�0 

n


174 

) 

10 

( 

... 

] 

1 

1 

2 

[ 

1 

) 

1 

( 

2 

2 

9 

8 

, 

6 

] 

2 

2 

[ 

)] 

)( 

2 

[( 

)] 

( 

) 

[( 

)] 

, 

( 

[ 

) 

, 

( 

! 

1 

1 

1 

2 

0 

0 

0 

1 

2 

0 

0 

0 

1 

2 

0 

0 

1 

0 

0 

1 

2 

1 

3 

1 

1 

0 

2 

1 

2 

0 

0 

2 

1 

2 

0 

1 

0 

0 

2 

0 

0 

1 

0 

2 

1 

2 

1 

0 

2 

0 

0 

1 

0 

2 

1 

0 

0 

1 

0 

1 

0 

0 

1 

0 

1 

0 

1 

1 

1 

B 

t 

V 

u 

U 

v 

u 

A 

t 

V 

u 

v 

t 

U 

u 

v 

u 

v 

u 

u 

and 

equation 

By 

v 

u 

v 

u 

u 

v 

u 

v 

u 

v 

u 

u 

v 

u 

d 

d 

v 

v 

u 

u 

u 

u 

d 

d 

v 

v 

u 

u 

d 

d 

v 

v 

u 

u 

F 

d 

d 

v 

u 

F 

d 

d 

A 

i i 

i 

i 

i 

i 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� � 

� � 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

� 

For 1 

� 

k and by using equations 8, 9 and 10 we get: 

4 

3 

] 

) 

( 

) 

( 

2 

1 

) 

( 

2 

1 

3 

) 

( 

2 

3 

[ 

2 

] 

2 

) 

2 

3 

( 

2 

) 

( 

) 

( 

) 

( 

) 

( 

) 

( 

[ 

4 

3 

)] 

( 

2 

1 

3 

) 

( 

2 

2 

[ 

2 

] 

2 

) 

2 

3 

( 

2 

[ 

! 

3 

) 

( 

2 

] 

) 

( 

) 

( 

) 

( 

[ 

3 

] 

) 

( 

[ 

2 

)] 

( 

) 

( 

[ 

) 

11 

...( 

] 

)] 

( 

2 

1 

3 

) 

( 

2 

2 

[ 

] 

2 

) 

2 

3 

( 

2 

[[ 

) 

2 

] 

) 

( 

([ 

) 

( 

)] 

2 

] 

) 

( 

([ 

[ 

) 

( 

) 

( 

4 

3 

0 

2 

3 

2 

0 

2 

0 

2 

0 

2 

2 

0 

0 

3 

0 

2 

0 

0 

0 

1 

2 

0 

4 

0 

2 

0 

3 

0 

0 

2 

0 

0 

2 

0 

2 

0 

0 

0 

1 

0 

2 

0 

0 

2 

0 

1 

0 

2 

0 

1 

0 

1 

0 

2 

1 

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Example: 

�u 

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u � u v , t �0 x �� 

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U(x, 0) = Us + 0.01 sin(�x/ L) for 0 ≤x ≤ L 

V (x, 0) = Vs – 0.12 sin(�x/ L) for 0 ≤x ≤ L 

We will take 

d1=d2=0.01 , F= 0.09 , k=-0.004 , Us=0 , Vs=1 

We use MatLab 8 for finding the following tables and figures. 

Table:- (1) for ( V ) 

t=0.2 t=0.3 t=0.4 

X 

AD Finite AD Finite AD Finite 

0 0.9998 1.0000 0.9996 1.0000 0.9994 1.0000 

0.1 1.0013 1.0014 1.0010 1.0014 1.0007 1.0013 

0.2 1.0026 1.0027 1.0022 1.0026 1.0018 1.0024 

0.3 1.0037 1.0039 1.0032 1.0035 1.0026 1.0032 

0.4 1.0046 1.0048 1.0039 1.0043 1.0031 1.0038 

0.5 1.0054 1.0055 1.0044 1.0048 1.0034 1.0041 

0.6 1.0059 1.0061 1.0048 1.0052 1.0036 1.0043 

0.7 1.0064 1.0065 1.0050 1.0054 1.0037 1.0044 

0.8 1.0066 1.0068 1.0052 1.0056 1.0037 1.0044 

0.9 1.0068 1.0070 1.0052 1.0056 1.0036 1.0044 

1.0 1.0068 1.0070 1.0053 1.0057 1.0036 1.0044 

1.1 1.0068 1.0070 1.0052 1.0056 1.0036 1.0044 

1.2 1.0066 1.0068 1.0052 1.0056 1.0037 1.0044 

1.3 1.0064 1.0065 1.0050 1.0054 1.0037 1.0044 

1.4 1.0059 1.0061 1.0048 1.0052 1.0036 1.0043 

1.5 1.0054 1.0055 1.0044 1.0048 1.0034 1.0041 

1.6 1.0046 1.0048 1.0039 1.0043 1.0031 1.0038 

1.7 1.0037 1.0039 1.0032 1.0035 1.0026 1.0032 

1.8 1.0026 1.0027 1.0022 1.0026 1.0018 1.0024 

1.9 1.0013 1.0014 1.0010 1.0014 1.0007 1.0013 

2.0 0.9998 1.0000 0.9996 1.0000 0.9994 1.0000 

Fig.:-(1) t=0.2 Fig.:-(2) t=0.3 Fig.:-(3) t=0.4 

176


177 

Table:-( 2 ) for ( U ) 

t=1 t=2 t=3 

X 

AD Finite AD Finite AD Finite 

0 0.0003 0 0.0012 0 0.0023 0 

0.1 -0.0162 -0.0163 -0.0134 -0.0139 -0.0108 -0.0119 

0.2 -0.0317 -0.0317 -0.0266 -0.0271 -0.0221 -0.0230 

0.3 -0.0459 -0.0461 -0.0384 -0.0390 -0.0316 -0.0331 

0.4 -0.0586 -0.0589 -0.0484 -0.0495 -0.0390 -0.0419 

0.5 -0.0697 -0.0700 -0.0568 -0.0585 -0.0444 -0.0493 

0.6 -0.0789 -0.0793 -0.0635 -0.0659 -0.0480 -0.0553 

0.7 -0.0861 -0.0867 -0.0685 -0.0716 -0.0502 -0.0600 

0.8 -0.0913 -0.0920 -0.0720 -0.0757 -0.0514 -0.0633 

0.9 -0.0945 -0.0952 -0.0741 -0.0782 -0.0520 -0.0653 

1.0 -0.0955 -0.0962 -0.0748 -0.0790 -0.0522 -0.0659 

1.1 -0.0945 -0.0952 -0.0742 -0.0782 -0.0523 -0.0653 

1.2 -0.0914 -0.0920 -0.0722 -0.0757 -0.0519 -0.0633 

1.3 -0.0861 -0.0867 -0.0687 -0.0716 -0.0509 -0.0600 

1.4 -0.0789 -0.0793 -0.0637 -0.0659 -0.0488 -0.0553 

1.5 -0.0697 -0.0700 -0.0570 -0.0585 -0.0451 -0.0493 

1.6 -0.0587 -0.0589 -0.0486 -0.0495 -0.0395 -0.0419 

1.7 -0.0459 -0.0461 -0.0385 -0.0390 -0.0319 -0.0331 

1.8 -0.0317 -0.0317 -0.0267 -0.0271 -0.0223 -0.0230 

1.9 -0.0162 -0.0163 -0.0134 -0.0139 -0.0108 -0.0119 

2.0 0.0003 -0.0000 0.0012 -0.0000 0.0023 -0.0000 

Fig.:-(4) t=1 Fig.:-(5) t=2 Fig.:-(6) t=3 

DISCUSSION OF TABLES AND FIGURES 

From the tables ( 1 - 2 ) and figures ( 1 – 6 ) it 

is clear that the ADM more faster, more accurate 

and more efficient for solving the Gray-Scott 

model. 

Conclusion: We saw that Adomain 

decomposition method is more accurate than 

finite difference method for solving Gray-Scott 

model especially when we increase t as shown in 

figure 1-6 and tables 1-2. 

REFERENCE 

- Adomian G., (1988), A Review of the Decomposition 

Method in Applied Mathematics, Cenfer for 

Applied Mathematics, University OJ Georgia, 

Athens, Georgia 30602 Submitted by George 

Adomian. 

- Adomian G., (1994), Solving frontier problems of 

physics: the decomposition method, Boston: 

Kluwer Academic Publishers. 

- Charkravarti S., Marek M., and Ray W.H., Phys. Rev. E 

52, 2407(1995). 

- Leon G. and George, F.D., (1982) “Numerical Solution of 

Partial Differential Equations In Science and 

Engineering" John Wiely and Sons, Inc., Canada. 

- Mathews, J. H. and Fink, K. D., (1999)" Numerical 

Methods Using Matlab", Prentice- Hall, Inc. 

- Mingjing Sun. Yuanshun Tan. Lansun Chen, 2007 

Dynamical behaviors of brusselator system with 

impulsive input J. Math Chem. 

- Petrov V., Metens S., Borckmans P., Dewel G. and Showalter 

K., Phys.Rev. Lett.75,2895 (1995) 

-Shanthakumar M., (1989), Computer Based Numerical 

Analysis , Khanna publisher, Neisaraic Delhi- 

110006 India. 

-Yuncheng You , (2007), Global Dynamics of the 

Brusselator Equations , 

Dynamics of PDE, Vol.4, No.2, 167-196,.


FDM 

و 

ADM 

نَيكَير ب 

Gray-Scott 

َىمةتشيس وب ىيةرامذ انركراكيش 

ا ىن اَ ي ةنت ىس ة ب وىب ى ي ةراىمذ اك ةن رك راك ي ىش ي رك راك ي ىش ةىي ي اا Gray-Scott َى ىي 

وىب ةرىيتاو ةريتةىن ب 

FDM 

ةييبًا و 

ADM 

ADM 

FDM 

اىكَير وىك ووىب راىيدو 

و 

ADM 

FDM 

اىكَير و 

. سد َىنوونم د ةرايد اي ةظة و 

مادختساب 

Gray-Scott 

ةيبًا مادختيساب هيتًابتلا لييحلا دايدًج لإاًدديع 

ADM 

FDM 

َىمةتىشيس سد َىَينوكةىظ َىىظ د 

ةتخوث 

اىكَير اىناَي راك ب كيزين اكةراكؤيش 

اكَير ذ امةتشيس نَيروج ياظة انركراكيش 

ةموظنمل يددعلا لحلا 

Gray-Scott 

. 

لاثملا هف حضوم امكو FDM ةبًا نم لئاسملا نم عونلا الا لحل قدأو عاسأ 


ةيموظنم ليية ويم ليحتلا اليا هيف 

ADM 

ةبًا نا نيتمو 

178


290 

ANATOMICAL COMPARISON BETWEEN CISSUS REPENS, CAYRATIA 

JAPONICA (VITACEAE) AND LEEA AEQUATA (LEEACEAE) 

ABSTRACT 

CHNAR NAJMADDIN, KHATIJA HUSSIN, and HAJA MAIDEEN 

Dept. of Biology, School of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, 

University of Kebangsaan – Malaysia 


This study was conducted to evaluate anatomical comparison between three species belonging to two families 

(Vitaceae and Leeaceae). Two genera of the family Vitaceae (Cissus repens and Cayratia japonica) and one species of 

Leeaceae family (Leea aequata) were investigated. Anatomically it has been shown that the shape of stem, petiole, 

midrib, margin and lamina were different. There were druses and raphid crystals in stem, petiole, midrib, margin of 

Cissus repens and Cayratia japonica, however, in Leea aequata there was only druses crystals, except in lamina of 

Cissus repens , Cayratia japonica and Leea aequata in which there were druses and raphide crystals. Leaf epidermis of 

Cissus repens, Cayratia japonica and Leea aequata were investigated by using light microscope and scanning electron 

microscope. The shapes of leaf epidermal cells were usually polygonal; the types of anticlinal walls are straight and 

arched. The stomatal apparatus presented on the both side of the leaf (abaxial and adaxial). Cissus repens and 

Cayratia japonica had different types of stomatal apparatus such as cyclocytic and paracytic, and Leea aequata had 

anisocytic type. 

KEY WORDS: Anatomy of Vitaceae, Leeaceae family, Cissus repens, Cayratia species, Leea species. 

V 

INTRODUCTION 

itaceae family includes woody 

climbers, sometimes vines, trees, and 

also involve shrubs and succulents (Timmons et 

al., 2007). Vitaceae leaves are simple, lobed or 

unlobed, or compound; 1-3 pinnately compound 

and alternate (Chen and Wen, 2007). Leaf 

opposed tendrils (Rossetto et al., 2002) with 

unarmed stems, and the inflorescence is panicles 

and corymbs (Lombardi, 2007 and Chen and 

Wen, 2007). The flowers are small regular and 

usually are bisexual (Rossetto, et al., 2001). 

Leeaceae includes shrubs, stem is unarmed, 

tendrils absent. The leaf is simple or compound; 

1-4 pinnate to trifoliate with stipular petiole. 

Inflorescence is paniculate, frequently 

corymbiform, terminal or axillary. 

Hermaphrodite flowers (Wen, 2007). 

The stomata are apertures in the epidermis, 

bounded by two guard cells. Their main function 

is to allow gases such as carbon dioxide, water 

vapours and oxygen to move rapidly into and out 

of the leaf (Perveen et al, 2007 and Tay and 

Furukawa, 2008). In the green leaves they occur 

either on both surfaces or on one only, either the 

upper surface or more commonly on the lower 

surface (Perveen et al, 2007). On the basis of 

arrangement of the epidermal cell neighbouring 

the guard cell, more than 25 main types of 

stomata in dicots have been recognized (Perveen 

et al, 2007). 

MATERIAL AND METHODS 

T. S. of stem, petiole, midrib, margin, lamina, 

and types of stomata were used to describe the 

anatomy of the various species. Plant materials 

of Cissus repens, Cayratia japonica and Leea 

aequata were collected from Malaysia forests. 

The stem, middle part of petioles, midrib, lamina 

and margins were embedded in polystyrene, and 

sectioned transversely on a sliding microtome 

(model Richard Jung-1972) or Microtome 

Reichert (model Leica Jung histolide 200). 

Transverse sections were cut at 20 µm thick, 

depending on the texture of the specimen. 

Sections were presoaked in (Clorox) for 5-15 

minutes to clear the tissues and getting white, 

and the sample sections were rinsed by distilled 

water 2-3 times and were steeped in Safranin 

solution for approximately 5 minutes, rinsed


with water, then stained for approximately 5-10 

minutes in Alcian blue, dehydrated in a series of 

alcohol concentrations starting from 50%, 70%, 

95% and 100% (approximately 2 minutes each), 

one or two drops of concentrated HCl 

(hydrochloric acid ) were added to 70% 

treatment to change the colour of leaves to 

purplish. Finally, the samples were mounted on 

microscope slides in Euparal as permanent 

medium, carefully covered with slide covers, 

and then kept in drying oven at 60°C for a week. 

Samples were observed and viewed with light 

microscope (Johansen, 1940 and Sass, 1958). 

Leaf samples were collected from various 

locations in Malaysia. Coated samples were 

viewed under Scanning Electron Microscope 

(SEM) operated in 10 to 15 Kv at various 

magnifications to obtain the best images. 

Normally 500 to 10,000 magnifications were 

used, and epidermal peels were prepared by 

mechanical scraping, samples were cut 

approximately 1cm², then the small parts were 

soaked in Jeffrey’ solution (10% nitric acid + 

10% chromic acid, 1:1) at room temperature for 

1-3 hours, sometimes for 1 day after the solution 

was diluted with distilled water, until the 

mesophyll tissue could be separated easily from 

both epidermis, stained, dehydrated and mounted 

in the same way. Samples were observed and 

viewed with light microscope. 

RESSULTS AND DISCUSSION 

The present study has shown anatomical 

differences between the two families (Vitaceae 

and Leeaceae). Leeaceae are most closely related 

to Vitaceae however most workers have now 

separated Leeaceae from Vitaceae (Wen 2007a). 

As revealed by the present study, the shape of 

the stem or twig in Cissus repens, Cayratia 

japonica and Leea aequata were different 

between species; the vascular bundle is closed 

and surrounded by fiber layer (sclerenchymatous 

tissue), secretory cells were present, raphid and 

druses crystals were also present, and in the 

cortex there was also a layer of collenchyma 

tissue. Collenchyma tissue is far from epidermal 

layer and continues as in Cissus repens. The 

wood of Vitaceae has simple, large rays, with 

vessel ray of parenchyma (Metcalfe, and Chalk, 

1950). The vessels were large in comparison 

with those in the close relatives in Leeaceae 

(Wen, 2007b) as in (Fig.1). 

291


Fig.1: A- Cissus repens stem showing vascular bundle (v), collenchyma tissue (small black arrow) (4X), B- 

Cayratia japonica stem showing vascular bundle, collenchyma tissue (small black arrow) (v), fiber (large white 

arrow), secretory cell (small white arrow) (4X),, C- raphid crystals (r) (40X), D- druses crystals (d) (40X), E- 

Leea aequata stem showing vascular bundle (v), collenchyma tissue (small black arrow) (4X), accessory 

vascular bundle (large black arrow) (4X), F- magnification of E show druses crystal (d), collenchyma tissue 

(small black arrow) (40X). 

292 

E 

A 

v 

r 

C D 

v 

B 

F 

v 

d 

d


The present investigation also revealed that the 

petiole of Cissus repens, Cayratia japonica and Leea 

aequata have different shapes depending on the 

species (Fig.2), the vascular bundle was closed and 

surrounded by fiber, with secretory cells (Tannins) 

which were specialized as parenchymatous cells and 

frequently observed beneath the epidermis. The 

raphides and druses crystals were present in 

parenchymatous cells and usually observed in the pith 

and under the epidermis. In Vitaceae this was 

characteristic of the family, while in the Leeaceae 

only druses crystals were observed. Collenchyma 

A 

C 

v c 

c 

tissues (angular collenchyma) were present in the 

petiole, they were usually occurred as wide bands 

below the epidermis, and in Cissus, collenchyma was 

little developed, however in other genera it was very 

conspicuous as in Petrisanthas, Tetrastigma, and 

Northoscissus, and in Cayratia, collenchyma reveals 

as isolated patches and this was particularly obvious 

in Cayratia japonica and Cayratia trifolia. 

Seclerenchyma tissues were easily observed as fibers; 

they had thick cell wall and small lumen (Latiff, 

1980). 

Fig.2: A- Cissus repens petiole showing vascular bundle (v), secretory cell (small black arrow), collenchyma 

tissue (c) (4X), B- Cayratia japonica petiole showing trichomes (large black arrow), secretory cell (small black 

arrow), vascular bundle (v) (4X), C- Magnification of B show the trichomes (large black arrow), secretory cell 

(small black arrow), collenchyma tissue (c) (10X). D-Leea aequata petiole showing vascular bundle (v), 

secretory cell (small black arrow), accessory vascular bundle (large white arrow) (4X). 

B 

D 

v 

v 

293


The present study has shown that the midrib of 

Cissus repens, Cayratia japonica and Leea aequata 

have the following characteristics: the outline of the 

adaxial surface was slightly humped, and the abaxial 

surface was arc shaped, and collenchyma was present 

294 

A 

v 

C 

v 

in both epidermal layers. The druses and raphide 

crystals were present in Vitaceae, but in Leeaceae, 

only druses crystals were present and there were a lot 

of vascular bundles (Fig.3). 

Fig.3: A- Cissus repens midrib showing vascular bundle (v), secretory cell (small black arrow) (4X), B- 

Cayratia japonica midrib trichomes (large black arrow), vascular bundle (v), secretory cell (arrow), secretory 

cell (small black arrow) (4X),, C- Leea aequata midrib show vascular bundle (v), secretory cell (small black 

arrow), accessory vascular bundle (large white arrow) (4X). 

B 

v


Figure (4) shows that Cissus repens, Cayratia 

japonica and Leea aequata mesophyll layer contains 

calcium oxalate (druses) crystals and mucilage cells 

or secretory cells with raphides inside the bundle 

(Metcalfe and Chalk, 1950). Druses idioblasts and 

raphide idioblasts present in inner layer of biseriate 

epidermis (Kannabiran and Pragasam 1994). 

Fig.4: A- Cissus repens Lamina showing trichomes (large black arrow), palisaid layer (pa), spongy layer (sp), 

upper epidermis (ue), lower epidermis (le), secretory cell (arrow) (4X), B- Cayratia japonica lamina show 

druses (small black arrow), raphid crystal (large white arrow) (4X), C- Leea aequata lamina show druses (small 

black arrow) (4X). 

The present study has also shown that the margin 

of Cissus repens, Cayratia japonica and Leea 

aequata there are straight with slightly curved 

inward, and the tip was rounded or tapering. 

Vascular bundle was present, fibers nil, secretory 

A 

A 

C 

C 

ue 

pa 

sp 

le 

cells, raphides and druses crystals were present, 

however trichomes were either present or absent. In 

Leea aequata the margin was slightly downwards and 

the tip was rounded or tapering. Fiber nil, secretory 

cells were present with no trichomes (Fig.5). 

Fig.5: A- Cissus repens margin showing raphid crystal (large white arrow) (10X), B- Cayratia japonica margin 

showing trichomes (large black arrow), secretory cell (small black arrow) (10X), C- Leea aequata margin show 

secretory cell (small black arrow) (10X). 

B 

B 

295


The stem, petiole, midrib, lamina and margin of 

Cissus repens, Cayratia japonica and Leea aequata 

have the following features: the outline of these 

sections in some species was smooth, however in 

some species trichomes were present which were 

either glandular secretory trichome or non glandular 

(normal hair) and commonly present and were very 

important for species determination. The trichome 

complement of a particular organ can consist entirely 

of unbranched or branched hairs (Lombardi 2007). 

The present study has shown that in Cissus repens 

and Leea aequata the outline is smooth, but in 

Cayratia japonica trichomes were present and also in 

some species of Leea rubra; the number of trichomes 

were different from one species to another. The 

trichomes were non glandular and unbranched as 

show in (Fig.1, 2, 3, 4). 

296 

Vitaceae leaf epidermal characteristics have been 

studied by Ren et.al, (2003), they used light and scan 

electron microscope, the shape of leaf epidermal cells 

were usually irregular or polygonal; the anticlinal 

walls are straight, arched. The present study has 

shown that the stomata types of Vitaceae leaf 

epidermis were paracytic (Fig.6, D, E, I) (Hui, et al, 

2003 and Kannabiran and Pragasam, 1994) The 

stomata usually present in abaxial epidermis, 

however in some species the stomata present in both 

sites of leaf epidermis (abaxial and adaxial) as in 

Cissus repens (Fig.6, A, D), and in Leeaceae the 

stomata were anomocytic (Fig.6, F, J) (Wen, 2007a).


A 

C 

E 

I 

G 

Fig.6: A-C, Adaxial (10X, 40X, 40X respectively). D-F, Abaxial (100X, 10X, 40X respectively), G-H, Adaxial 

SEM, I-K, Abaxial SEM. D-E-I, Paracytic. F-J, Anomocyte SEM. 

B 

D 

F 

H 

J 

297


298 

ACKNOLODGEMENT 

I would like to express my gratitude and 

sincere thanks to my supervisors, my thanks to 

Anatomical lab. staffs. and Scanning Electron 

microscope staffs. We grateful thank the 

University Kebangsaan Malaysia for financial 

support via FRGS grant UKM-ST-08- 

FRGS0013-2009. 

REFERENCE 

- Chen, Z. and Wen, J. (2007). Leeaceae. Published by 

Science press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical 

Garden press, Flora of china, Vol. 12, p: 115-169. 

- Chen, Z., Ren, H. and Wen, J. (2007). Vitceae. Published 

by Science press (Beijing) and Missouri Botanical 

Garden press, Flora of china, Vol. 12, p: 

33,115,173. 

- Hui, R., Kai-Yu, P., Zhi-Duan, C., and Ren-Qing, W. 

(2003). Structural characters of leaf epidermis and 

their systematic significance in Vitaceae. Acta 

Phytotaxonomica Sinica, 41 (6): 531-544. 

- Johansen, D.A. (1940). Plant microtechnique. New 

Yourk: MC Graw,Hill. 

- Kannabiran, B. and Pragasam, A. (1994). Foliar epidermal 

features of Vitaceae and taxonomic position of 

Leea. Journal of India Botanical Society. Vol. 73: 

81-87. 

- Lombardi, J. A. (2007). Systematic of Vitaceae in South 

America. Can. Jou. Bot., 85, p: 712- 721. 

- Metcalfe, C.R., and Chalk, L. (1950). Anatomy of the 

dicotyledons. Clarendon Press, Oxford. Vol. 2: 413- 

419. 

CAYRATIA JAPONICA (VITACEAE) LEEA 

، 

- Rossetto, M., Jackes, B.R., Scott, K.D., and Henry, R.J. 

(2001). Intergeneric relationships in the Australian 

Vitaceae: new evidence from cpDNA analysis. 

Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, Vol. 48, p: 

307-314. 

- Rossetto, M., Jackes, B.R., Scott, K.D., and Henry, R.J. 

(2002). Is the Genus Cissus (Vitaceae) 

Monophylatic? Evidence from Plastid and Nuclear 

Ribosomal DNA. Systematic Botany, Vol. 27 (3), 

P: 522-533. 

- Perveen, A., Abid, R., and Fatima,R. (2007). Stomatal 

types of some dicots within flora of Karachi, 

Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 39(4): 1017-1023. 

- Sass, J.E. (1958). Botanical microtechnique. 3 rd edition. 

Ames: lowa state university. 

- Tay, A., and Furukawa,A. (2008). Variations in leaf 

stomata density and distribution of 53 Vine species 

in Japan. Plant species Biology 23, 2-8. 

- Timmons, S.A., Posluszny, U. and Gerrath, J.M. (2007). 

Morphological and anatomical development in the 

Vitaceae. X. Comparative ontogeny and 

phylogenetic implications of Cissus quadrangularis 

L. Can. J. Bot., Vol.85: 860-872. 

- Wen, J. (2007b) The Families and Genera of Vascular 

Plants; Leeaceae. Leeaceae Dumortier, Anal. Fam. 

Pl.: 27 (1829), nom. Cons. Springer- verlag Berlin 

Heidelberg Vol.9. p. 221- 225. 

- Wen, J. (2007a) The Families and Genera of Vascular 

Plants: Vitaceae. Vitaceae Juss, Gen. Pl.: 267 

(1789), nom. Cons. Springer- verlag Berlin 

Heidelberg Vol.9. p. 467-479. 

CISSUS REPENS 

AEQUATA (LEEACEAE) و 

وود . Leeaceae, Vitaceae ينلامةهب وودرةي ارةةبظاند ىراكيوت انركدروارةب وبذ ىاد مانجةئ 

كامةشهب ذ ذةروشج و ) Cayratia japonica, Cissus repens( 

ىذوةشئ Vitaceae 

ارةبظاند ىراكيوت اكنركدروارةب 

ةتخوث 

ةيتاي ةهيلوكةظ ظةئ 

ىاشهتئراكب كامةشهبذ ذشظن 

, ىكلةب اكيتسب , ىدةق ىويش 

د ىووبرايد ىظةي ذةوةن اديراكيوت اهيلوكةظد . Leea aequata ىذوئ ) Leeaceae( 

ايةر, 

ىطلةب اكيتسب , دةقد تنيد ةهتاي ىايزرةد و رَيتس َىروج ذ وَيلاتسيرك 

. ىطلةب وَيظَيل , ىكلةب اهتسارةظان ايةر 

ذ وَيلاتشسيرك و , اد Cissus repens , Cayratia japonica ىاشنظن وودرةشي اشي ىطلةب وَيظتَيل , ىطلةب اتسارةظان 

Leea aequata , 

اشي اد ىطلةشب اكيتشسب دوشك ىشلب ذ 

Leea aequata َىرَوشجد َىهتبةشهتيد 

ةهتاي ىارَيتس ىروج 

. تنيد ةهيتاي ىزرةد و رَيتس َىرؤج ذ وَيلاتسيرك وك 

َىكةوَينب , ىنوتركيلةئ اينوبريوي و َىييانور اهيوبريوي اناهيئراكب ىرك ةهتاي ىانظن ىاظ َىشوثوور رةسل ينلوك ةظ 

Cayratiajaponica , Cissus repens 

َىهيلوكةشظ , ىوب تسارد ىاناخ وَيواتسةو وَيراويد , Polyglonal َىروج ذ ىطلةب ىشؤثوور وَيناخ َىرؤج ىتنط 

وَيَىشسانةي وَيةشلينةد Vitaceae كامةهب , ةنةي ىاطلةب وَيي ىهب 

و ىرةس وَييك وودرةله َىساهي وَيلَينةد وك ركرايد 

anisocytic َىروشج ذ َىشسانةي َىشيلَينةدLeeaceae 

كامةشهب و 

parocytic , cyclocgtic 

ذةو ةشنةي روشج واروج 

. 

ىووبةي


EFFECTS OF ACETAMIPRID AND GLYPHOSATE PESTICIDES ON 

TESTIS AND SERUM TESTOSTERONE LEVEL IN MALE MICE 

MAHMOUD AHMED CHAWSHEEN 

Dept. of General Sciences, School of Basic Education, Faculty of Education,University of Soran, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 


ABSTRACT 

This research is carried out to evaluate the potential toxicity of the acetamiprid and glyphosate pesticides 

individually and in combination through studying histology of testis, diameters and thicknesses of seminiferous 

tubules and serum testosterone levels in male albino mice. The study was conducted on thirty five male mice 

distributed randomly into seven groups. The first group served as control group, received tap water. The second and 

the third groups received 0.16 ml/L and 0.22 ml/L of acetamiprid, respectively. The fourth group received 3.125 ml/L 

of glyphosate, and the fifth group received 4.166 mg/L of glyphosate as well. Group six received combination of equal 

volumes of 0.16 ml/L acetamiprid and 3.125 ml/L glyphosate. Group seven received a combination of equal volumes of 

0.22 ml/L acetamiprid and 4.166 ml/L glyphosate. The pesticides were applied in mice drinking water for a period of 

four weeks. The separate tested doses of acetamiprid and glyphosate pesticides induced alterations in serum 

testosterone levels. The alterations that were caused by acetamiprid were in expected manner, the adverse effects were 

increased by increasing the exposure doses. While for glyphosate the results were different by the fact that the second 

dose of glyphosate caused significant increase in comparison with the first one. Histological examinations showed that 

the alterations in architecture of seminiferous tubules, their diameters and thicknesses, caused by both pesticides 

separately, were increased by increasing the exposure doses. Regard the combinations of the two pesticides, 

histological sections revealed severe changes in both combinations especially in group seven, while serum testosterone 

showed that the first combination did not cause significant changes in comparison with both pesticides, and the second 

combination caused significant changes in comparison with acetamiprid alone. It can be concluded from this study 

that acetamiprid and glyphoste are responsible for the alterations in serum testosterone, diameters and thicknesses 

of the seminiferous tubules, and combinations of both pesticides have synergistic effects on testis histology in 

male albino mice. 

KEYWORDS: Acetampird, Glyphosate, Toxicity, Testosterone, Seminiferous Tubules 

W 

INTRODUCTION 

ith the increasing demand for food 

production as a result of dramatic 

increases in human population, a large number 

of chemical substances have been used either for 

increasing or maintaining the productivity of 

agricultural farm lands (Cooper and Dobson, 

2007; Erisman et. al., 2008). Meanwhile many 

of these chemical substances cause 

environmental and health related problems. For 

this reason researchers around the world try to 

evaluate the potential toxicity of these chemicals 

and their impact on public health. Among much 

used chemicals in agricultural activities are 

pesticides (Hock et al., 1991; USDA, 2005). In 

this study we focus on acetamiprid insecticide 

and glyphosate herbicide as they have been used 

in large quantities by farmers in Erbil city. 

Indiscriminate use of both pesticides find their 

way into the food chain, eventually reaching 

human or domestic animals. 

Acetamiprid ((E)-N1-[(6-chloro-3-pyridyl) 

methyl]-N2- cyano-N1-methylacetamidine) is a 

neonicotinoid insecticides with a systemic effect 

(Tomizawa and Yamamoto, 1993; Anderson et 

al., 2005; Chiyozo, 2008). It has been widely 

used since the 1990s as an alternative for 

organophosphorus, organochlorine, and 

pyrethroid compounds (Elzen, 2001; Grafton- 

Cardwell and Gu, 2003; Kovganko and 

Kashkan, 2004). Acetamiprid is effective against 

piercing-sucking insects like: Hemiptera, 

Thyasnoptera and Lepidoptera. These insects are 

found on various crops such as leafy vegetables, 

citrus fruits, pome fruits, grapes, cotton, cole 

crops, and ornamental plants (Mateu-Sánchez et 

al., 2003; Tomizawa and Casida, 2005). 

Acetamiprid targeting nicotinic acetylcholine 

receptor (nAChR) and by the persistence at the 

binding sites of nAChR will lead to overstimulation 

of cholinergic synapses eventually 

causing hyperexcitation and paralysis of the 

insect (Tomizawa and Casida, 2003; Matsuda et 

al., 2005; Yu, 2008). 

Glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl) glycine] 

is a post-emergence, non-selective, broadspectrum, 

systemic herbicide (Hetherington et 

al., 1999; Alibhai and Stallings, 2001; Roberts et 

al., 2002). It has been marketed since 1974 and 

299


it is still largely used around the world with an 

effective role against a broad range of plants 

including annual and perennial grasses and 

broadleaves, it also plays an important role in 

farm production practices in maintaining weed 

control (Hetherington et al., 1999; Williams et 

al., 2000; Solomon et al., 2007). Glyphosate is 

absorbed through foliage and translocated 

throughout plants. Glyphosate inhibits plant 

growth through interference with the production 

of essential aromatic amino acids and phenolic 

compounds that are necessary for plant growth 

and development (Steinrucken and Amrhein, 

1980; Alibhai and Stallings, 2001). 

In spite of many researches that were 

undertaken on both pesticides (acetamiprid and 

glyphosate) separately or with other chemicals, 

there was no information available on their 

toxicity to male reproductive system when they 

introduced as a mixture or in combination. This 

research is carried out to evaluate the potential 

toxicity of acetamiprid and glyphosate pesticides 

individually and in combination through 

studying the alterations in histology of testis and 

serum testosterone levels in male albino mice. 


The Tested Pesticides 

The two tested pesticides, acetamiprid and 

glyphosate, were purchased from agricultural 

market in Erbil. Acetamiprid concentration in 

the bottle was 20%. As labeled on the bottle, 

preparation for field uses was instructed to be 

70-120ml /20 L of water. While glyphosate 

concentration in the bottle was 48%, a label on 

the bottle instructed not to be mixed with 

other solutions. 

Experimental Animals 

Male albino mice weighing 28 – 30 gm, 12 

weeks of age, were provided by Animal House 

at Department of Biology, College of Science, 

University of Salahaddin-Erbil. They were fed 

standard mouse diet. The mice were housed in 

an average room temperature of 24C ₀ ±2 with 

light, alternate 12hr light/dark cycles, during the 

study period of four weeks. 

Experimental Design 

Thirty five male albino mice were distributed 

randomly to seven groups (n=5); the first group 

served as control, received tap water. The second 

group received 0.16 ml/L acetamiprid, equals 

50% of LD50 of acetamiprid which is 200mg/kg 

for male mice (Yamamoto and Casida, 1999). 

The third group received 0.22 ml/L acetamiprid, 

75% of LD50 of acetamiprid. The fourth and the 

300 

fifth groups received doses of 3.125 ml/L, and 

4.166 mg/L of glyphosate, respectively, that is 

50% and 75% of LD50 of glyphosate, which is 

10000 mg/kg in mice (U.S. National Library of 

Medicine, 1995), correspondingly . Group six 

received combination of 0.16 ml/L acetamiprid 

and 3.125 ml/L glyphosate. Group seven 

received a combination of 0.22 ml/L acetamiprid 

and 4.166 mL/L glyphosate together. The 

pesticides were applied in mice drinking water 

for a period of four weeks. 

Sample Collection 

After completion of the experiment period, 

animals were anesthetized (ketamine 

hydrochloride 100mg/ kg body weight) then 

blood samples were collected from the mice by 

cardiac puncture, and samples of testis were 

removed from the anesthetized animals. 

Histological Analysis 

After their removal, testes were immediately 

fixed in Bouin′s fluid for 24 hours (Benson et 

al., 2001), then they were dehydrated through 

ascending concentrations of ethanol (70%, 95%, 

and 100%), cleared in xylol, followed by 

infiltration and then embedded in paraffin wax. 

Four micrometer thick paraffin sections were 

stained by haematoxylin and eosin (Prophet et 

al., 1992). All slides were analyzed by light 

microscope. Seminiferous tubules diameter and 

thickness were measured in micrometers by 

using stage micrometer under magnification 

power 400X. 

Estimation of Serum Testosterone 

Serum testosterone level was measured using 

Testosterone Enzyme Immunoassay Test Kit 

(Biocheck Inc, Made in USA, BC-1115). 

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS 

All data were expressed as means ± standard 

error of mean (M±SE) and statistical analysis 

was carried out using SPSS version 16.0. Oneway 

analysis of variance (ANOVA) was 

performed to test the significance followed by 

Duncan’s multiple range comparison tests for 

comparisons between the groups. P values


serum testosterone level in mice of group 3 

showed significant decrease in comparison with 

mice treated with 0.16 ml/L acetamiprid (Group 

2). Mice treated with 4.166 ml/L glyphosate 

(Group 5) showed significant difference in 

comparison with mice treated with 3.125 ml/L 

glyphoste (Group 4). Group 6, combination of 

0.16 ml/L acetamiprid and 3.125ml/L 

glyphosate, did not show significant difference 

in comparison with group 4 and group 2. Group 

7, combination of 0.22 ml/L acetamiprid and 

4.166 ml/L glyphosate, showed significant 

difference in comparison with group 3, while no 

significant difference was observed in 

comparison with group 5, as shown in Table (1). 

Histological Analysis 

Measured seminiferous tubules diameter of 

the mice from control group showed significant 

differences in comparison with groups 2, 3 and 

5, while no significant differences were observed 

between control group and other remaining 

groups. Group 3 showed significant difference in 

comparison with group 2. Group 5 showed 

significant difference in comparison with group 

4. Group 6 showed significant differences in 

comparison with group 2. Group 7 showed 

significant difference in comparison with groups 

3 and 5. Meanwhile, results from the measured 

seminiferous tubules thickness showed 

significant differences between control group 

and groups 2, 4, and 5, while no significant 

differences were observed in comparison with 

the other groups. On the other hand, group 3 

showed significant difference in comparison 

with group 2. 

Table (1): Effects of acetamprid and glyphosate pesticides individually and in combination on serum 

testosterone, seminiferous tubule diameter and seminiferous tubules thickness of the treated mice (Mean ±SE) 

Groups Treatments Mean ±SE of Serum 

Testosterone(ng/ml) 

Mean ±SE of 

Seminiferous Tubule 

Diameter(µm) 

Mean ±SE of 

Seminiferous Tubule 

Thickness(µm) 

Group 1 0 ml/L 1.0398±0.0031 bcd 186.25±5.68 b 44.69±2.33 b 

Group 2 0.16 ml/L Acetamprid 1.0497±0.0012 cd 156.11±5.19 a 32.78±1.92 a 

Group 3 0.22 ml/L Acetamprid 1.0009±0.0095 a 226.94±11.67 c 50.00±3.65 b 

Group 4 3.125 ml/L Glyphosate 1.0079±0.0051 ab 203.33±10.89 bc 59.86±2.25 cd 

Group 5 4.166 ml/L Glyphosate 1.0561±0.0197 d 270.18±15.49 d 68.57±5.30 d 

Group 6 (0.16 ml/L +3.125ml/L) 

Acetamprid+Glyphosate 

Group 7 (0.22 ml/L+4.166 ml/L) 

Acetamprid+Glyphosate 

1.0192±0.0124 abc 201.71±9.01 bc 53.68±2.64 bc 

1.0349±0.0091 bcd 178.19±12.30 ab 51.81±3.65 bc 

Different letters indicate significant differences at p


Fig( 1_:- Photomicrographs of sections of mice testis H&E 400X, A: normal testis (control), showing 

spermatogonia (thick arrow), spermatocytes (long arrows), spermatids (short arrow), flagella (triangle), and 

lumen (aster); B: Group 2, showing slight degeneration in the germ layers of seminiferous tubules (ST) with 

slight dilation of the lumen; C: Group 3, showing more obvious changes in lumen and germ layers of ST ; D: 

Group 4, showing degeneration and space formation in the germ layers of ST with dilation of the lumen and 

degeneration in the connective tissue between ST ; E: Group 5, showing sever degeneration and space formation 

in the germ layers of ST with clear dilation of the lumen of these tubules also less spermatocytes could be seen; 

F: Group 6, showing depletion in the germ layers of ST with dilation of the lumen and degeneration of the 

connective tissue between ST; G: Group 7, showing dramatic depletion in the germ layers of ST in which 

spermatogonia is hardly seen, vacuolization of these layers, and degeneration of connective tissue between ST 

302 

B C 

D 

F G 

A 

E


DISCUSSION 

Separate tested doses of acetamiprid and 

glyphosate pesticides induced alterations in 

serum testosterone levels. The alterations that 

caused by acetamiprid were in expected manner, 

the adverse effects were increased by increasing 

the exposure doses. While for glyphosate the 

results were different by which the second dose 

of glyphosate caused significant increase in 

comparison with the first one. Histological 

examinations showed that the alterations in 

architecture of seminiferous tubules, their 

diameters and thicknesses, caused by both 

pesticides separately were increased by 

increasing the exposure doses. 

In regard to the combinations of the two 

pesticides, histological sections revealed severe 

changes in both combinations especially in the 

second one, while serum testosterone, diameters 

and thicknesses of seminiferous tubules were not 

in the same manner. Serum testosterone showed 

that the first combination did not cause 

significant changes in comparison with both 

pesticides; while the second combination caused 

significant change, in comparison with 

acetamiprid alone. For seminiferous tubules 

diameter, the first combination of pesticides 

caused significant changes in comparison with 

acetamiprid alone, while the second combination 

of pesticides caused significant changes in 

comparison with both pesticides. And for 

seminiferous tubules thickness, the first 

combination caused significant changes in 

comparison with acetamiprid alone, while the 

second combination caused significant changes 

in comparison with glyphoste alone. 

Previous researches showed that some 

insecticides, including the neonicotinoids, inhibit 

the non-specific esterase activity in leydig cells 

that, in turn, result in reduced testosterone 

production (Chapin et al., 1990; Bustos and 

González, 2003). Testosterone, through 

modulation of P-mod-S in the peritubular cells, 

could affect sertoli cell function (Kackar et al., 

1999; Stanfield and Germann, 2008). Any 

malfunction in sertoli cells eventually may lead 

to degeneration in germinal cells of seminiferous 

tubules (Saiyed et al., 2003). Also it has been 

reported that structural changes in major 

endocrine glands, including testis,were 

associated with the exposure to glyphosate. 

Dallegrave et al. (2007) and Romano et al. 

(2009) reported some pathological changes in 

the testis of male rats including: elongated 

spermatid, vacuolization and degeneration of 

seminiferous tubules germ layers, and increase 

in seminiferous tubules diameter after exposure 

to glyophosate. Most of the above come in 

agreement with our results. 

On the other hand, it’s well documented that 

both acetamiprid and glyphoste inducing 

oxidative stress in vivo (in bacteria, fishes, rats, 

and human) (Peixoto, 2005; Yao et al., 2006; 

Mishchuk and Stoliar, 2008; El-Shenawy, 2009; 

Najafi et al., 2010). Oxidative stress leads to 

generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that 

affect both the antioxidant levels and the activity 

of the scavenging enzyme system. Excessive 

ROS can compromise cellular integrity through 

oxidative damage of lipids, proteins and 

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (El-Shenawy, 

2009; Astiz et al., 2009) as a consequence 

cellular injury, necrosis, inflammation and 

degeneration of the tissues may take place 

(Schonherr, 2002; Kumar et al., 2007; Duzguner 

and Erdogan, 2010). According to this, 

acetamiprid and glyophosate may separately 

exert oxidative stress through production of 

ROS, and more clearly if these compounds are 

introduced in combination. 

It can be concluded from this study that 

acetamiprid and glyphoste are responsible for 

the alterations in serum testosterone, diameters 

and thicknesses of the seminiferous tubules, and 

combinations of both pesticides have synergistic 

effects on testis histology, in male albino mice. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

I would like to thank all who helped me to 

complete this work, especially, Dr. Falah 

Mohammed Aziz, Hedy Ahmed Chawsheen, 

Zana Rafiq Majeed, and Ahmed Abdul-Qader. 

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ىجس يرَين يكشم ةل ىؤيرتسؤتسَيت ىتسائ و ىوط رةسةل تَيسَوفيلاط و درجيماتيسةئ يرةطيراك 

و درجيماتيسةئ ،ىاكةرةكِرق 

ةدام ةل وود ىواريةذ 

ىاناوت ىندناطنةسلةي ىتسةبةم ةب ةواردمانجةئةيةوةهيَلَوكَيل 

ؤت ىروتسةئ و ةيرت ،ىوط 

ىناكةييةناش 

ةيراكنارؤط ىةوةهيلؤكَيل 

ىاطَير ةل ةوةكَيث و اًنةت ةب 

اردهَيي راكةب كشم خهَيث و ىيس 

ةيةوةندركيقات مةل . ىجس يرَين يكشم ةل مةيرس ىنؤيرتسؤتسَيت 

ةتخوث 

مةئ 

،تَيسَوفيلاط 

ىتسائ و ،ىاكةكضيرؤب 

َىس و مةوود ىثورط . ةواردَيث ى ةعوولةب يوائ ةلؤترنؤك ةك مةكةي يثورط . ثورط توةح رةس ةنووبارك شةباد ةك 

3.125 ml/L مةحهَيث 

و مةراوض ىثورط 

3.125 

4.166 mg/L 

. كةي ياودةب ،ووب 

اردَيث 

ىاي درجيماتيسةئ ةل 

0.22 ml/L 

و 

0.16 ml/L 

و درجيماتيسةئ 0.16 ml/L ةل كةيةَلةكَيت مةشةش ىثورط . كةي ىاودةب ،َييوبارد 

ىايتَيسَوفيلاط 4.166 mg/Lو 

و 

. ةتفةي راوض ىةوامَوب 

درجيماتيسةئ 

0.22 ml/L 

ةل كةيةَلةكَيت مةتوةح ىثورطو 

ىاكةكشم ىةوةندراوخ ىوائ وانةنارخةد 

ىؤي ؤب درجيماتيسةئ . ىؤيرتسؤتسَيت ىتسائ ةل ىراكناِرؤط 

مَلاةب 

. ةوةكَيث 

ىاكةرةكِرق ةدام 

ىَيوبارد 

ىايتَيسَوفيلاط 

. ةوةكَيث 

مةي 

ml/L 

, َىوبارد 

ىايتَيسَوفيلاط 

ىؤي ةنوب ،اًنةت ةب ، ةكةرةكِرق ةدام وود رةي ادمانجةئةل 

. ةكرةرةكِرق ةدام ىِرب 

ىنووبدايز ةب ىووبةد رتايز ىاكةيراكنِرؤط ةك كَيزاوَيش ةب ىراكناِرؤط ىنادوِر 

ىندركدايز ىؤي ةووب ةرةكِرق ةدام مةئ ىمةوود ىتيةث ةك ادمانجةئ ىؤخ ىرةطيراك زاويج ىكَيزاوَيش ةب 

ىاكةييةناش 

ةوةهيلؤكَيل 

،ىاكةلةكَيت 

ىمانجةئ 

ىةرابرةد 

. ادمةكةي ىتيةث لةطةل ىدركدروارةب ةب 

ىاكةرةكِرق ةدام ىةلةكَيت ىندركَيلراك 

ىةرابرةد و ادمةتوةح 

ىثورط ةل ىتةبياتةب تسخرةد ىايدنوت 

ىؤيرتسؤتسَيت 

تَيسَوفيلاط 

ىتسائ 

رؤز يراكنارؤط 

ىدركدروارةب ةب تسةضرةب ىراكناِرؤط ىندركتسورد ىؤي ةووب ةن مةكةي ىةَلةكَيت ،ىؤيرتسؤتسَيت ىتسائ 

ىراكناِرؤط ىندركتسورد ىؤي ةووب مةوود ىةَلةكَيت ادتاك ىامةي ةل 

اًنةتةب 

رةسةل 

ىاكةرةكِرقةدام 

وودرةي لةطةل 

و درجيماتيسةئ ةك َىهَيةطةد ةوةئ ةكةوةهيَلَوكَيل ىمانجةئرةد . اًنةت ةب درجيماتيسةئ لةط ةل ىندركدروارةب ةب تسةضرةب 

ةيرت ،ىةناش 

ىةتاًكَيث و ادمةيرس 

ةل 

ىؤيرتسؤتسَيت ىتسائ ةل ةوادنايوِر ةك ىةنايراكناِرؤط وةل وسرثرةب تَيسَوفيلاط 

ىنووبدايز ىراكؤي ةنووب ةكةرةكِرق ةدام وودرةي ىةَلةكَيت و ىجس يرَين يكشم ىنوط ،ىاكةكضيرؤب ؤت ىروتسةئ و 

. 

ةنايراكناِرؤط مةئ 

305


306 

ضيبلا نارئف روكذ يف لصملا نوريتسوتسيت ىوتسم و ىصخلا ىلع تيسوفيلاغ دربماتيسا نيديبملاريثأت 

للاخ نم جيزمك و ةدح ىلع لك ،تيسوفيلاغ 

و دربماتيسا ،تاديبملا نم نينثا ةيمس مييقتل ثحبلا اذه ءارجا 

مت 


تيرجا . ضيبلا نارئف روكذ 

يف لصملا نوريتسوتسيت ىوتسم و ،ةيونملا تابيبنلا كمس و رطق ،ىصخل 

ةيجيسن ةسارد 

ةعومجم يه ىلولاا ةعومجملا 

ىلع ،دربماتيسا 

ةعومجملا اما 

نم 

0.22 ml/L 

. تاعومجم عبس 

ىلع ةعزوم ضيبلا 

و 

0.16 ml/L 

. يلاوتلا ىلع،تيسوفيلاغ 

نم 4.166 mg/Lو 

تيطعا ةعباسلا ةعومجملاو . تيسوفيلاغ 

روكذلا 

نارئفلا نم 

نوثلاث 

و ةسمخ ىلع ةبرجتلا 

نم عرج اتيطعا ةثلاثلاو ةيناثلا ةعومجملا . ةيفنحلا ءام تيطعا ةرطيسلا 

3.125 ml/L 

ةدمل نارئفلا برشلا ءام ىلا تاديبملا ةفاضا مت . تيسوفيلاغ 

. لصملا 

نوريتسوتسيت ىوتسم يف 

تيسوفيلاغ اهتببس يتلا تاريغتلا 

،نيديبملا 

يجيزمب قلعتي اميف و . ىلولاا 

تاريغت ثودح 

نا نيح يف 

و 

ىلا تدا 

3.125 ml/L 

دربماتيسا 0.16 ml/L 

نم 

،ةدح 

ىلع 

4.166 mg/L 

لك 

. تاعرجلا زيكرت 

ا ةدايزب تدازا 

نوريتسوتسيت ىوتسم جئاتن تنيب نيح يف ،ةعباسلا 

ةعومجملا 

يف 

تاريغت 

تثدحا 

يناثلا جيزملا 

اتببس ،تيسوفيلاغ و دربماتيسا ،نيديبملا نأب 

نارئفلا روكذ ىصخل 

اتيطعا ةسماخلاو ةعبارلا ةعومجملا 

. يلاوتلا 

نم لك نم جيزم تيطعا دقف ةسداسلا 

و دربماتيسا 

،نيديبملا 

نأب 

نم 0.22 ml/L 

جئاتنلا تنيب 

دربماتيسا اهتببس ىتلا 

نم جيزم 

. عيباسا ةعبرا 

تاريغتلا نا ثيح 

ةعرجلاب ةناقم ًايونعم ًاعافترا تببس ةيناثلا ةعرجلا نا ثيح ةفلتخم ةروصب تناك 

ةصاخ ةداح تاريغت ثودح ةيجيسنلا ةساردلا تنيب 

امأ ةدح ىلع لك نيديبملاب ةنراقم ةيونعم تاريغت ثدحي مل لولاا جيزملا نأب 

ثحبلا اذاه نم جتنتسن نا نكمي . طقف 

،ةيونملا تابيبنلا كمس و رطق ،يجيسنلا 

بيكرتلا 

و 

لصملا 

دربماتيسا ديبملاب ةنراقم ةيونعم 

لصملا نوريتسوتسيت ىوتسم 

. 

تاريغتلا هذه ةدح نم تدادزا 

يف 

تاريغت 

نيديبملا جزم نأ و ضيبلا


PMINIMAL BLOCKING SETS IN PG(2,7) AND LOWER BOUNDS 

OF THE SIXTH AND SEVENTH BLOCKING SETS. 

ABSTRACT 

CHINAR A. KAREEM 

Dept. of Math., Faculty of Education, University of Zakho, Kurdistan Region-Iraq 

(Received: April 30, 2011; Accepted for publication: August 14, 2011) 

In this paper the minimal blocking sets of size 13 in PG(2,7) is classified we find an example of minimal blocking 

sets of size 13 with at most 5-secant and the existence of the minimal blocking sets of Rédei-type of size 13 is 

proved some important properties of the blocking set of size 13 in PG(2,7) is given. Also we find the lower bounds of 

sixth and seventh blocking sets in PG(2,16). 

KEYWORDS: blocking set, minimal blocking set, n-arc, Projective plane, affine plane. 

B 

INTRODUCTION 

locking sets were first studied in details 

in 1969 by Di Paola [10], who 

determined the minimum size of a non trivial 

blocking set in the projective planes of orders 4, 

5, 7, 8 and 9. They were originally defined as a 

game theory problem in [16]. A survey of 

blocking sets in projective planes can be found 

in [4]. Double blocking sets were first studied 

by Bruen in 1986 [6], properties of triple 

blocking sets of type (3, n) derived by de 

Resmini in 1987 [8]. Hill in [12] provided 

examples of triple blocking sets of size 4q -1 for 

q even and 4q for q odd. 

In a finite projective plane of order q, where 

q is the number of the elements of the Galois 

field a t- blocking set is a set of points such that 

each line contains at least t point of B and some 

line contains exactly t points of B [5]. A t – 

blocking set B is minimal or irreducible when no 

proper subset of it is a t – blocking set. In 

particular when t = 1 then B is called a blocking 

set. The name blocking set was originated in 

Game theory, Richardson[17], was the first one 

to look at larger planes, he showed that the 

minimal size of a blocking set in PG( 2,3) is 6, 

and noted that Baer sub-planes are examples of 

blocking set of size q � q �1in 

projective 

planes of square order. After that things were 

quiet for 13 years until Di Paola [10] introduced 

the idea of a projective triangle , which give an 

example of a blocking set of size 3(q+1)/2 in 

Desargusian planes of odd order[4]. That 

projective planes exit in these planes was shown 

by Bruen who also obtained the general lower 

bound q � q �1 

for the size of a blocking set 

in projective plane of odd order q. Bruen [7] 

gave the upper bound q q �1 

for a minimal 

blocking set I any projective plane of order q, 

and make the connection with Rédei's work on 

lacunary polynomials and small blocking sets in 

Desargusian planes. 

PRELIMINARIES 

This Section briefly summarize some of the 

basic notions concerning projective spaces, tblocking 

sets. We begin by the following 

definitions: A finite filed is a field with a finite 

number of elements. A field E is an extension 

field of a field F if there is an injective ring 

homomorphism F into E [11].A non constant 

polynomial f(x) is an irreducible polynomial in 

F[x] if f(x) cannot be expressed in F[x] as a 

product g(x) h(x) of non constants each of 

degree less than the degree of f(x) .Let GF(p) = 

Z / pZ Zp, p prime number, and let f(x) be an 

irreducible polynomial of degree h over 

GF(p),then 

h 

GF(p ) �GF(p)[x]/ (F(x)) � 

h�1 � i 

� 

��aiλ :a i�GF(p);F(λ) 

�0� 

i�0 � � 

is called a Galois Field of order q ; q=p h [ ]. 

The elements of GF(q) satisfy the equation x q = 

x, and there exists λ in 

GF(q)=GF(q)={0,1,�,� 2 ,… ,� q-2 }. 

A projective plane PG(2, q) is an incident 

structure of points and lines which consists of 

2 

2 

q � q �1points 

and q � q �1 

lines and every 

line contains q+1 points and every point pass 

q+1 lines. A (k, n) –arc K in PG(2,q) is a set of k 

307


points such that there is some n but no n+1 of 

them are collinear . A t – blocking set B in a 

projective plane PG(2, q) is a set of points such 

that each line in PG(2, q) contains at least t 

points of B and some line contains exactly t 

points of B. 

A t-blocking set is trivial when it contains 

only a line of PG(2,q).In specially If t=1, then 

B is called blocking set. If t=2, then B is called 

Double Blocking set. A t – blocking set B is 

minimal or irreducible when no proper sub set of 

it is a t – blocking set. A t-blocking set B of size 

b is small if b < t q + (q+3)/2. 

In this paper we work on the projective plane 

PG(2, 7) where the existence of the minimal 

blocking sets of size 13 and minimal blocking 

sets of Rédei-type of size 13 are proved and we 

give some important properties on minimal 

blocking sets and we find the lower bounds of 

sixth and seventh blocking sets in PG(2,16), and 

this is the difference between this work and the 

work of Di Paola , who determined the minimum 

size of a non trivial blocking set in the projective 

planes of orders 4, 5, 7, 8 and 9. 


projective plane PG(2, p) , p > 3 where p is 

prime , if t � (p+1)/2, then B � ( t �1) 

p. 

Theorem 2.2[4]. Let B be t- blocking set of size 

b in projective plane PG(2,q), then : 

q�1 

1. 2 

�r �q 

�q 

�1 

308 

i 

i�0 

q 1 

2. � � 

i�1 

q 1 

i�2 

q 1 

i r �b( 

q �1) 

i 

� 

3. �i ( i �1) 

r �b 

( b �1) 

� 

4. 

� � v 

i�1 

q�1 

5. � 

i�2 

q 

6. �� 

7. �� 

i q 

i 

�1 

( i �1) 

vi 

�b 

�1 

u �q 

�1 

i 

i 0 

q 

iui 

i 1 

�b 

. 

where r i : the total number of i-secant of B 

v i : the total number of i-secant through a point 

p of B. 

u i : the total number of i-secant through a point 

q of PG(2, q)\B. 


PG(2,q) , where t 

3, q = p 2d ,then B � t( 

q � q �1) 

. 

Theorem2.4[5]. Let B be a t-blocking set B in 

�1/ 

3 1/ 

6 1/ 

4 

PG(2,q),where t � min( 2 q , q / 2) 

, if q 

= p 2d ,p = 2,3, d � 2,then � t( 

q � q �1) 

B . 


PG(2,q), of size t(q+1)+c , let c2 = c3 = 2 -1/3 and 

cp = 1,if q = p 2 , where p is prime and p > 3,and 

t


then 

i 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

pi 

(1, 0, 0) 

(0, 1, 0) 

(0, 0, 1) 

(1, -3, 1) 

(1, 1, 3) 

(1, 3, 0) 

(0, 1, 3) 

(1, -3, 0) 

(0, 1, -3) 

(1, -3, 2) 

(1, -1, 2) 

(1, -1, -1) 

(1, 0, -2) 

(1, 2, 1) 

(1, 1, 2) 

Table (1): Points of the projective plane PG(2,7) 

i p i p 

i 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

i 

(1, -1, 3) 

(1, 3, 2) 

(1, -1, 0) 

(0, 1, -1) 

(1, -3, -3) 

(1, -2, -2) 

(1, 2, -2) 

(1, 2, -3) 

(1, -2, 3) 

(1, 3, 3) 

(1, 3, -2) 

(1, 2, 2) 

(1, -1, -2) 

(1, 2, 3) 

(1, 3, -1) 

Let L 1 be the line which contains the points , 

i�1 

L i � L T [13], i=1, . . ., 57, are the lines 

1. 

Table (2): Lines of PG(2,7) 

Lines Points 

L1 0 1 5 7 17 35 38 49 

L2 1 2 6 8 18 36 39 50 

L3 2 3 7 9 19 37 40 51 

L4 3 4 8 10 20 38 41 52 

L5 4 5 9 11 21 39 42 53 

L6 5 6 10 12 22 40 43 54 

L7 6 7 11 13 23 41 44 55 

L8 7 8 12 14 24 42 45 56 

L9 8 9 13 15 25 43 46 0 

L10 9 10 14 16 26 44 47 1 

L11 10 11 15 17 27 45 48 2 

L12 11 12 16 18 28 46 49 3 

L13 12 13 17 19 29 47 50 4 

L14 13 14 18 20 30 48 51 5 

L15 14 15 19 21 31 49 52 6 

L16 15 16 20 22 32 50 53 7 

L17 16 17 21 23 33 51 54 8 

L18 17 18 22 24 34 52 55 9 

L19 18 19 23 25 35 53 56 10 

L20 19 20 24 26 36 54 0 11 

L21 20 21 25 27 37 55 1 12 

L22 21 22 26 28 38 56 2 13 

L23 22 23 27 29 39 0 3 14 

L24 23 24 28 30 40 1 4 15 

L25 24 25 29 31 41 2 5 16 

L26 25 26 30 32 42 3 6 17 

L27 26 27 31 33 43 4 7 18 

L28 27 28 32 34 44 5 8 19 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40 

41 

42 

43 

44 

i 

(1, 0, 3) 

(1, 3, 1) 

(1, 1, -1) 

(1, 0, -3) 

(1, -2, 1) 

(1, 1, 0) 

(0, 1, 1) 

(1, -3, -2) 

(1, 2, 0) 

(0, 1, 2) 

(1, -3, 3) 

(1, 3, -3) 

(1, -2, -3) 

(1, -2, -1) 

(1, 0, 2) 

45 

46 

47 

48 

49 

50 

51 

52 

53 

54 

55 

56 

pi 

(1, -1, 1) 

(1, 1, -3) 

(1, -2, 2) 

(1, -1, -3) 

(1, -2, 0) 

(0, 1, -2) 

(1, -3, -1) 

(1, 0, -1) 

(1, 0, 1) 

(1, 1, 1) 

(1, 1, -2) 

(1, 2, -1) 

of PG(2,7) , then the 57 lines Li are given by the 

following two table: 

L29 28 29 33 35 45 6 9 20 

L30 29 30 34 36 46 7 10 21 

L31 30 31 35 37 47 8 11 22 

L32 31 32 36 38 48 9 12 23 

L33 32 33 37 39 49 10 13 24 

Table (3): Lines of PG(2,7) 

Lines Points 

L34 33 34 38 40 50 11 14 25 

L35 34 35 39 41 51 12 15 26 

L36 35 36 40 42 52 13 16 27 

L37 36 37 41 43 53 14 17 28 

L38 37 38 42 44 54 15 18 29 

L39 38 39 43 45 55 16 19 30 

L40 39 40 44 46 56 17 20 31 

L41 40 41 45 47 0 18 21 32 

L42 41 42 46 48 1 19 22 33 

L43 42 43 47 49 2 20 23 34 

L44 43 44 48 50 3 21 24 35 

L45 44 45 49 51 4 22 25 36 

L46 45 46 50 52 5 23 26 37 

L47 46 47 51 53 6 24 27 38 

L48 47 48 52 54 7 25 28 39 

L49 48 49 53 55 8 26 29 40 

L50 49 50 54 56 9 27 30 41 

L51 50 51 55 0 10 28 31 42 

L52 51 52 56 1 11 29 32 43 

L53 52 53 0 2 12 30 33 44 

L54 53 54 1 3 13 31 34 45 

L55 54 55 2 4 14 32 35 46 

L56 55 56 3 5 15 33 36 47 

L57 56 0 4 6 16 34 37 48 

309


310 

MINIMAL BLOCKING SETS 

OF SIZE 13 IN PG(2,7). 

Let B be a minimal blocking set of size 13 in 

PG(2,7). 

Theorem 4.1[13]. Let V be a vector space of 

dimension n over a finite field GF(q), then any 

sub set of V intersect every prime of V contain 

at least n(q – 1)+1of points. 

Lemma 4.2.[18]. In PG(2,q), let B be a minimal 

blocking set of size q +k, and suppose there is a 

line L intersecting B in exactly k-1 points. Then 

there is a points O � B such that every line 

joining O to a point of L\B contains two points 

of B. Hence k � ( q � 3) 

\ 2. 

Lemma 4.3. Any point of B lies on at least two 

tangents 

Proof . Let p �B 

and let L be a tangent line to 

B at p. Consider PG(2,7)\L and call this 

AG(2,7). Then a set B\L of size 12 remains .A 

minimal blocking set in AG(2,7) contains at 

least 13 points . This means that we have to add 

at least one point to B\L to get a blocking set in 

AG(2,7). The external lines to B\L in AG(2,7) 

are the tangents to B at p , different from L. 

Hence p lies on at least two tangents to B. 

Lemma 4.4. In PG(2,q), let B be a minimal 

blocking set of size q +k, and suppose there is a 

line L intersecting B in exactly k-1 points. Then 

there is a points O � B such that every line 

joining O to a point of L\B contains two points 

of B. Hence k � ( q � 3) 

\ 2. 

Theorem 4.5. There is minimal blocking set of 

size 13 in PG(2,7), having 5-secant, but no 6secant. 

Proof. Let (x, y, z) denote the coordinates of a 

projective point . Let L be a 5-secant to B, let L 

be the line at infinity of the corresponding affine 

plane, and let { p 1 , p2 

, p3 

} = L\B. By lemma 

4.4, there is an affine point O � B for which the 

lines Op i , i=1,2,3 are bisecants. These lines 

contain six affine points of B. Let U1 and U2 

be 

the remaining affine points. Since the points 

p only lie on one 2-secant and six tangents , the 

i 

lines U1 pi 

are tangents for i=1,2,3. Furthermore 

the line OU1is a line passing through a point of 

B � L .We select the reference system in the 

following way Let 

p1 � ( 0, 

1, 

0) 

, p2 

� ( 1, 

0, 

0) 

, p3 

� (1,3,0) . Since the 

subgroup of PGL(2,7) stabilizing 

{ p1, p2 

, p3} 

acts transitively on the 5 other 

points of L , let 

OU passthrough 

(1,1,0) . Let O � (0,0,1), we can assume 

1 

that 1 

U =(1,1,1) .Consider now the affine plane 

PG(2,7)\L. Let B� � B \ ( L �{ 

U 

1 

, U 

2 

}. Then two 

points of B� lie on X=0, two on Y=0, and two on 

Y=3X, since these are the lines OP i , i=1,2,3. 

Moreover on every horizontal line Y = k , 

vertical line X=k, and on every line Y=3X +k 

with k≠0, there is one point of B. In particular on 

the lines X=1, Y=1, Y=3X-2 , Y=X which all 

pass through U 1 , there are no points of B� , this 

cancels already a lot of points of AG(2,7). 

(0,0) (0,1) (0,-1) (0,2) (0,-2) (0,3) (0,-3) 

(1,0) (1,1) (1,-1) (1,2) (1,-2) (1,3) (1,-3) 

(-1,0) (-1,1) (-1,-1) (-1,2) (-1,-2) (-1,3) (-1,-3) 

(2,0) (2,1) (2,-1) (2,2) (2,-2) (2,3) (2,-3) 

(-2,0) (-2,1) (-2,-1) (-2,2) (-2,-2) (-2,3) (-2,-3) 

(3,0) (3,1) (3,-1) (3,2) (3,-2) (3,3) (3,-3) 

(-3,0) (-3,1) (-3,-1) (-3,2) (-3,-2) (-3,3) (-3,-3) 

On the line Y=3X,we will select two points 

from the set 

L 1 � {( �1, 

�3), 

( 2, 

�1), 

( 3, 

2), 

( �3, 

�2)} 

, and on 

the line X=0 , we need to select two points from 

the set L 2 � {( 0, 

�1), 

( 0, 

2), 

( 0, 

3), 

( 0, 

�3)}. 

Also 

we need to select two points on the line Y=0 to 

be in B� . This gives the following six 

possibilities. We choose (2,0) and (-3,0) from 

line Y=0. This choice eliminates (2,-1) and (-3,- 

2) of L 1. 

Since we cannot have two points of 

B� on the same horizontal line different from the 

first line .On Y=3X+1 and Y=3X+2 , the two 

lines through p3 and (2,0),(-3,0) we cannot 

select any other point of B� , since these lines 

must be tangents to B , this eliminates (0,2) of 

L 2 . Hence this choice will gives us (2,0), (-3,0) 

from Y=0 , and the point (-1,-3), (3,2) from 

L 1 and the points (0,-1), (0,3),(0,-3) from L 2 . If 

we choice two points from Y=0, two points from 

L 1, 

and two points from L 2 , we will get to the 

three possibilities to six points of B� . So we will 

choice (2,0), (-3,0) from Y=0, and (-1,-3), (3,2) 

from 1 L , and (0,-1), (0,3) from L 2 to be six 

affine points of B� . By identify the projective 

points (x ,y) with (x,y,1) we get the following 

points {(1,0,-3), (1,0,2), (1,3,-1), (1,3,-2), (0,1,-


1),(0,1,2)}, take these points with the points 

from B � L :{(1,1,0), (1,-1,0), (1,2,0), (1,- 

2,0),(1,-3,0)}, and with the points U 1 =(1,1,1) 

and U 2 =(1,1,3) we get the minimal blocking 

sets of size 13 with 5-secant but no 6-secant. 

Definition 4.6 [16 ]. An elation of PG(2,7) is an 

automorphism that fixes all points on a line l, 

and that fixes all lines through a certain point p 

of l is called the axis of the elation , and the 

point p is the center of the elation . 

The order of an elation alpha of PG(2,q), q=p h , p 

prime , is equal to the prime p. 

Definition 4.7. [ 17]. A minimal t- blocking set 

B is of Rédei-type in PG(2, q) if there is a line 

contains k points of B such that B \ L = q. 

Theorem 4.8. There is minimal blocking 13-set 

of Rédei-type in PG(2,7). 

Proof. Let (x, y ,z) denote the coordinates of a 

projective point.Let L:Z=0, be the Rédei-line 

and let pi � ( xi 

, yi 

, 1) 

� ( xi 

, yi 

) , i=1,…,7, be 

the affine points of the blocking set B� . Let A= 

(0,1,0), B=(1,0,0), since all affine lines X=a, 

through A and Y=b through B contain exactly 

one affine point of the blocking set, we have 

x i � x j and yi 

� y j if i � j. 

These two conditions will be used in the search 

for minimal blocking set of Rédei -type, let p 1 = 

(0,0), using perceptivities with axis L and center 

p 1 , we can set p 2 =(1,1). Again using 

perceptivities with axis L and center p 2 ,we can 

set p 3 =(2,2). The criteria for selecting a next 

point 

pi 

� ( xi 

, yi 

) , x i �{ 

x1,..., 

xi�1}, 

yi 

�{ 

y1 

,..., y j�1} 

. In the discussion of the different cases , when 

selecting p i . We will always talk about the used 

xi and the used y . For this choice of 

i 

p p , p , the used x are : 0, 

1, 

2 the used 

1, 

2 3 

i 

y are 0,1,2, the above mentioned criterion gives 

i 

four possibilities for p 4 namely p 4 �{(3,- 

1),(3,-2),(3,3),(3,-3)}. We choice p 4 =(3,-2). 

Then the used x i are 0,1,2,3 and the used yi are 

0,1,2,-2. For 5 p =(-3, y 5 ).By the above two 

conditions, we have y �{ 

�1, 

3, 

�3} 

we choice 

p 5 =(-3,3). Then the used i 

5 

x are 0,1,2,3,-3, and 

the used y i are 0,1,2,-2. For 6 p =(-2, 6 

y ) and by 

the two conditions we have y �{ 

�1, 

�3}, 

we 

choice 6 p =(-2,-1). Then the used x i are 

0,1,2,3,-3,-2, the used yi are 0,1,2,-2,3,-1, for 7 p 

=(-1, y 7 ), by the two above condition we have 

p 7 =(-1,-3). Hence we get to the seven affine 

points :(0,0) , (1,1) , (2,2) , (3,-2) , (-3,3) , (-2,-1) 

, (-1,-3). By identify the projective points (x,y) 

with (x, y, 1) we get the following points {(0, 0, 

1), (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, -3), (1, -3, -2), (1, -1, 2), (1, - 

3, 3), (1, 3, -1)}. These points with the six points 

of B � L ={(1,1,0), (1,-1,0), (1,2,0),(1,- 

2,0),(1,3,0), (1,-3,0)} form the minimal blocking 

set of Rédei-type. 

SOME PROPERTIES OF MINIMAL BLOCKING 

SETS OF SIZE 13 IN PG(2,7). 

Lemma 5.1. There are no minimal blocking sets 

of size 13 with 1-, 2-, 4-secants but without 

3-secant . 

Proof. Suppose there are only 1-,2-,and 4secants 

. Let the numbers of them denoted by a, 

b, d, respectively. Then the following equations 

must hold by standard counting arguments . 

a + b + d =57 . . . (1) 

a + 2b +4d = 104 . . . (2) 

2b + 12d = 156 . . . (3) 

From these equations we get 6d= 62 which is 

not possible for 6 does not divide 62. 

Lemma 5.2. If B has no 2-secant, then B has at 

least one 4-secant. 


.Let the number of them denoted by a, c, 

d, respectively. Then the following equations 

must hold by standard counting arguments. 

a + c + d =57 . . . (1) 

a + 3c +4d = 104 . . . (2) 

6c + 12d = 156 . . . (3) 

From these equations we get d = 5. 

Lemma 5.3. There are at most six point of B on 

any line of it. 

Proof. Let L be a 7- secant to B, since the seven 

lines through p, where p � L \ B, 

contains at 

least one point of B, hence there is one line from 

the other seven lines not contains any point of B, 

which contradicts the fact that B is a blocking 

set. 

Lemma 5.4. Every blocking set of size 13 in 

PG(2,7), has at least four points on a line. 

6 

311



. Let the number of them denoted by a , b 

, c , respectively . Then the following equations 

must hold by standard counting arguments. 

a + b + c =57 . . . (1) 

a + 2b +3c = 104 . . . (2) 

2b + 6c = 156 . . . (3) 

From these equations, we get b= -15, which 

is impossible. 

Lemma 5.5. Let B have at most four points on a 

line . Let the number of 1-,2-,3- and 4- secants 

be denoted by a , b , c, d, respectively. Then 

these numbers satisfy one of the following 

possibilities 

312 

a b c d Possibilities 

31 15 1 10 (i) 

32 12 4 9 (ii) 

33 9 7 8 (iii) 

34 6 10 7 (iv) 

35 3 13 6 (v) 

36 0 16 5 (vi) 

Proof. The standard counting arguments give: 

a + b + c + d =57 . . . (1) 

a + 2b +3c + 4d = 104 . . . (2) 

2b + 6c + 12 d = 156 . . . (3) 

From these equations we can deduce: 

a = 41 – d; 

b = -15 + 3d; 

c = 31 -3d; 

Since c ≥ 0 , we get d ≤ 0. 

Lemma 5.6. If B has at most 5-secant, then any 

point not belong to B has at most six tangents. 

Proof. If a point p � B, 

lies on seven tangents 

then the eighth line contains the 6 remaining 

points of B, which contradicts. Since B has at 

most 5 –secants. 

Lemma 5.7. Any point not belonging to B has 

at most seven tangents. 

Proof. If p � B, 

lies on eight tangents ,then 

B � 8* 1 � 8, 

which contradicts the size of 

B. Lemma 5.8. Let L 1 be a 6-secant to B 

and L 2 , be a 5-secant to B then L1 � L2 

, in a 

point in B. 

Proof. Assume L1 � L2 

={p}, and p � B, 

then 

B � 6 � 5 � 6 � 17, 

which contradicts the size 

of B. 

Lemma 5.9. Let L be a 6-secant of L � B , there 

is at most one 5-secant . 

Proof. Let p be a point of L � B , and assume 

there are two 5-secants through p, then 

B � 6 � 2* 

4 � 14, 


of B. 

Lemma 5.10. Let L be a 4-secant to b , then 

through any point of L � B , there is at most 

four 3-secant. 

Proof. Let p be a point of L � B , and assume 

there are five 3-secant through p, then 

B � 4 � 5* 

2 �14, 


of B. 

Lemma 5.11. Every two 6-secants to B are 

intersected in a point on B . 

Proof. If two 6-secants intersect in p � B, 

then 

B � 2* 6 � 6 � 18, 

which is contradicts the size 

of B. 

Lemma 5.12. There are at most two 6-secants 

through any point of B. 

Proof. By lemma 5.11.every two 6-secants to B 

are intersected in a point on B. Now assume 

there are three 6-secants through a point p � B, 

then B � 3* 5 �1 

� 16, 

and that is impossible. 

So through every point of B , there are at most 

two 6-secants. 

LOWER BOUNDS OF SIXTH AND 

SEVENTHBLOCKING SETS 

IN PROJECTIVE PLANEPG(2, 16) 

In this section we find the lower bound in the 

projective plane PG(2, q), q square the of 6 – 

blocking set when q > 36 and q = 16. Also we 

find the lower bound of a 7 – blocking set when 

q > 49 and q = 16. 

6.1. The projective plane PG(2, 16). 

Let F(x) = x 3 + x 2 + x +λ be a conic polynomial 

over GF(16) then the companion matrix of F(x) 

�0 

1 0� 

T= 

� � 

� 

0 0 1 , is cyclic projectivity onPG(2, 

� 

�� 

� 1 1�� 

16) , {λ= -λ}, let π = GF(16) = {0, 1, λ i } 

where i and λ 15 =1. The number of point 

in the PG(2, 16) are 273 points and 273 lines and 

every line passes through 17 points. 

6.2. Sixth and seventh blocking sets in PG(2, 

16) 

The object of this section is to obtain good 

lower bounds for the size of sixth blocking sets 

in PG(2, q), q is square integer[12 ]. 

The following are the Table of the largest (k, 

n)- arc in PG(2, q) for small q.


Table 4: The size of the largest (k, n) – arc in PG(2, q) for small q. 

q n 3 4 5 7 8 9 11 13 16 

2 4 6 6 8 10 10 12 14 18 

3 9 11 15 15 17 21 23 28 … 33 

4 16 22 28 28 32 … 34 38 … 40 52 

5 29 33 37 43 … 45 49 … 53 65 

6 36 42 48 56 64 …66 78…82 

7 49 55 67 79 93…97 

8 65 77 … 78 92 120 

9 89 … 90 105 128…131 

10 100 -102 118 …119 142…148 

11 132…133 159…164 

12 145…147 180…181 

13 195...199 

14 210…214 

15 231 

16 

Theorem 6.3. Let B be sixth blocking set in 

PG(2, q) , q is square such that through each 

of it is points there are +1 lines, each line 

contains at least +6 points of B and 

forming a dual Baer sub line. Then: 

1. For q > 36, B has at least 6q + 2 +6 

points. 

2. For q =16, B has at least 6q + +9 

points. 

Proof.1. Call the lines meeting B in +6 

or more points long lines. If two long line 

meet outside of B, then B has at least 2 ( 

+6) + 6(q -1) = 6q + 2 points and the 

desired bound is obtained [18 ]. Hence 

B � 6q + 2 . So to assume that two 

long lines meet in B. Take l, a long line, and 

p, a point of B not on l. Then the long lines 

through p contain a dual Baer sub line and 

meet l in a Baer sub line. Let Q be a point on 

this Baer sub line. Consider long lines 

through a point on a 6-secant to Q. These 

meet l in another Baer sub line not 

containing Q. Two Baer sub lines meet in at 

most two points and so l has at least 2 

points. Since l was arbitrary every long line 

has at least 2 and it follow that B 

has at least ( (2 -1) +1 +5(q- ) 

= 7q - 4 points. Since 7q - 4 6q + 

2 for all so that B � 6q + 

2 . 

Proof.2. If two long lines meet outside of B, 

then B has at least 2( ) +6( q-1) = 6 q 

+2 points. Hence B � 6 q + 2 . 

Let p B, through B, since there are +1 

long lines through p. So B has at least ( 

+1)( +5)+1+5(q+1- ( +1)= 6q + +6 

points. Now B � 106. If this bound is a 

chafed then (k, 11) – arc has k = 167 and 

that impossible. [ See Table in 5.1.]. If B = 

6q + +7 then k = 166, that impossible. 

Since k 164, hence B � 6q + 

Corollary 6.4. There exists (k,11) – arc in 

PG(2, 16) ,where k . 

Proof. Finding a maximum ( k, 11) –arc is 

equivalent to finding the minimum sixth 

blocking sets by considering complements. 

From theorem 6.3, the lower bound of sixth 

blocking set is 6 q + 2 So B must 

have at least 110 points and since n = q +1-t 

, then (k, 11) –arc have at most 163 points 

. 

Theorem 6.5. Let B be seventh blocking set 

in PG(2, q) , q is square such that through 

each of it is points there are +1 lines, 

313


each line contains at least +7 points of B 

and forming a dual Baer sub line. Then: 

1. For q > 49, B has at least 7q + 2 +7 

points. 

2. For q =16, B has at least 7q + +9 

points. 

Proof.1. Call the lines meeting B in +7 

or more points long lines. If two long lines 

meet outside of B, then B has at least 2 ( 

+7) + (q -1) = 7q + 2 points and the 

desired bound is obtained. Hence B � 7 q + 

2 . So to assume that two long lines 

meet in B. Take l, a long line, and p, a point 

of B not on l. Then the long lines through p 

contain a dual Baer sub line and meet l in a 

Baer sub line. Let Q be a point on this Baer 

sub line. Consider long lines through a point 

on a 7-secant to Q. These meet l in another 

Baer sub line not containing Q. Two Baer 

sub lines meet in at most two points and so l 

has at least 2 points. Since l was arbitrary 

every long line has at least 2 and 

it follow that B has at least ( (2 - 

1) +1 +6(q- ) = 8q - 5 points. Since 8q 

- 5 7q + 2 for all so that 

B � 7q + 2 . 

Proof .2. If two long lines meet outside of B, 

then B has at least 2( ) +7( q-1) = 7q 

+ 2 points. Hence B � 7q + 2 . 

Let p B, through B, since there are +1 

long lines through p. So B has at least ( 

+1)( +6)+1+6(q+1- ( +1)= 7q + +7 

points. Now B � 123. If this bound is hold 

then (k, 10) – arc has k = 150 and that 

impossible. [ See Table 4 in 6.2.]. If B = 7q 

+ +8 then k = 149, that impossible. Since 

k 148, hence B � 7q + 

Corollary 6.6. There exists (k,10) – arc in 

PG(2, 16) ,where k . 

Proof. Finding a maximum ( k, 10) –arc is 

equivalent to finding the minimum seventh 

blocking sets by considering complements. 

314 

From theorem 5.4., the lower bound of 

seventh blocking set is 7q + 2 So B 

must have at least 127 points and since n = q 

+1-t , then (k, 10) –arc have at most 146 

points. 

REFERENCES 

- S. Ball, An Introduction to Finite Geometry, (2004), 1- 

63. 

- J. Barát and S. Innamorati ,Largest minimal blocking sets 

in PG(2, 8), J. Combin. Designs. (2003), 11: 162- 

169. 

- A. Barlotti, Su{k, n} – archi di un piano lineare finite, 

Boll. Un. Mat.Ital.,11,(1956),553-556. 

- A. Blokhuis, Blocking sets in Desargues an planes, 

Bolyai Soc. Math.Studies, (1993), 1-20. 

- A. Blokhuis, Blocking sets in Desargues an planes, 

Bolyai Sco . Math . Studies 

2., (1996),133 – 156. 

- M. Blokler , K.Metsch , On the smallest minmal blocking 

sets, In Contribution to algebra and geometry , 

Vol.43(2004), 43-53. 

- A. A.Bruen,, Arcs and multiple blocking sets, 

Combinatorial, Symposia, Mathematica 28., 

Academic Press,(1986), 15-29 

- M. J. De Resmini, On 3-blocking sets in 

projectiveplanes,Ann.Discr.Math.,34,(1987), 145- 

152. 

- G.V. De Voorde, Blocking sets in finite projective spaces 

and coding theory, Ph.D thesis(2010). 

- J. di Paola, On minimum blocking coalitions in small 

projective plane games, SIAM J. Appl. Math., 

17.,(1969), 378-392. 

- N. Hamilton, More maximal arcs in Desargues an 

projective planes and their geometric structure, Ad . 

Geom. 3,(2003) 251 – 261 . 

- R. Hill, On (k, n)-arcs and the falsity of the Lunelli –Sce 

conjecture, London Math. Soc. Lecture Note 

Series., 49,(1981), 153-168. 

- J. W. P, Hirschfield, Projective Geometries over Finite 

Field, Oxford University Press, Oxford, (1979). 

- J. W. P, Hirschfield, The packing problem in statistics, 

coding theory and finite projective spaces, update 

2001 , in : Finite Geometries , Developments in 

Mathematic 3., (2001), 201 - 246 

- S. Innamorate, Minimal blocking sets in PG(2, 8) and 

maximal partial spreads in PG(3,8), Designs, Codes 

and Cryptography, 13.,(2004) 15-26. 

- L. Re ' dei, Lacunary Polynomial over Finite Field, 

Birkhuser Verlag, Basel,(1973). 

- M. Richardson, On finite projective games, Proc. Amer. 

Math. Soc., 7, (1956), 458-465. 

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Eight, Ph. D. Thesis, University of Sussex, 

England,(1986).


انيئ كةنوونم ةم . نرك ينلوث ةنيتاه اد 

PG(2, 7) 

ذ ىرك كؤمب نَيمؤك نيتركوضب انووبةه و رةرب 

د 31 َىرابةق ذ ىرك كؤمب نَيمؤك نيتركوضب ،ادَىنيلوكةظ َىظد 

5 

ةظيترث َىيلا لةطد 

PG(2,7) د 31 َىرابةق ذ ىرك كؤمب اموك ذ طنرط نَيتةخؤلاس كةدنه . ندنالمةس ةيتاه 

نيج 

. اد 

PG(2,q) 

PG(2, 7) 

31 

ةتخوث 

َىرابةق ذ ىرك كؤمب نَيمؤك نيتركوضب ذ 

31 

َىرابةق ذ 

د ىتفةح و ىشةش نَييىرك كؤمب نَيمؤك ؤب نرك اديةث ىرَيذ نَيرونس ةم اسةورةه 

نلأيطاا لاا يتبلا يف 

داي ن ىيلع ةيتذ ثبف نيت ث ان نجيطنبي نيخ ن يثراا ىيلع يل بت 

ييخف دنييا نف نييتب نييبر . 

دنييا نف نيتب نييض ا . 

. 

يف ل د ع 

PG(2, 7) 

PG(2, 7) 

q 

نل تع 

31 

Redei 

َىروج 

. ناد ةنتاه اد 


يا ا ة ميصتا ةيجثلنلألا يجلنيابلا اجتيا ف نيتب ني ثلا ا يذ يف 

31 

نلأييطاا لاا ييتبلا ييف لا يي ر – 

نلأيطاا لاا ييتبلا 

PG(2,q) 

يف 

31 

ا ا ة مصأ ةجثلن ةعابال ىلع لنثل دنا نف نتب 

اييع نييل 

31 

ييا ا ة مييصأ ةييجثلن ةييعابال 

يا ا ة مييصاا ةيجثلنلألا ةييعابابلل ةيبةبلا ا نياخلا 

نلأطاا لاا تبلا ف ةجطا تلان ةجطنبخلا ةجثلنلألا يجلنابلل نجع لا داجلألا 

315

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