Rural Income Generation and Diversification - A Case Study ... - Doria

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32 households were directly afflicted 11 and a further 20 per cent had been indirectly affected 12 by HIV/AIDS. Annual time lost per adult because of sickness increased rapidly, and the time needed for care and funerals also increased. There was some evidence that healthy adults in wealthy households, which often had wider networks than the poorer ones, had to work harder than their poorer counterparts to tend sick and orphaned relatives (ibid.). The prevalence of HIV/AIDS will have a long-term impact on rural households. The main findings of the Monze district HIV/AIDS study (Waller 1997) suggested that household age structures were changing as adults were passing away during their productive years. Further, women and grandparents cared for the sick and the orphaned, and became overburdened. Vulnerability varied between households according to their wealth and size, but in the long run the labour shortage was generally detrimental to agricultural sustainability. Households ran short of cash for farming and livestock investment, as there was no way of replenishing these resources. Chapoto and Jayne (2005) concluded, however, that when analysing the impact of the death of a productive member of the household on production, the position of the deceased person as well as the initial conditions of the household need to be taken into account. They found in Zambia that specifically the wealthier households after a death of an adult member were able to attract new members and as such restore their supply of labour. 2.2.2 Droughts Between the early 1990s and the mid-2000s Zambia was hit twice by severe droughts and also experienced some years with low rainfall. Meanwhile, some areas along the main rivers suffered from occasional floods, especially towards the end of each rainy season. Drought normally hits the main agricultural and livestock-producing areas, the southern, central, eastern and western parts of the country, harder than the north. The 1991/92 region-wide drought caused total crop failure in large areas of Southern, Central and Eastern Provinces. The government was unprepared for the emergency and Zambia became heavily dependent on external food aid and seeds. According to FAO (FAOSTAT 2002) the 1992 food productionindex was at 82, down from the 1989-1991 level of 100. Households also suffered from losses of livestock owing to poor pastures and the unavailability of water. Animals had to be slaughtered or sold in order to release money for food. Some areas of Southern Province suffered again from drought in 1994/95, but because the local and government institutions were better prepared there was less economic loss on the household level (Bangwe 1997). The second major drought occurred during the 2000/01 and 2001/02 growing seasons. Some parts of the country suffered from excessive rains in 2001/02, while other areas struggled with drought. FAO (2002) estimated that natural disasters reduced the 2001 maize harvest by 11 Afflicted meaning that one or more resident members of the family was sick or had died of AIDS-related illnesses. 12 Indirectly affected means that one or several members of the household have spent time or resources on nurs- ing a sick relative not being an immediate member of the household.
a quarter compared to the previous year and production declined by another 200,000 metric tonnes during the subsequent growing season according to the Central Statistical Office (CSO 2003b). The 2002 harvest was just above half of the 2000 harvest and the expected 2003 harvest. The drought-related problems were unevenly distributed: southern and southwestern parts suffered particularly badly, whereas Eastern Province managed to maintain its production. According to one assessment of Zambia’s food-aid needs (ZVAC 2003), following the poor 2001/02 harvest in Lusaka, Southern and Western Provinces, 75 per cent of their combined population needed food aid. On the national level, it was estimated that 26 per cent were in need, i.e., approximately 2.65 million people. The food-need assessment missions also emphasised the close links between food insecurity and chronic illness, especially HIV/AIDS. 2.2.3 Poverty Zambia falls into the low human development category with 72.6 per cent of its population under the one USD/day poverty line and 86 per cent under the national poverty line, according to the 2000 Human Development Report (UNDP 2000) on the country’s living conditions and poverty situation. In 2000 it was number 153 on a list of 174 countries ranked according to the human development index (HDI) 13 . The GNP per capita was in decline throughout the 1990s by an average 1.3 per cent per year. The same report reveals that 23.7 per cent of adults were illiterate, which is low compared to other countries in the same category. The illiteracy figures were higher for women than for men. The HDI declined during the 1990s, and poverty and food insecurity were closely linked. The daily per-capita supply of calories in 1970 was 2,173 and in 1997 it was 1,970. During the same period the daily percapita supply of protein dropped by almost 20 per cent. Households spent 47 per cent of their income on food in 1997. According to the WHO report (2002), only 14 per cent of the rural population had access to health services, while among the urban population, the figure was 34 per cent. In terms of gender differences, in many respects the women were worse off than the men. Kupanda (1999a) described poverty conditions in Zambia at the household level. He classified a household as poor, for example: If its hut, house or shelter is small, made of locally collected materials If it had little furniture: mats for sleeping, a bed, cooking pots, and a few tools If it had no toilet or an unsanitary one If the land it possessed did not assure or barely assured subsistence If it had little or no livestock, or has only small livestock (hens, ducks, goats, pigs) If it borrowed from neighbours, kin and traders, and was in short-term or long-term debt If it had low labour productivity within the family 13 The human development index combines life expectancy at birth, the adult-literacy rate, the school- enrolment ratio, and adjusted per-capita income (UNDP 2000). 33
Page 1 and 2: Kaisa Karttunen Rural Income Genera
Page 3 and 4: University of Helsinki Department o
Page 5 and 6: CONTENTS 1. Introduction ..........
Page 7 and 8: Table 6. Percentages of income from
Page 9: WFP World Food Programme WHO World
Page 12 and 13: 12 man 2002). These include income-
Page 14 and 15: 14 The following questions were for
Page 16 and 17: 16 of household comsumption is also
Page 18 and 19: 18 Zambian farmers fall into three
Page 20 and 21: 20 impact on rural poverty. Startin
Page 22 and 23: 22 1992 consumer and transportatio
Page 24 and 25: 24 The Government of Zambia (GRZ) i
Page 26 and 27: 26 inadequate monitoring of the act
Page 28 and 29: 28 Distributor Scheme was fully in
Page 30 and 31: 30 as tobacco and cotton the out-gr
Page 34 and 35: 34 If it had no control over the m
Page 36: 36 According to the AHM, a househol
Page 39 and 40: icultural economy was opened up to
Page 41 and 42: Similar concerns were shared by Tay
Page 43 and 44: order to reduce income variablity.
Page 45 and 46: of infrastructure development, the
Page 47 and 48: which implies that diversification
Page 49 and 50: Haggblade et al. (2002) argue that
Page 51 and 52: In many cases the processing of the
Page 53 and 54: 4.9 Rural income diversification in
Page 55 and 56: Table 3. Rural income-diversificati
Page 57 and 58: 1990s - made the farmers reluctant
Page 59 and 60: In addition to asset endowments and
Page 61 and 62: 5.1.2 The 2003 dataset The second s
Page 63 and 64: clarifying some concepts and assess
Page 65 and 66: 5.2 Methods The theoretical grounds
Page 67 and 68: able random variables not explicitl
Page 69 and 70: Incshare 25 or Inclevel 26 = β0 +
Page 71: 5.2.4 Choosing the estimation metho
Page 74 and 75: 74 Both cash and in-kind income wer
Page 76 and 77: 76 Share of income 100 90 80 70 60
Page 78 and 79: 78 The households considered market
Page 80 and 81: 80 The proportion of income generat
Page 82 and 83:
82 The seasonality effect was clear
Page 84 and 85:
84 Since a lack of money was given
Page 86 and 87:
86 % of income 100 90 80 70 60 50 4
Page 88 and 89:
88 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Page 90 and 91:
90 6.1.7 Grouping households accord
Page 92 and 93:
92 number of adult members, was cri
Page 94 and 95:
94 more likely to use fertilisers a
Page 96 and 97:
96 holds. According to the responde
Page 98 and 99:
98 The following process was follow
Page 100 and 101:
100 6.1.9 The results of the econom
Page 102 and 103:
102 The categorisation of household
Page 104 and 105:
104 Table 20. Determinants of the s
Page 106 and 107:
106 In some cases the former househ
Page 108 and 109:
108 indicated thus an opposite tren
Page 110 and 111:
110 The Simpson diversification ind
Page 112 and 113:
112 tares - the difference being st
Page 114 and 115:
114 which brought more purchasing p
Page 116 and 117:
116 diversification index. Block an
Page 118 and 119:
118 evidence that households had no
Page 120 and 121:
120 such as piecework and forest la
Page 122 and 123:
122 7.2 Changes in the households b
Page 124 and 125:
124 lower soil fertility, and the l
Page 126 and 127:
126 8. Conclusions and recommendati
Page 128 and 129:
128 Rural non-farm activities are l
Page 130 and 131:
130 Politiikkamuutosten seurauksena
Page 132 and 133:
132 References Abdulai, A. & CroleR
Page 134 and 135:
134 CSO. 1997. Living Conditions Mo
Page 136 and 137:
136 Ellis, F., Kutengele, M. & Nyas
Page 138 and 139:
138 Heltberg, R. (mimeo) 2001. Comm
Page 140 and 141:
140 Lanjouw, J.O. & Lanjouw, P. 200
Page 142 and 143:
142 Ruotsi, J., Lindberg, O., Seger
Page 144 and 145:
144 Zulu, B., Nijhoff, J.J., Jayne,
Page 146 and 147:
146 Annex 2. The theoretical framew
Page 148 and 149:
148 1,050 millimetres, while in the
Page 150 and 151:
150 Annex 4. Schedule of the field
Page 152 and 153:
152 Annex 5. Three household cases
Page 154 and 155:
154 In the 1970s and 1980s, and eve
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