etadd_47(3) - Division on Autism and Developmental Disabilities

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TABLE 3 Examples of Types of Problems Used on Pretest, Posttest, and Maintenance Check the two groups of students with regard to their pretest (F [1, 8] .20, p .67), IQ scores (F [1, 8] .32, p .58), or age (F [1, 8] 2.42, p .16). A program instructor who had two years of experience teaching functional life skills delivered the strategy instruction to the experimental group three times a week (i.e., Monday, Wednesday, and Friday) during the regularly scheduled class time. Each lesson lasted for approximately 30–35 minutes. The total duration of the intervention was two weeks (i.e., six lessons). During the intervention, students in the comparison group attended their regularly scheduled classes. Materials Problem type Example Target item Mike had a dinner at a restaurant and the bill was $35.63. He paid the bill with additional 15% for the tip. (a) How much was the tip? (b) How much did he pay in total? Generalization Item Different context The price for a can of soda is $2.99 and the sales tax is 6%. (a) How much is tax? (b) How much total will you pay for the soda? Different operation The book is on sale for 20% off. The price for the book you want to buy is $20.00. (a) How much money will you save from the sales? (b) How much is the book now? Different value Your bill for your dinner is $127.56 and you really enjoyed the service. You want to give the waiter a 20% tip. (a) How much is the tip? (b) How much is the total you will pay? We developed three equivalent probes for the pretest, posttest, and maintenance check. Each probe contained 16 items including (a) 10 target items that assessed students’ ability to calculate tip and total bill in a variety of situations (e.g., restaurant, delivery, taxi fare) and (b) six generalization items that assessed students’ ability to solve problems using percentages in a different context (e.g., calculate sales tax), requiring different operation (e.g., calculate sales price), or using different percentage values. Table 3 presents examples of each type of problem on the three tests. Each target and generalization item on the probes contained two questions that were related to the two steps of the problem solution. Therefore, the total available number of problems from the target items was 20 and 12 from the generalization items. The order of the different types of items on the tests was randomized (Case et al., 1992). We also developed additional worksheets that only contained target items for guided and independent practice during the intervention. General Procedure The instructor of the course delivered the intervention to the experimental group using the scripted lesson plans developed by the researcher. Each scripted lesson plan included a step-by-step protocol, teacher wording, examples, student worksheets, and overhead transparencies. Before each lesson, the researcher and the teacher went over the lesson plan together and simulated the teaching process using the script. Each lesson followed the structure of an explicit instruction lesson. For example, the teacher began each lesson with a review of the previous lesson and a description of the learning objectives and expectations. Following the 348 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-September 2012
opening of the lesson, the teacher modeled skills using clear, consistent and concise language. Then the students practiced the skill with teacher prompts. After the students successfully completed the tasks, the teacher gradually faded prompts and the students practiced the skills independently. Before the conclusion of the lesson, the teacher reviewed the skills and gave a preview of the upcoming lessons. The teacher also embedded some critical presentation techniques throughout the instruction including eliciting frequent unison responses, monitoring student responses, providing feedback, and maintaining appropriate pace of the lessons. TIP Strategy Instructional Procedure The development of the TIP strategy intervention was based on the features of the working instructional model for teaching learning strategies described by Deshler and colleagues (1996). We chose this model because it addresses the learning needs of students with disabilities and its effectiveness has been well documented (Montague & Dietz, 2009). The TIP strategy contained six instructional stages including pretest and making commitments, describing the strategy, modeling the strategy, verbal elaboration and rehearsal, controlled practice and feedback, and advanced practice and feedback. Stage 1. The purpose of this stage was to (a) review the pretest results, (b) provide a rationale for learning the strategy, and (c) obtain commitment from the students to learn the new strategy. At the beginning of the lesson, the teacher communicated the pretest results to the students and compared students’ performances to the mastery criteria. The teacher also asked the students to identify the examples and situation, in which they used ineffective tip calculation. The teacher and the students then discussed the purpose and importance of learning a new strategy and its relevance to their ability to live independently. At the end of the first lesson, the teacher made a commitment to the students to teach the strategy effectively and prompted the students to commit to learning the strategy with effort and time. Stage 2. The purpose of the lesson at this stage was to describe the TIP strategy. First, the teacher described the utility of the strategy. For example, the teacher and the students discussed where and when the TIP strategy should be used. The teacher also described situations in which TIP strategy was not appropriate. After the initial overview of the strategy, the teacher described why and how each step of the strategy was used while emphasizing the importance of using selfinstruction to regulate the use of the strategy (e.g., “What we say to ourselves as we take each step will help us use the strategy and solve the problem.”). At the end of the lesson, the teacher discussed how to remember each step of the strategy by using the acronym TIP and asked the students to make their own cue cards containing each step of the TIP strategy. Stage 3. The purpose of this lesson was for the teacher to model the use of TIP strategy. The teacher first demonstrated the cognitive processes and acts required to carry out each step of the strategy while “thinking aloud” using the following types of statements: (a) problem definition (“The problem asks me how much I tip and how much I will pay in total.”); (b) strategy use (“It says tip. It means I can use TIP strategy to calculate the tip and bill. How do I spell TIP?”); (c) self instruction (“Where do I find the total of the bill? Find the number that says ‘total’.”); and (d) self monitoring (“I am not done yet. I will need to figure out how much in total I have to pay.”). Following initial modeling, the teacher involved the students to perform each step of the strategy by eliciting frequent choral response. The students were prompted to (a) self-talk using the actual words they would say to use the strategy themselves (e.g., “The second step is the second letter of the tip. Everyone all together, what is the second letter of tip?”) and (b) carry out the physical act of each step (e.g., “Yes. The total is ___ and you enter it on the calculator. Now look at your calculator. All together, tell me the number on your calculator”). At the end of the lesson, the teacher told the students that in order to make the strategy work they need to practice the new strategy and complete each step much faster. Stage 4. The purpose of the lesson at this stage was to ensure that each student understood and memorized each step of the TIP Functional Mathematical Skill / 349
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Education and Training in Autism an
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ities. Scholars have argued that do
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discussions were held with 12 addit
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TABLE 1 A Sample of Community Funds
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et al., 2007). At the school, stude
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students opportunities to work and
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Browder, D. M., & Cooper-Duffy, K.
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of words, and in the short term wer
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TABLE 3 Word Lists List No. Trainin
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TABLE 6 Pairwise Comparisons on Pos
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Word Identification or Word Attack
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erate to severe disabilities. Excep
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ess in a variety of subjects includ
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TABLE 1 Target Vocabulary Words by
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Figure 1. Example of PowerPoint Sli
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TABLE 3 Mean Percentage of Correct
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Figure 4. Jake’s percentages corr
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man-Martin et al. (2005) by demonst
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used in the study that did not foll
Page 47 and 48: lected. Stories were read in a quie
Page 49 and 50: y determining the number of interva
Page 51 and 52: with the removal of the interventio
Page 53 and 54: Accordingly, recent research has in
Page 55 and 56: Method Participants Four male child
Page 57 and 58: TABLE 2 Play Scale - Developmental
Page 59 and 60: elated utterances, which were used
Page 61 and 62: Figure 1. Ian’s Progress in Play
Page 63 and 64: Figure 3. Ryan’s Progress in Play
Page 65 and 66: Figure 5. Social Validity: Average
Page 67 and 68: (2000). A comparison of video model
Page 69 and 70: Education and Training in Autism an
Page 71 and 72: Method Participants Four high schoo
Page 73 and 74: TABLE 1 Task Analyses for all Tasks
Page 75 and 76: Figure 1. Holly multiple baseline g
Page 77 and 78: Figure 3. Norman multiple baseline
Page 79 and 80: ing at photographs. Jake only requi
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Page 83 and 84: table video aids may lead to greate
Page 85 and 86: TABLE 2 Task Analyses Including Vid
Page 87 and 88: table.” During the session, the t
Page 89 and 90: Figure 2. Percent of steps with err
Page 91 and 92: ter the 15 th session. With table w
Page 93 and 94: our students, it may have been diff
Page 97: TABLE 2 Participants Demographic Da
Page 101 and 102: TABLE 4 Total Number of Items Answe
Page 103 and 104: Figure 2. Total number of procedura
Page 105 and 106: serve both cognitive (e.g., self in
Page 107 and 108: and quasi-experimental designs for
Page 111 and 112: & Cobb, 2002). Generalization, the
Page 113 and 114: academic activities in the classroo
Page 115 and 116: Procedure Baseline. In this multipl
Page 117 and 118: condition for each student. With th
Page 119 and 120: was repeated across all participant
Page 121 and 122: Boning, R. A. (1997). SRA Specific
Page 125 and 126: TABLE 1 Student demographic informa
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Page 129 and 130: TABLE 2 Content Standards, Alternat
Page 131 and 132: Student Achievement Figures 3-6 pro
Page 133 and 134: Figure 4. Student data across math
Page 135 and 136: Figure 6. Student data across math
Page 137 and 138: A second limitation of the current
Page 141 and 142: y students with intellectual disabi
Page 143 and 144: TABLE 1 Studies of Mathematics Inte
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abilities. Education and Training i
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