July 2007 Volume 10 Number 3 - Educational Technology & Society

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Aleven, V., Sewall, J., McLaren, B. M., & Koedinger, K. R. (2006). Rapid authoring of intelligent tutors for realworld and experimental use. In Kinshuk, R. Koper, P. Kommers, P. Kirschner, D. G. Sampson, & W. Didderen (Eds.), Proceedings of the 6th IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT 2006), (pp. 847–851). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. Bloom, B. S. (1984). The 2 sigma problem: The search for methods of group instruction as effective as one-to-one tutoring. Educational Researcher, 13(6), 4–16. Cohen, P. A., Kulik, J. A., & Kulik, C. C. (1982). Educational outcomes of tutoring: A metaanalysis of findings. American Educational Research Journal, 19, 237–248. IMS (2003). IMS Learning Design Specification. Retrieved March 29, 2007, from http://imsglobal.org/learningdesign/index.cfm Koper, E. J. R., & Manderveld, J. M. (2004). Educational modelling language: Modelling reusable, interoperable, rich, and personalised units of learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 35(5), 537–552. Munro, A. (2003). Authoring simulation-centred learning environments with Rides and Vivids. In T. Murray, S. Blessing, & S. E. Ainsworth (Eds.), Tools for Advanced Technology Learning Environments. (pp. 61–92). Amsterdam: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Murray, T. (1996). Having it all, maybe: Design tradeoffs in ITS authoring tools. In C. Frasson, G. Gauthier, & A. Lesgold (Eds.), Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Intelligent Tutoring Systems (pp. 93–101). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Murray, T. (2003). An overview of intelligent tutoring system authoring tools: Updated analysis of the state of the art. In T. Murray, S. Blessing, & S. E. Ainsworth (Eds.), Tools for Advanced Technology Learning Environments. (pp. 491–544). Amsterdam: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Sloep, P. B. (2004). Reuse, portability and interoperability of learning content: Or why an educational modelling language. In R. McGreal, (Ed.), Online Education Using Learning Objects (pp. 128–137). London: Routledge/Falmer. Sparks, R., Dooley, S., Meiskey, L., & Blumenthal, R. (2003). The Leap authoring tool: Supporting complex courseware authoring through reuse, rapid prototyping, and interactive visualizations. In T. Murray, S. Blessing, & S. E. Ainsworth (Eds.), Tools for Advanced Technology Learning Environments. (pp. 411–438). Amsterdam: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Towne, D. (2003). Automated knowledge acquisition for intelligent support of diagnostic reasoning. In T. Murray, S. Blessing, & S. E. Ainsworth (Eds.), Tools for Advanced Technology Learning Environments. (pp. 121–148). Amsterdam: Kluwer Academic Publishers. van Joolingen, W. R., & De Jong, T. (2003). SIMQUEST: Authoring educational simulations. In T. Murray, S. Blessing, & S. E. Ainsworth (Eds.), Tools for Advanced Technology Learning Environments. (pp. 1–32). Amsterdam: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 31
Chieu, V. M. (2007). An Operational Approach for Building Learning Environments Supporting Cognitive Flexibility. Educational Technology & Society, 10 (3), 32-46. An Operational Approach for Building Learning Environments Supporting Cognitive Flexibility Vu Minh Chieu University of Michigan, School of Education, Ann Arbor, MI, USA // vmchieu@umich.edu ABSTRACT Constructivism is a learning theory that states that people learn by actively constructing their own knowledge, based on prior knowledge. A significant number of ICT-based constructivist learning systems have been proposed in recent years. According to our analysis, those systems exhibit only a few constructivist principles, and a critical problem related to the design and use of this kind of systems has been the lack of a practical means to facilitate the instructional design process. Our research aims to help designing truly constructivist learning environments. Our approach is based on a set of operational criteria for certain aspects of constructivism: We use these criteria as a useful pedagogical framework to provide easy-to-use tools and operational guidelines for teachers to build ICT-based constructivist learning environments. One facet often mentioned as being strongly relevant to constructivism is cognitive flexibility. This paper presents COFALE—a new, domain-independent, and open-source e-learning platform that could be used to devise learning conditions fostering cognitive flexibility—and an example of its use: the design of a course on recursion in computing science. Keywords E-learning, Constructivism, Instructional design, Operational criteria, Open-source platform. Introduction Piagetian or cognitive constructivism (Piaget, 1975) is an educational approach that “emphasizes that individuals learn best when they actively construct knowledge and understanding” (Santrock, 2001, p. 318). Constructivist learning is a process of active construction and transformation of knowledge (Bourgeois & Nizet, 1999). Bruner (1973) introduces the following example of constructivist learning: The concept of prime numbers appears to be more readily grasped when the child, through construction, discovers that certain handfuls of beans cannot be laid out in completed rows and columns. Such quantities have either to be laid out in a single file or in an incomplete row-column design in which there is always one extra or one too few to fill the pattern. These patterns, the child learns, happen to be called prime. It is easy for the child to go from this step to the recognition that a multiple table, so called, is a record sheet of quantities in completed multiple rows and columns. Here is factoring, multiplication and primes in a construction that can be visualized. A counter-example of constructivist learning would be a case in which the child is given a textual definition to learn the concept of prime numbers. This situation may not foster learning, from a constructivist point of view, because it could lead to “rote” or passive learning (Chieu, 2005). In recent years, constructivist beliefs and practices have been widely adopted, as evidenced by the appearance of a significant number of ICT-based constructivist learning systems (Kinshuk et al., 2004). Many researchers accept the central assumption of constructivism as stated by Santrock; however, they derive different pedagogical implications from the same basic principles. Driscoll (Driscoll, 2000), for instance, identifies five major facets of constructivism related to instructional design: (1) reasoning, critical thinking, and problem solving; (2) retention, understanding, and use; (3) cognitive flexibility; (4) self-regulation; and (5) mindful reflection and epistemic flexibility. A major problem related to the design and use of constructivist learning systems has been that, while many pedagogical principles for constructivism exist, there is little practical advice on how to exploit advanced learning technology to exhibit constructivist principles. In earlier work (Chieu et al., 2004; Chieu & Milgrom, 2005), we have defined and justified a set of operational criteria for cognitive flexibility, one of the important facets of constructivism. Also in earlier work (Chieu, 2006), we ISSN 1436-4522 (online) and 1176-3647 (print). © International Forum of Educational Technology & Society (IFETS). The authors and the forum jointly retain the copyright of the articles. Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for components of this work owned by others than IFETS must be honoured. Abstracting with credit is permitted. To copy otherwise, to republish, to post on servers, or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. Request permissions from the editors at kinshuk@ieee.org. 32
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Page 3 and 4: Advertisements Educational Technolo
Page 5 and 6: Distinguishing between games and si
Page 7 and 8: “sometimes” is less demanding t
Page 9 and 10: Figure 2. From generic skill to lea
Page 11 and 12: The large window on the left presen
Page 13 and 14: define competencies of individual a
Page 15 and 16: competency is composed of a single
Page 17 and 18: Generic Skills Classes 1 2 3 Receiv
Page 19 and 20: Figure 6. Extension of the competen
Page 21 and 22: Competency scale By combining the g
Page 23 and 24: activities, and resources present i
Page 25 and 26: Conclusion The importance given to
Page 27 and 28: Ainsworth, S. (2007). Using a Singl
Page 29 and 30: different instruction. For example,
Page 31 and 32: Author-focused studies Studies 1 an
Page 33 and 34: egression showed that students were
Page 35: REDEEM is now a senior citizen in t
Page 39 and 40: When students discuss with peers, t
Page 41 and 42: COFALE as a learning environment an
Page 43 and 44: COFALE supports a set of predefined
Page 45 and 46: Tom is asked to prepare a list of g
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Page 53 and 54: learning settings. However, such a
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Page 63 and 64: Acknowledgment This work is support
Page 65 and 66: Dron, J. (2007). Designing the Unde
Page 67 and 68: wikis and blogs (or at least, colle
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Page 73 and 74: The principle of sociability The pr
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Law, E. L.-C., & Hvannberg, E. T. (
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Wang, T. I., Tsai, K. H., Lee, M. C
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2.3 Recommendation Model Survey In
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Figure 1. The portion of the concep
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STEP4: Associated with concepts in
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A modified TF-IDF approach is used
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P(CK j x LOM ) = k NW max ∀ T∈
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4.2.2 Correlation-based algorithm I
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content feedback, it can be intuiti
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66% improvement in average, and, wh
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 10. Comparisons
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index.aspx. ADL-2 (2001). Advanced
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Wolpers, M., Najjar, J., Verbert, K
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activity is taking place. For examp
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Figure 2: The CAM schema elements (
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• Context: the context element ca
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4.1 Generation of Attention Metadat
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addition, such keywords can be extr
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Action related data, data about sea
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Braun, S., & Schmidt, A. (2006). Do
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El-Bishouty, M. M., Ogata, H., & Ya
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collaboration (Ogata, et al., 1999)
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In case of LOI value is equal or cl
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Also, the learner can click on an e
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System Evaluation An experiment was
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In the fifth phase, 89% of the stud
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Fischer, G., & Konomi, S. (2005). I
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application for specific needs, whi
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(4) Multimedia: The truth is that e
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Program Company Price OS 6 eZediaMX
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Program Text editor Text import for
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Program Sound Formats Image Formats
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Program Image Painting Export Scrip
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Program Effects Needs player 5 Easy
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Program WYSIWYG Design Interactivit
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the grades awarded to the programs
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Grade Image formats Sound formats V
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Figure 3. Adequacy of image formats
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Animating objects, pictures, etc.,
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Educational overview Having taken m
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In summary, the final outcome is th
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Developing the Interactivity Survey
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technique. be treated as a desired
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55. A lecture in which student lear
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specific conclusions that researche
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Discussion and conclusion Although
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Juwah, C. (2003). Using peer assess
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Publish results Set a few goals for
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familiarity with computer terms, ex
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provide a framework for the integra
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tool themselves, and then gauge its
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associated with the effective use o
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portrayed as even more time-consumi
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Clarke, B. (2001). Corporate curric
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Neal, E. (1998). Using technology i
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Yearwood, J., & Stranieri, A. (2007
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entertaining (Neuhauser 1993). The
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in being addressed with the sequent
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The GAAM represents reasoning to a
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Other situations have more serious
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Figure 6. NARRATE phase screen afte
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The narration at Step 10 informs th
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very large degree of free-will has
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Rumelhart, D. E. (1975). Notes on a
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The School of Business at Universit
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Authentic assessment and OBOW exams
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iii. The assessment asks the studen
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world problems in relation to the s
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Herrington, J., & Herrington, A. (1
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services required by most clients i
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Wisdom. J. P., White, N., Goldsmith
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Work outside the U.S. has also prom
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of the Telecommunication Act, and t
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Parent-advocate respondents also re
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school administrators may be persua
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of legal requirements for accessibl
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Thus, while we have reason to belie
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underlying structure of the two pri
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still not familiar with its use; in
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Table 3: An Analysis of Different V
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of males. Secondly, as far as age w
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Conclusion This study examined the
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Sandholtz, J. H., Ringstaff, C., &
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The design and validation of a text
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Predetermined goal of a game The pr
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A true, precise and valid model “
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Bain, C., & Newton, C. (2003). Art
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Prensky, M. (2005). Adopt and Adapt
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opportunities based on studying dif
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The game -called Chase the Cheese-
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another token. Other tokens further
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The system is organized in differen
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“to produce a single product or p
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(e.g., cheese) or loses the game (a
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collaboration is not an easy task.
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Collazos, C., Ortega, M., Bravo, C.
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Soller, A., & Lesgold, A. (2000). K
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Is the usual hierarchical organizat
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The final step 7 in the procedure i
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This methodology is summarised in F
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‘IsBasisOf’, ‘HasConstraint
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The presented results are a reflect
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‘HasExample’, and ‘HasFurther
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DCMI (2003). DCMI Metadata Terms, R
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Literature review Astronomy educati
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Systems of type I provide different
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night. To prevent students from get
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Figures 2-5 display screenshots of
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Results of the study reveal the imp
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vertical axis leads to the disappea
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Dede, C., Salzman, M., Loftin, R. B
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Trumper, R. (2000). University stud
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ased on pre-defined adaptation rule
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Therefore, the higher-level items o
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common prefix with the existing pa
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later should be omitted (presented
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5.1 The Average Length of each Sequ
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Recall 6. Discussion 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.
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easily take lessons in a good learn
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Laborda, J. G., & Royo, T. M. (2007
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Chapter 8, Online reference tools,
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Kenyon, D. M., & Malabonga, V. (200
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and concise manner (e.g. Weeding =
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stream are chapters 7 and 8 which f
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