etadd_47(3) - Division on Autism and Developmental Disabilities

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and peer relationships (i.e., interacting appropriately with a variety of children on a regular basis)” (p. 88). In the literature reviewed, only seven studies were found that examined the use of social stories with individuals who had been identified as having disabilities other than autism. Of these seven studies, one of the studies (Staley, 2001) included participants with a diagnosis of autism. The other participants in the study however, had one or more additional disabilities, such as learning disorders or intellectual disability. Moore (2004) worked with a student who had a learning disability but was also identified as having autism spectrum disorder. Finally, one study (Soenksen & Alper, 2006) used social stories with a student they labeled as having hyperlexia, but received special education services under the category of autism spectrum disorder. Because these studies involved students who were identified as having other disabilities in addition to autism they were included in the following summary. Staley (2001) used social stories with five male students who were educated in a selfcontained special education classroom. Two of the participants were identified as having Down syndrome, one had a pervasive developmental disorder, one had autism, and one was diagnosed as having Fragile X syndrome. The goal was to improve the eating behaviors of the five participants. Specifically, the goal was to teach the participants to use a napkin and to chew food with a closed mouth. The results of this study found that the social story alone was not effective for getting the participants to change their eating behaviors. When the social story was combined with the use of a primary reinforcer (e.g., cereal or potato chips) there was an immediate positive change in behavior. In this case, social stories were not shown to be effective for individuals with disabilities other than autism nor were they effective for participants who were on the autism spectrum. Moore (2004) used a social story with a 4-year-old boy with a learning disability, autism spectrum disorder, and receptive speech and language delays. The participant in this case study had difficulty with his bedtime routine. The boy pleaded to sleep with his mother, would wake in the middle of the night to demand milk, and would throw a tantrum if his demands were not met. A story was written to teach the young boy a new bedtime routine. Additionally, it reminded him of the rewards he could earn if he followed the new routine without throwing a tantrum. Moore concluded the intervention as a whole appeared to be effective at changing the participant’s sleep routine. However, the impact of the social story on the behavior is unclear due to lack of concrete data and the use of other reinforcers as part of the intervention. Toplis and Hadwin (2006) used a social story to address the lunchtime behavior of five students who were identified as having challenging behavior within a school setting. Three boys and two girls with an average age of 7 years 5 months participated in the study. The researchers used an ABAB design to evaluate the effectiveness of a social story on the target behavior of independently walking to the school dining area and sitting within two minutes of being dismissed from class. The stories in this study followed Gray’s (1995) basic sentence ratio. Toplis and Hadwin found the social story intervention to be effective for three of the five children who participated in the study. Two of the children continued to require prompts to enter the dining room and sit as directed. Soenksen and Alper (2006) used a multiple baseline design across settings to evaluate the effectiveness of a social story to teach a 5-year-old boy identified as having hyperlexia, who was served under the category of autism spectrum disorders, to appropriately gain the attention of his peers. The intervention was a combination of written and verbal cues embedded into a social story which was written to follow Gray’s (1995) guidelines. The target behavior was defined as verbally saying a peer’s name and/or looking at a peer’s face while talking to him or her. Results of the study indicated an increase in frequency with which the student would appropriately gain a peer’s attention across multiple settings (e.g., recess, choice time, and math). The appropriate behavior was maintained 49 days after the intervention and maintenance phases ended. Bucholz, Brady, Duffy, Scott, and Kontosh (2008) used social stories and literacy-based behavioral interventions (LBBI) with three adults with cognitive disability in the workplace environment. Bucholz and colleagues used the term LBBI for the stories that were 294 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-September 2012
used in the study that did not follow Gray’s (1995) guidelines in regard to sentence type or ratio and therefore were not technically social stories. One participant was a 57-yearold male with Down syndrome and an IQ of 30 who worked in a job training facility. The second two participants worked at the same sheltered workshop. The second participant was a 48-year-old female who had severe intellectual disability. The third participant was a 26-year-old female with severe intellectual disability. The goal of their research was to determine if social stories and LBBI were an effective strategy for individuals with intellectual disability in a work environment. The target behaviors included returning to work on time from break and asking for more work or assistance when necessary. The authors concluded that the social stories and LBBI were effective at changing the target behaviors for individuals with intellectual disability. Additionally, the change in behavior was maintained for the two female participants who worked at the same sheltered workshop setting. Kalyva and Agaliotis (2009) used a group design to evaluate the effectiveness of a recorded social story intervention for teaching students with learning disabilities to successfully resolve interpersonal conflicts. Sixty-three children with a mean age of 10 years 7 months participated in this study. Forty-one of the participants were male and 22 were females. The students were randomly assigned to the experimental group or the control group. The experimental group consisted of 19 boys and 12 girls while the control group consisted of 22 boys and 10 girls. The researchers read one of three different stories to the experimental group at each phase of the study. The stories were written to describe an interpersonal conflict and participants were asked what strategies they might use to handle the situation. The teachers of the participants were asked to complete the Matson Evaluation of Social Skills with Youngsters Teacher Form in order to gain information about each child’s appropriate and inappropriate social behaviors. Results of this study found that the social stories were effective for helping the students in the experimental group use more positive conflict resolution strategies when compared to the control group. Furthermore, the students in the experimental group continued to use more appropriate strategies two months after the intervention was ended while the control group continued to select less appropriate strategies. Schneider and Goldstein (2009) conducted one study not involving students with autism. Their research included three male participants in grades first through third. Each of the participants were diagnosed with language impairments, had impaired verbal and social communication, but could communicate verbally. These students displayed problem behaviors in the classroom which included aggression, noncompliance and impulse control. The students received speech and language therapy, but they did not receive services to address their problem behaviors. The primary target behavior addressed in this study was appropriately participating in the target activity which included following directions, completing work, making eye contact, and raising a hand. A multiple baseline design across participants was used to determine the effectiveness of the story intervention. Schneider and Goldstein concluded that the social story intervention was effective in increasing on-task behaviors for children with language impairments although the change in behavior did vary for each student. Positive changes were maintained after intervention ceased and the students generalized the ontask behavior to different activities and situations throughout the day. Almost all of these seven research studies concluded that social stories were an effective strategy to be used with participants with a variety of disabilities, not only those with autism spectrum disorders. This research indicates that social stories or LLBI may not need to be restricted to students with autism to be effective. Based on the limited research available studying the use of social stories with participants with disabilities other than autism, the need for additional research is warranted (Bucholz et al., 2008; Reynhout & Carter, 2006). Gray (1995) recommends for social stories to be specific to one individual participant, however, if more than one student has the same or similar social difficulties, it could be beneficial for educators to develop one story or LBBI that could be used by multiple children at the same time. Various strategies such as modeling, roleplaying (Stickel, 1990), video modeling (Graetz, Mastropieri, & Scruggs, 2006), social skills Group Delivered Literacy-Based Behavioral Interventions / 295
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Page 25 and 26: TABLE 6 Pairwise Comparisons on Pos
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Page 33 and 34: TABLE 1 Target Vocabulary Words by
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Page 55 and 56: Method Participants Four male child
Page 57 and 58: TABLE 2 Play Scale - Developmental
Page 59 and 60: elated utterances, which were used
Page 61 and 62: Figure 1. Ian’s Progress in Play
Page 63 and 64: Figure 3. Ryan’s Progress in Play
Page 65 and 66: Figure 5. Social Validity: Average
Page 67 and 68: (2000). A comparison of video model
Page 71 and 72: Method Participants Four high schoo
Page 73 and 74: TABLE 1 Task Analyses for all Tasks
Page 75 and 76: Figure 1. Holly multiple baseline g
Page 77 and 78: Figure 3. Norman multiple baseline
Page 79 and 80: ing at photographs. Jake only requi
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Page 83 and 84: table video aids may lead to greate
Page 85 and 86: TABLE 2 Task Analyses Including Vid
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Education and Training in Autism an
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TABLE 2 Participants Demographic Da
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opening of the lesson, the teacher
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TABLE 4 Total Number of Items Answe
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Figure 2. Total number of procedura
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serve both cognitive (e.g., self in
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and quasi-experimental designs for
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& Cobb, 2002). Generalization, the
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academic activities in the classroo
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Procedure Baseline. In this multipl
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condition for each student. With th
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was repeated across all participant
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Boning, R. A. (1997). SRA Specific
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TABLE 1 Student demographic informa
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ping, dining out, voting) and diffe
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TABLE 2 Content Standards, Alternat
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Student Achievement Figures 3-6 pro
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Figure 4. Student data across math
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Figure 6. Student data across math
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A second limitation of the current
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y students with intellectual disabi
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TABLE 1 Studies of Mathematics Inte
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subject design to provide an interv
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Neef and colleagues (2003) demonstr
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abilities. Education and Training i
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