July 2007 Volume 10 Number 3 - Educational Technology & Society

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Upon examination of their essential attributes, it is clear that games and simulations are distinctive concepts. A game is a fictitious, whimsical or artificial situation in which players are put in a position of conflict. At times, players square off against one another; at other times, they are together and are pitted against other forces. Games are governed by rules which structure their actions in view of an objective or a purpose which is to win, to be victorious or to overcome an obstacle. They are integrated into an educational context when the learning objectives are associated formally to the content and the game enhances learning in the cognitive, affective and/or psychomotor domains. On the contrary, simulation is a simplified, dynamic and precise representation of reality defined as a system. A simulation is a dynamic and simplified model of reality and it is judged by its realism, by its correspondence to the system which it represents. A game is created without any reference to reality, what is never the case for a simulation or a simulation game. Simulation is not necessarily a conflict, a competition, and the person who uses it is not looking to win, what is the case in a game. Simulation is defined as a simplified, dynamic and accurate model of reality that is a system used in a learning context. Through its model, judged by its fidelity and its similarity to the reality it represents, a simulation is distinguished from a game that makes absolutely no reference to reality (although a “simulation game” combines these, and this is the subject of another paper). These attributes of a simulation are essential to its use in addressing educational objectives and to allowing learners to study complex and real phenomena, which is not the case with a game. Simulation does not necessarily involve conflict or competition, and the users are not trying to win, as they are always doing in a game. Many educational simulations, unlike games, can function without human intervention, for example, the dynamic representation a planetary movement in the solar system. Even if certain simulations identify one or more “winners” or “losers,” this attribute (inherent in games) is not essential to its definition. All educational games, as distinct from other learning activities, add the notion of winner/loser in a competition. For example, imagine a person who responds to questions and receives points. Once the activity ends, there is nothing to indicate that (s)he has won. All games establish rules that allow the determination of a winner and one or more losers. These are the same rules that provide the challenge and competition in the game. If one or more players participate in a simulation and interact with its various components, the notion of a winner and loser s introduced, this activity defines a new concept of “simulation game.” This concept will be discussed in a later paper. We wish to underscore that the identification of the essential attributes of “game” and “simulation” is important because this avoids the methodological weaknesses of many studies that we examined during our review of the literature on the impacts of games and simulations on learning. The notable weaknesses are: (1) poor theoretical framework; (2) weak and or deficient methodology (e.g., missing operational definitions of the study variables); and (3) a lack of a connection between the theory and application in the research environment (e.g., often the activity being studied is neither a game nor a simulation). In closing, we offer the following quotation (Feinstein & Cannon, 2002) that provides the motivation for this literature review: “This article rises out of frustration, the frustration from reading a wide variety of papers each using words like simulation, game, role playing, gaming, and symbolic modelling either without definition or inconsistency from one work to another.” References Arthur, D., Malone, S., & Nir, O. (2002). Optimal Overbooking. The UMAP Journal, 23(3), 283-300. Asakawa, T., & Gilbert, N. (2003). Synthesizing Experiences: Lessons To Be Learned from Internet-Mediated Simulation Games. Simulation & Gaming, 34(1), 10-22. 253
Bain, C., & Newton, C. (2003). Art Games: Pre-Service Art Educators Construct Learning Experiences for the Elementary Art Classroom. Art Education, 56(5), 33-40. Barnett, D. J., Everly, G. S. Jr., Parker, C. L., & Links, J. M. (2005). Applying educational gaming to public health workforce emergency preparedness. American Journal Prevention Medical, 28(4), 490-495. Borges, M. A. F., & Baranauskas, M. C. C. (1998). A user-centred approach to the design of an expert system for training. British Journal of Educational Technology, 29(1), 25-34. Brougère, G. (1999). Some Elements Relating to Children's Play and Adult Simulation/Gaming. Simulation & Gaming, 30(2), 134-46. Charrière, P., & Magnin, M. C. (1998). Simulations globales avec Internet: un atout majeur pour les départements de langues. The French Review, 72(2), 320-328. Cioffi, J., Purcal, N., & Arundell, F. (2005). A Pilot Study to Investigate the Effect of a Simulation Strategy on the Clinical Decision Making of Midwifery Students. Journal of Nursing Education, 44(3), 131-134. Claudet, J. G. (1998). Using multimedia case simulations for professional growth of school leaders: Administrator Case Simulation Project. T.H.E. Journal, 25(11), 82-86. Crawford, D. C. (1999). Managing the process of review: playing "Baseball" in class. Intervention in School and Clinic, 35(2), 93-95. Crookall, D. (1995) Simulation/Gaming: A guide to the literature. In D. Crookall & K. Arai (Eds.), Simulation and gaming across disciplines and cultures: ISAGA at a watershed, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. De Grandmont, N. (2004). Pédagogie du jeu…philosophie du ludique..., Retrieved June 4, 2007, from http://cf.geocities.com/ndegrandmont/index.htm. Demetriadis, S., Karoulis, A., & Pombortis, A. (1999). "Graphical" jog through: expert based methodology for user interface evaluation, applied in the case of an educational simulation interface. Computers & Education, 32(4), 285- 299. Dickey, M. D. (2005). Engaging By Design: How Engagement Strategies in Popular Computer and Video Games Can Inform Instructional Design. Educational Technology Research and Development, 53(2), 67-83. Eyraud, E. (1998). Le jeu dans l'apprentissage d'une langue vivante. Application à l'espagnol. Bulletin APLV – Strasbourg sommaire du n° 60. Résumé d'un mémoire de maîtrise LCE (Langue et Civilisation Étrangère) d'espagnol, Université Paris X Nanterre, Retrieved June 4, 2007, from http://averreman.free.fr/aplv/num60-jeuespagnol.htm. Feinstein, A. H., Mann, S., & Corsun, D. L. (2002). Charting the Experiential Territory: Clarifying Definitions and Uses of Computer Simulation, Games, and Role Play. Journal of Management Development, 21(10), 732-744. Feinstein, A. H., & Cannon, H. M. (2002). Constructs of Simulation Evaluation. Simulation & Gaming, 33(4), 425- 440. Garris, R., Ahlers, R., & Driskell, J. E. (2002). Games, Motivation, and Learning: A Research and Practice Model. Simulation & Gaming, 33(4), 441-467. Giordan, A. (1998). Apprendre, Paris: Belin. Goldenberg, D., Andrusyszyn, M., & Iwasiw, C. (2005). The Effect of Classroom Simulation on Nursing Students’ Self-Efficacy Related to Health Teaching. Journal of Nursing Education, 44(7), 310-314. 254
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July 2007 Volume 10 Number 3
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Advertisements Educational Technolo
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Distinguishing between games and si
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“sometimes” is less demanding t
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Figure 2. From generic skill to lea
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The large window on the left presen
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define competencies of individual a
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competency is composed of a single
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Generic Skills Classes 1 2 3 Receiv
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Figure 6. Extension of the competen
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Competency scale By combining the g
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activities, and resources present i
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Conclusion The importance given to
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Ainsworth, S. (2007). Using a Singl
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different instruction. For example,
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Author-focused studies Studies 1 an
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egression showed that students were
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REDEEM is now a senior citizen in t
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Chieu, V. M. (2007). An Operational
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When students discuss with peers, t
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COFALE as a learning environment an
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COFALE supports a set of predefined
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Tom is asked to prepare a list of g
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45-minute-long lecture and 2-hour-l
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as an easy-to-use technological mea
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Spiro, R. J., & Jehng, J. C. (1990)
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learning settings. However, such a
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introduced in the LOCO-Cite ontolog
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‘virtual subsection’) of the LO
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Accordingly, TANGRAM provides stude
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learning environment is to define t
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Acknowledgment This work is support
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Dron, J. (2007). Designing the Unde
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wikis and blogs (or at least, colle
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The darker side of social software
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for the beetles, whose guts act as
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The principle of sociability The pr
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Bonabeau, E., Dorigo, M., & Theraul
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Klamma, R., Chatti, M. A., Duval, E
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We perceive adaptivity and personal
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Mixed-method evaluation approach tr
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Garden of Knowledge - with a commun
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equirements for collaborative adapt
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Law, E. L.-C., & Hvannberg, E. T. (
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Wang, T. I., Tsai, K. H., Lee, M. C
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2.3 Recommendation Model Survey In
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Figure 1. The portion of the concep
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STEP4: Associated with concepts in
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A modified TF-IDF approach is used
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P(CK j x LOM ) = k NW max ∀ T∈
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4.2.2 Correlation-based algorithm I
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content feedback, it can be intuiti
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66% improvement in average, and, wh
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10. Comparisons
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index.aspx. ADL-2 (2001). Advanced
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Wolpers, M., Najjar, J., Verbert, K
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activity is taking place. For examp
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Figure 2: The CAM schema elements (
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• Context: the context element ca
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4.1 Generation of Attention Metadat
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addition, such keywords can be extr
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Action related data, data about sea
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Braun, S., & Schmidt, A. (2006). Do
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El-Bishouty, M. M., Ogata, H., & Ya
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collaboration (Ogata, et al., 1999)
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In case of LOI value is equal or cl
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Also, the learner can click on an e
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System Evaluation An experiment was
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In the fifth phase, 89% of the stud
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Fischer, G., & Konomi, S. (2005). I
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application for specific needs, whi
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(4) Multimedia: The truth is that e
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Program Company Price OS 6 eZediaMX
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Program Text editor Text import for
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Program Sound Formats Image Formats
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Program Image Painting Export Scrip
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Program Effects Needs player 5 Easy
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Program WYSIWYG Design Interactivit
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the grades awarded to the programs
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Grade Image formats Sound formats V
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Figure 3. Adequacy of image formats
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Animating objects, pictures, etc.,
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Educational overview Having taken m
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In summary, the final outcome is th
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Developing the Interactivity Survey
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technique. be treated as a desired
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55. A lecture in which student lear
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specific conclusions that researche
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Discussion and conclusion Although
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Juwah, C. (2003). Using peer assess
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Publish results Set a few goals for
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familiarity with computer terms, ex
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provide a framework for the integra
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tool themselves, and then gauge its
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associated with the effective use o
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portrayed as even more time-consumi
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Clarke, B. (2001). Corporate curric
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Neal, E. (1998). Using technology i
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Yearwood, J., & Stranieri, A. (2007
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entertaining (Neuhauser 1993). The
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in being addressed with the sequent
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The GAAM represents reasoning to a
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Other situations have more serious
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Page 225 and 226: services required by most clients i
Page 227 and 228: Wisdom. J. P., White, N., Goldsmith
Page 229 and 230: Work outside the U.S. has also prom
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Page 233 and 234: Parent-advocate respondents also re
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Page 241 and 242: underlying structure of the two pri
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Page 245 and 246: Table 3: An Analysis of Different V
Page 247 and 248: of males. Secondly, as far as age w
Page 249 and 250: Conclusion This study examined the
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Page 253 and 254: The design and validation of a text
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Page 261 and 262: Prensky, M. (2005). Adopt and Adapt
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Page 275 and 276: collaboration is not an easy task.
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Page 279 and 280: Soller, A., & Lesgold, A. (2000). K
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Page 293 and 294: DCMI (2003). DCMI Metadata Terms, R
Page 295 and 296: Literature review Astronomy educati
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Page 301 and 302: Figures 2-5 display screenshots of
Page 303 and 304: Results of the study reveal the imp
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Trumper, R. (2000). University stud
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ased on pre-defined adaptation rule
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Therefore, the higher-level items o
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common prefix with the existing pa
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later should be omitted (presented
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5.1 The Average Length of each Sequ
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Recall 6. Discussion 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.
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easily take lessons in a good learn
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Laborda, J. G., & Royo, T. M. (2007
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Chapter 8, Online reference tools,
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Kenyon, D. M., & Malabonga, V. (200
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and concise manner (e.g. Weeding =
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stream are chapters 7 and 8 which f
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