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Ecotourism
Resource Person:
Shreekanta S. Khatiwada
Ramji Sharma
&
Baikuntha Prasad Acharya
Compiled by: Laxmi Raj Joshi
Roll No: 31
Student of M.Sc. Forestry
Batch: 2010-2012
Office of the Dean, Pokhara
2068/5/28

Unit 1: Introduction to Eco-Tourism
Even heaven can be boring after a while.
Mark Taiwan
We must well come the friendly visitors from abroad not only for economic reasons, but even more
because this leads to greater understanding and mutual appreciation. Jawaharlal Nehru
Tourists and Tourism Activities
A person who travels for pleasure in any other places rather his usual residence.
Domestic & International tourists travel within their country & aboard.
Beauty of Nature, Treasures of Culture & Seeking Adventure Activities.
MOTIVATION FOR TRAVELLING
Experience: New places, people for knowledge.
Exploration: Places, resources.
Relaxation: Escape from crowd.
Interaction: People, community
Adventure & thrill: Wilderness, adventures activities.
Admiration: Pyramids, Taj mahal etc.
Achievements & fame: Visiting places, Climbing Mountains.
Physical fitness: Body/ soul
Strengthen Social/Family ties: Visiting with them.
Religious purpose: Chardham,Mecca, Jerusalam etc.
Why Tourists visit our country?
Scenic beauty of Himalaya, Lake, River, Hills and Terraces etc.
Mountaineering, Trekking, Rafting, Wildlife safari, Visiting cultural sites.
Rural area & Village tour, Seminar, Workshop, Meeting, Festivals etc.
Requirements of tourism products
Attraction
Accommodation
Access
Affinity ( Hospitality)
Activities
Actors ( Operators)
Amenities
Acts (rules & regulation)
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Tourism Products & Activities
Nature base: Himalaya, Mountains, Rivers, Lakes, Caves, Hills, Jungles, Wild lives, Birds and
Butterflies, Plants etc.
Culture Base: Temples, Monasteries, Old places & Monuments, Traditional dresses, Ornaments,
Utensils, Households materials, Museum, Musical instrument, Folk Songs & Dance etc.
Adventure: Mountaineering, Trekking, Rafting, Air sports, Jungle Safari etc.
Evolution of tourism
Travelers were guided in Ancient time by:
Interest: Political, commercial, resources etc.
Curiosity: Places & people, discovery of India, USA, China, Australia etc.
Religious sentiments: Lumbhini & KTM valley,Jerusalam,(E.kawaguchi
Organized Olympic games in Greeks 776 BC to 393 AD
Rome was famous for model city till 16 th
London, Paris, Rome, Athens famous city art & culture till 17 th & 18 th .
Britain was popular for pleasure travelling till 19 th .
Thomas Cook organized tour from Europe since 1841 AD.
The tour operator of USA since 1866.
Organized tour in India since 1938.
Invention of photography, bicycle, traveler cheque, technology, motor car, steam engine etc.
19 th and 20 th century.
Increase in disposable income & leisure time, faster cheaper & safer Jet aircraft since 1950 AD
What is Ecotourism?
Costa Rica tour operator registered the word “Ecotourism” in 1983.
David Western equates ecotourism with amalgam of envt., economics & social concern.
Environmental movement of 70th & 80 th .
Sustainable dev. Approach of Brundtland report of 1987.
Ceballos Lascurain coined as definition in 1987
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Ecotourism: “Traveling to relatively undisturbed natural areas with specific objective of studying,
admiring, and enjoying scenery & its wild animals & plants as well as existing cultural assets found in
these areas” C. Lascurain (1987)
“Ecotourism is responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and sustains the well
being of local people.” The Ecotourism Society
“Travel to enjoy the world‟s amazing diversity of natural life & human culture without causing
damage to either” Encyclopedia of Ecotourism
“Environmentally responsible travel and visitation to relatively undisturbed natural areas in order to
enjoy, study and appreciate nature (and any accompanying cultural features-both past and present) that
promotes conservation, has low visitor impact, and provides for beneficially active socio-economic
involvement of local population.” IUCN
General Meaning of Eco-Tourism
• Visiting an area of special interest like natural products or cultural heritage undertaking ecoconsiderations.
• Provide Eco-friendly services so as to maintain the status-quo in the environment of the host
community.
Characteristics of Eco-tourism
• It is supply driven. Unlike traditional tourism which is largely demand driven
• More concerned about the social impact, economic development and natural resource management
• Controls and regulates tourism development thus making it 'Responsible Tourism"
• Creates commitment among the local suppliers
Four Pillars of Responsible Tourism
Minimizing environmental impacts.
Respecting host culture.
Maximizing the benefit of local people.
Maximizing tourists satisfaction
PRINCIPLE OF RESPONSIBLE TOURISM
Less and less effect on environment.
Respect to local culture and people.
Increase the level of satisfaction of the visitors.
Economic benefit to the local and sharing for promotion & conservation.
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General Requirements for Eco tourism
Provides the first hand encounter with the natural environment.
Actively involve local communities in the tourism process.
Its travel of gratification is measured in terms of education or appreciation.
It involves considerable preparation & in depth knowledge among the leaders & participants.
An essential feature of ecotourism is sustainability.
It does not degrade resources.
Promotes positive environmental ethics & fosters preferred behaviors.
Concentrates on intrinsic rather than extrinsic values.
Oriented around the environment in question & not around man.
It must benefit the wildlife and environment
Rules for the promotion of ecotourism
Keep tourist all in one place for as long as possible during their visit to the destination.
Do not displace any existing things from destinations.
Take fewer tourists who will stay longer and spend more.
Involve the local community for the process of tourism.
Take the photographs and leave the footprint only.
Be friendly with the visitors and help them to practice ecotourism codes.
Make no open fires and discourage others from doing so.
Give information to the guest about attractions, facilities, local customs & traditions,
prohibitions & regulations.
Ensure adequate opportunities to visitors for communication with nature & native culture etc.
Suggestion for the promotion of ecotourism
Practice conservation of nature and culture as a way of life.
Respect the natural cultural and local customs of the area.
Respects history and holy places, do not touch or remove religious objects.
Respect the local etiquettes, norms & values.
Leave the camp site clean after use.
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Manage the wastage & garbage; do not through them here and there.
Conclusion
• Eco-tourism is travel to natural areas that conserves the environment (natural and cultural)and
sustains the well being of the people
• Entails a type of use that minimizes negative impacts to the environment and to local people.
• Increased the awareness and understanding of an area‟s natural and cultural systems and the
subsequent involvement of visitors in issues affecting those systems.
• Contributes to the conservation and management of legally protected and other natural areas.
• The infrastructure must be ethnic(lodging), safe and modest(low impact means) and capable of
generating income
• It must have management of protected areas and parks by local people
• It must create a common point for the conservationists, the development community and the
private sector
Issues to be addressed about eco-tourism
Host Vs Guest (Conflict of Interest)
Role of Intermediaries
Development Vs Sustainable Dev.
Agenda Vs Action (Workshop Vs Work)
Generalization Vs Specialization
Quality Vs Mass Tourism
Current status of World Tourism
• 903 million visitors grew by 4.6%
• Economic Activity of $5.9 trillion i.e. about 10% of global GDP
• 6.5% of total global work force
• Employing 238 million people
• Europe – America – Asia Pacific
• Switzerland- Nepal – New Zealand
Tourism Industry in Nepal
• Since 1950 from Mountaineering.
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• Annapurna in June 1950 & Mt. Everest in 1953.
• About 5,76,000 visitors in 2009
• About 4.2% GDP and 17% foreign exchange
• Purpose of visit: Holiday pleasure, Mountaineering & trekking and others.
• Kathmandu – Pokhara – Chitwan – Lumbhini
• Annapurna – Khumbu – Langtang – Kanchajunga & Dolpo region.
Tourism Development in Pokhara
• Since 1950 after climbing Annapurna by Maurice Herzog
• Tourism activities since 1970
• Mass tourism effect 1980
• Over 70% Tourism industries established after 1990.
• 2, 07,000 visitors in 2008.
• Over 60% visitors for adventure
Mass tourism & Alternative tourism
• Mass tourism is traditional form of tourism development, short term free market principles
dominate to maximize the income.
• Alternative tourism is a whole range of tourism strategies e.g., appropriate, eco, soft,
responsible, people to people, controlled, small scale, cottage & green tourism.
Economics of Tourism
• Smokeless industry.
• Medium of foreign exchange earnings in developing countries.
• Increasing employment, GDP & tax revenue.
• Distribution of wealth from north to south.
• Multiplier effects.
Tourism Business & Activities
• Hotels & Lodges
• Travel Agencies
• Trekking Agencies
• Restaurants & Bar
• Handicrafts Centre
• Books & Equipments shops etc.
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Major tourist destinations in Nepal
• Kathmandu, Pokhara, Chitwan & Lumbini
• Annapurna, Sagarmatha, Langtang, Kanchanjunga & Dolpo region
• Pashupatinath, Muktinath, Devghat, Barah chhetra, Manakamana, Swargadwari & Khaptad.
Importance of Tourism in Nepal
• Source of foreign currency
• Income & employment opportunities
• Improvement in life standard
• Awareness & exposure about life & culture.
• Development of Infrastructure
• Conservation of natural & cultural heritages.
• Promotion of traditional skill & knowledge.
Explain the roots of Conservation: Ecosystem mgt. and CAs
Understanding inter-linkages of ecotourism and biodiversity conservation
• The roots of conservationism -ecosystem management and protected areas. – 2 classes
• Ecotourism and biodiversity - 1
• Principles of eco-tourism - 1
• Role of ethics in ecotourism. -1
• Ecotourism typologies -1
Philosophy, principle and theoretical background
The roots of conservationism
World views on Environment and resources
• Western :
Master of nature: live over the nature.
• The Bible speaks of God creating Man in His own image and letting him "have dominion over
the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle and over all the earth, and
every creeping thing that creeps upon the earth" (Genesis 1:26).
• Single view – human being separate from the rest.
• „It is god will that man exploit nature for his proper ends‟
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• Man is only perceived as the user of Nature, not as an integral part of her.
• By the ninth century „Man and nature are now two things, man is master‟ believe developed in
Europe
World views on Environment and resources
• Eastern and indigenous
Part of the nature: live with the nature
• The world as manifestation of a basic oneness.
• Basudaiva Kutumbakam.
• Human as a part of the whole/natural system.
• Importance of relationship of living and nonliving things.
Humankind has not woven the web of life. We are but one thread within it. Whatever we do to the web,
we do to ourselves. All things are bound together All things connect….” Chief Seattle
Exploitation of nature resources
• Western world views promote colonisation , conversion and exploitation
• Wilderness areas are home to pagans. So needs conversion to bring religious order.
• Wild areas are waste or lands not used by human beings are wastelands.
• The 1870‟s saw the final decimation of the bison herds. In 1871 Col. R. I. Dodge reported one
herd in Colorado being 50 miles wide and 20 miles long, estimated at 4 million head.
• Over 8.5 million bison were shot dead in 1871-73. Boson population dropped form 60
million to 150 within 30 yrs, (1869-1889) .
• In 1806, Alexander Wilson, an ornithologist for whom the Wilson Society is named, recorded
a flight a mile wide and 40 miles along, estimated to be over two billion birds.
• 15 million passenger pigeon shipped to market in 1861.
• The last passenger pigeon died in the Cincinnati Zoo in 1914.
Root of conservatism
• Realisation of the importance of nature as an economic, aesthetic, and spiritual resource, together
with a newly urgent conviction that nature's resources were increasingly imperiled.
• Inspired by Writers, Explorers, Photographers, Artists etc helped preserve American wilderness
some of noted were Henry David Thoreau, Ralph Waldo Emerson, George Catlin, John Muir,
Leopold, Pinchot etc
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Some reflections
• “Civilization is a state of mutual and interdependent cooperation, between human animals, other
animals, …. Which may disrupted at any moment by the failure of any of them” Aldo Leopold
• „We abuse land because we regard it as a commodity belonging to us. When we see land as a
community to which we belong, we may begin to use it with love and respect‟ – Aldo Leopold.
• „It is not what we have that will make us a great nation, it is the way in which we use it‟.
President Theodore Roosevelt
• "A nation that destroys its soils destroys itself. Forests are the lungs of our land, purifying the air
and giving fresh strength to our people.“ Franklin Delano Roosevelt
• "Conservation means the greatest good to the greatest number for the longest time," Gifford
Pinchot
The Evolution of the Conservation Movement, 1850-1920 in USA
• Scientific and technological concerns,
• recognition of the human impact on the natural environment, and
• faith in the human capacity to manage that impact actively and wisely for human benefit;
• Philosophical, ethical, and spiritual values and symbolizations,
• linked American "nature" to the construction of American national identity and character,
and
• redefined the natural world as a moral and spiritual resource for urban and industrial man;
• Aesthetic considerations, including those which celebrated the perception and enjoyment of
wildlife, wilderness, and natural beauty as legitimate and necessary recreational resources in
American life.
Peak of conservatism in the US
• In 1901 Theodore Roosevelt becomes President of the United States and conservation becomes
a cornerstone of his domestic policy
• The most active President in the history of American conservation.
• Roosevelt set aside 148 million acres during his presidency,
• Over 50,000 acres for each day he was in office,
• 16 national monuments, 51 wildlife refuges, and 5 national parks.
Various philosophies
• Preservation/deep ecology
• Conservation/sustainable use
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• Eco-feiminism
• Environmentalism

• Harmony - Leopold,
• Spirituality - John Muir
• Wise use - Pinchot
Eco-feminism
• In 1974, the term "ecofeminism" was conceived by d'Eaubonne as a connection of the ecology
and women
• Movement that views the oppression of women and nature as interconnected.
• It is now better understood as a movement working against the interconnected oppressions of
gender, race, class and nature.
• The eco-feminists feel that men dominate women and humans dominate nature. Naturally,
then, women and the environmentalists should be united in their struggle.
• Other eco-feminists claim that the degradation of nature contributes to the degradation of
women
Deep ecology
• The phrase "deep ecology" was coined by the Norwegian philosopher Arne Næss in 1973
• Proponents of deep ecology believe that the world does not exist as a resource to be freely
exploited by humans.
• The ethics of deep ecology hold that a whole system is superior to any of its parts.
• The philosophy of deep ecology helped differentiate the modern ecology movement by
pointing out the anthropocentric bias of the term “environment "and rejecting the idea of
humans as authoritarian guardians of the environment.
• Nature has own rights to exists irrespective to the value of human beings.
Mainstream conservationism
• Current conservation efforts represent a more balanced view than the extremes
• Nature for tomorrow, conservation for development etc are still anthropocentric based on
Judeo-Christian doctrine - anthropocentric environmentalism
• The economics of biodiversity (TEB) study of the UNEP – valuing the biodiversity to human
wellbeing
• Millennium ecosystem Assessment (MEA)
Moved by NGOs and foundations
• WWF,
• The Nature Conservancy (ITNC)
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• The wealthiest conservation organization in the US protecting 15 million acres in the U.S. and
102 million acres worldwide.
• The Conservation International (CI)
• Sierra club,
• The North American Wildlife Federation
• The Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS)
• Now there are 3,000 conservation organizations. over 1,600 private conservation organizations
• Wildlife conservation is a political issue, with multiple stakeholders.
• Multibillion dollar activities
Conservationism gave birth to protected areas
• Saving resources from use rather than saving them for use.
• Harmony between human influence and the natural world could be achieved only through
society‟s commitment to moral and social responsibility to future generation.
• A cultural response to perceived threat to
nature
• First national park Yellow Stone
established in 1887, second Yosemite in
1890
Protected areas and management approaches
More than 120,000 PAs worldwide covering near
14% of the Earth‟s terrestrial land surface
Conservation paradigms are dynamic
Integration
Mainstreaming
Isolation
Conservation
Sustainable
development
Recreation
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The evolving role of protected areas
Shifting paradigms - from site to system to networks
• Shift from national parks as signature areas for protection.
• Human being as an important component
• Activities and actors beyond PAs boundaries are crucial
• Ecology and social-economic systems are interlinked
• Effective human management of ecosystems will not occur without a clear understanding of the
place of people in the context of the ecosystem.
Human ecology
• The study of the relationship between humans and their respective environment.
• Ecosystem management and human ecology – different sides of the same coin
• Four types of human relationships :( Peterson, 1996): Dominion, Stewardship, Participation and
Abdication
Relationship between conservation and ecotourism
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1.5 Role of Ethics in ecotourism
Successful ecotourism
• Conservationists should understand business
• Tourism entrepreneurs should understand conservation
• At the moment we are doing nature based tourism or tourism in natural areas.
• It is an ideal component of a sustainable development strategy where natural resources can be
utilized as tourism attractions without causing harm to the natural area.
• Tourism to protected areas has continued to grow at a rapid rate.
• To ensure that the increasing pressure from tourism does not threaten the long-term health of
these precious areas, more than ever it is important that tourism development for protected areas
occur within the context of conservation management.
• The core elements of environmental problems such as man's relationship with his natural
surroundings are largely of an ethical and emotional nature.
Ethical issues in ecotourism
• In many cases the non human members of our ecological community that are the hardest hit by
tourism
• Activities of the people are largely normative which collectively direct the actions of
communities, cultures, societies and the planet.
• Ethic – theoretical and applied
• Applied – environmental ethic and tourism ethic
• Not only Compassion to nature but there is compulsion also
• Ethic and emotions – compassion and knowledge - Buddha‟s eye
• Heart less head and head less heart
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• Key stakeholders: Government/protected area agencies, Tourism operators, Tourists and local
communities
• Human/anthropocentirc ethic vs bio-centric ethic.
• Western world view based ethic – anthropocentric - nature can be perceived only on the
perspective of human values
• Eastern word view based ethic – bio centric/intrinsic – all living and non living being has their
own rights to existence.
• Bio centric – preservationist – practice of little interventions, placing high value on resources,
responsible use and very small numbers of tourists.
• The choices the people make with respect to tourism reflect the importance of environmental
values in their lives (Philpsen, 1995).
• Codes of ethics – philosophical and value based
• Environmental commitment, responsibility, integrated planning, environmentally sound
management, cooperation between decision-makers and public awareness
• Codes of practice – practical and local specific
• Deontology or right behavior is an ethical approach which suggests that an act is right or
wrong on the basis of rules or principles of action or duties or rights or virtues – ex. illegal
hunting is poaching.
• Teteology or good behaviors are an ethical approach which suggests that an act is right or
wrong solely on the basis of consequences of its performance.
• Existentiausm - authentic behavior
• Right behavior, good behavior, authentic behavior
• Approx. 77% of the codes/guidelines based on Deontological in nature.
Measurement of ethical consideration in ecotourism activities
• New Environmental Paradigm (NEP) scale (Jurowski et al 1995)
– Published in 1978, Riley Dunlup and Kent Van Liere
• Multidimensional Ethics Scale (MES) (Reidenbach and Robin, 1988/1990)
OCEANIC SOCIETY - ECOTOURISM CODE OF ETHICS
• CODE OF ECOTOURISM ETHICS
• Conducts eco-tours with a non-invasive approach to viewing wildlife and wilderness
exploration.
• Act to minimize local cultural impact.
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• Enhance the quality of wildlife encounters, while minimizing our impact.
• Protecting Wildlife:
• Animals overtly respond to intrusive human behavior with defensive-aggressive posturing,
vocalization, even flight. We use the following methods to avoid disturbing wildlife:
1. All animals have escape distances, and when people intrude on this zone, animals move away.
These distances vary among species, individuals and environmental circumstances.
• Naturalists look for behavioral cues which might suggest disturbance and alert travelers
accordingly
2. Animals observe us as we watch them. Some of our behaviors may be interpreted by animals as
threatening. We move slowly and quietly when near wildlife, and remain at the periphery of animal
groups, allowing wildlife to maintain their social organization.
3. We provide travelers with "buyer bewares" guidance on illegal wildlife products.
• Preserving Habitat:
1. Waste disposal: A "pack it back" ethic ensures that all trash created during nature walks, camping
adventures and boat excursions is placed in appropriate disposal sites.
2. Soil erosion: To preserve natural habitats our naturalists ensure that vehicles stay on the road except
where otherwise permissible, in order to prevent damaging ecosystems and degrading wildlife
habitats. We refrain from collecting plants, coral and other souvenirs.
3. Coral reefs: Guidelines are provided for snorkeling to prevent breaking coral or stirring bottom
sediment which could contribute to the destruction of delicate coral.
4. Sand dunes: Some plants adapted to this habitat have a fragile hold on relatively unstable dunes.
Naturalists guide travelers along the base of vulnerable dunes.
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Unit 2: Ecotourism Policy, Organizations and the Ecotourism
Strong Recovery in 2010 and growing trend in 2011
World Outbound Tourism Slumped in 2009
A strong comeback in 2010
New record for international visitor numbers
Global Tourism Status
2009 2010
All Trips -1% +5%
Outbound Trips 4% +7%
Outbound nights -7% +5%
OutboundSpendingin -9% +7%
InternationalArrival 4.2% +6to7%
Int‟lSpendin -5.7 n/a
Global Tourism Status
Decline of 9% in Spending in 2009 is to increase by 7% (Euro 781 billion) in 2010
Big Spenders (2010):
China (+22%)
Russia (+26%)
Brazil (+54%)
A Moderate growth Germany, USA, France, Italy & Japan
More Hotel Guests but Rates still Under Pressure
Improving World Economy in 2011 (4.2% growth)
Int‟l Tourism Growth of 3-5% in 2011
Asia Shakes off Recession with Dynamic Growth
China to become world‟s largest outbound market and destination after 2015
2.5 Ecotourism and biodiversity
o Globally, the rate of growth of ecotourism is 5 percent where as conventional tourism has only
4.1 percent.
o Biodiversity a major attraction for eco-tourists
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o PAs are the main destination for eco-tourists.
o PAs hold rare or endemic species of flora and fauna, abundant wildlife, high indices of species
diversity, unusual or spectacular geomorphological formations/ landscape and unique historic or
contemporary cultural manifestations in a natural context
Wilderness protection, recreation and tourism
Natural wilderness areas are home to god and goddess, place of salvation, spiritual and
religious places since time immemorial.
Hunting, meditation, recreation – Shiva- Parvati, Radha – Krishna romance were in the forests
with outstanding natural beauty.
Emperor Ashok established first protected area in 252 BC.
Since the first national park, Yellowstone, was established in 1872, national parks are, by
definition, available for public visitation.
People who visited Yellowstone and Yosemite a century ago were early eco-tourists
Hunting was the prime past time activities of the Nepalese aristocracy.
Since 1960s (before the establishment of National Park) commercial wildlife tourism was in
operation in Chitwan. First wildlife lodge was established in 1965.
o Many African Parks were established to expand wildlife tourism including trophy hunting.
Tourism in and around protected areas
Tourism in and around protected areas
Eco Park
Picnic Park
PAs
PAs
Eco-tourism
Tourism
Tourism
Tourism
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PAs – Tourism activities relationship
PAs Categories: Ia VI
Tourism Activities: Non Consumptive
consumptive
PAs category
PAs category/level of protection
Wildlife watching
• Prime wildlife habitat and prime tourist attraction largely overlaps.
• Watching animals is an inspiring experience. People are excited by seeing whales or turtles,
spectacular bird life, elephants or gorillas.
• The Big Five"-lion, leopard, buffalo, elephant and rhino are the main tourists attraction in east
African countries
• Madagascar –baobabs trees, lemurs etc
• Galapagos island - lizards/birds
• Chitwan – Rhino/tiger
• Rwanda - gorilla
• Whale watching tours more than doubled between 1991 and 1998, and spent over a billion US
dollars a year on this activity, benefiting 495 communities around the world from remote
destinations to major tourism resorts such as the Canary Islands.
• Over 95% of the visitors come to the Serengeti to watch wildlife.
• More than 50% of the tourists visit PAs. Almost 100% go for elephant safari to see wild
animals.
• Gross worth of a Lion in Amboseli National Park, Kenya – US$ 27, 000/year
• A elephant heard is estimated as worth as US$ 610, 000/year
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Biodiversity and ecotourism in developing countries (source: Gossling, 1999)
Hard reality
• In terms of tourism benefits:
developing countries – 20-40% of the total receipts
Entrance fees amount to 0.01%–1% of the total travel costs.
• In 1988 as much as 4–22% of these revenues were brought in by nature tourism
• In case of Nepal major portion of the tourism receipt should come form natural areas.
Useful devil
• Many of the eco-tourists destinations are extremely sensitive to environmental impacts from
human use.
• The presence of people is seen to have an impact on the behavior of wildlife such as affecting
reproductive success, feeding and social behaviors.
• Tour boats are often used in iYucatan, Mexico have resulted in a decreased feeding time and
increased alert behavior of flamingos.
• Visitations to Megallanic penguins nesting sites are popular but result in changes in the
penguin‟s behavior in both adults and chicks. causing lower hatching rates of eggs,
increased abandonment of nests, and higher mortality rates .
• When in the presence of tourists, animals abandon their nesting and feeding sites.
• Habituation of the gorillas is fundamental to ecotourism so that they may be safely observed by
tourists also may have loss of gorilla in poaching due to the losing the instinct to flee from
poachers or soldiers. Losing their survival skills places these animals at risk for extinction.
• One-homed Rhinoceros and sambar are becoming habituated to tourist activity in high tourist
use areas.
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The median flush distance and the significance of the difference in flush distances (m) between Tiger
Tops and Sauraha area
Further increased disturbance may include increased aggression, emigration or pseudo-domestication.
Just bank on not banish
• The basis for ecotourism is the biodiversity in a given area.
• Care must be taken to ensure that the existing biodiversity is maintained and enhanced over time
for ecotourism to be sustainable.
2.3 Ecotourism typologies
Tourism under different names – thin line of separation
Nature tourism, Green tourism, Wildlife tourism, Alternative tourism, Sustainable
tourism, Eco-tourism, Rural/village tourism, Community based tourism
Eco-tourism‟s root lies in nature and outdoor tourism.
Wildlife tourism: Tourism that involves international travel by people from rich developed countries
to wildlife areas in poorer developing countries.
Tourism under different names – thin line of separation
Eco-tourism:
„Any style and type of tourism that has the potential to bring benefits to the local economy
whilst contributing to natural and cultural resource conservation‟ – National Eco tourism
Strategy, Nepal, 2001.
„A responsible travel to actual areas which conserve environment and improves the welfare of
local people‟ – The Eco-tourism Society
„Visits to national parks and other natural areas with the aim of viewing and enjoying the
plants and animals as well as any indigenous culture‟ – Boo, 1990
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Definition/typology
Alternative tourism:
An umbrella term for indigenous tourism, soft tourism, green tourism, sensitized tourism
responsible tourism appropriate tourism, cottage tourism and local tourism – means almost any thing
to anyone!
Alternative approach to tourism should be - community centred, employ local resource,
relatively easy to manage, not destructive to nature and culture, benefit and guests both and even
improve communication between them‟ (Jafari, 1990)
Nature based tourism: It involves simply natural areas, where as ecotiurism demonstrates a clear
commitment to conservation and development.
Sustainable tourism: (Eber, 1992)
Tourism and associated infrastructures that, both now and in the future
operates within natural capacities for the regeneration and future productivity of resources;
recognize the contribution that people and communities, costumes and life styles, make to the
tourism experiences;
accept these must have an equal share in the economic benefits of tourism;
are guided by the wishes of local people and communities in the host areas
Nature vs. Eco tourism (Paul, 1997)
Nature based tourism: involves simply visiting natural areas or tourism activities in the natural areas,
tourist driven or guest driven
Eco-tourism: nature based activities which demonstrates a clear commitment to conservation and
development, mutually benefited (host and guest),
Typology of eco-tourists
Do it you self eco-tourists
Tourist eco-tourist
School groups/scientific groups
Dedication and time:
Hard core nature tourists
Dedicated nature tourists
Mainstream nature tourists
Casual nature tourists
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Ecotourism enthusiasts are mostly people from relatively high social brackets; high levels of
education, over 35 and women slightly outnumber men.
Golden triangle – eco-tourism as a tool for poverty alleviation
Golden triangle – eco-tourism as a tool for poverty alleviation
Eco-tourism
Biodiversity
conservation
Sustainable
development
Therefore,
o Conservation without fund is conversation only.
o Tourism is more than being hospitable to tourists only
o Tourism hospitable to tourist and hostile to nature will not go for longer.
o Saving nature by selling is hardly new.
o Conservation and tourism that denies the rights and concerns of local communities is self
defeating, if not illegal.
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Unit 4: Economics of Tourism
Total Quality Management
• Total - made up of the whole
• Quality - degree of excellence a product or service provides
• Management – Getting things done with or by others through POSLC
Therefore, TQM is the art of managing the whole to achieve excellence.
Total Quality Management means that the organization's culture is defined by and supports the
constant attainment of customer satisfaction through an integrated system of tools, techniques, and
training. This involves the continuous improvement of organizational processes, resulting in high
quality products and services.
“An organizational philosophy and long term strategy that makes continuous improvement in
quality a responsibility of all employees”
TQM objective
• To build up quality commitments among the stakeholders for its long term, sustained and
continuous improvement to meet customers‟ needs and expectations, which includes:
1. Designing quality into products & services
2. Preventing defects to a greatest extent feasible & correcting those that do appear
3. Continuously improving the quality of goods and services as much as is economically and
competitively feasible
• To ….. commitments ………, which includes:
1. To achieve TQM objective of sustained quality improvement, it emphasizes to increase
workers‟ knowledge & skills through extensive training, provides relevant information to
employees, pushes decision-making power downward in the organization and ties reward to
employees‟ performance
TQM Characteristics
1. Focuses on satisfying both internal & external customers
2. Develops a balanced & integrated system for satisfying internal and external customer needs
3. Manages the system to continuously improve the satisfaction of internal and external customer
needs
4. Emphasizes on empowering people by providing decision making authority to individuals and
groups at the different levels of organization
5. Provides opportunities for employees to use various techniques and models to aid their
decision making process
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6. Views human resource management as the main partner for quality
7. Expects that managers at all levels, provides positive, dynamic leadership in order to foster an
environment for quality management
Value added
analysis
Bench
marking
Outsourcing
Statistical
quality
control
TQM
Tools
Speed
ISO
9000
ISO 14000 for Environmental
performance
Just in
Time (JIT)
Training
Why TQM?
Ford Motor Company had operating losses of $3.3 billion between 1980 and 1982.
Xerox market share dropped from 93% in 1971 to 40% in 1981.
Attention to quality was seen as a way to combat the competition.
Emergence of TQM / Continuous Improvement
TQM & Prof. Edward Deming
• William Edwards Deming was an American statistician, professor, author, lecturer, and
consultant …perhaps best known for his work in Japan and with Ford Motor Co.
• From 1950 onward, he taught top management how to improve design, product quality, testing
and sales
• Deming is regarded to have transformed Japan into an economic superpower in the post world
war 2 nd by significantly improving their product quality.
Deming’s Rolling Wheel / Ball
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Deming’s Cycle
P (Planning): Emphasis on working out what is needed to reach a very specific target
outcome…designed to improve procedures.
(D0): Involves trying out the process that has been planned in a practical setting…done on as small a
scale as possible
C (Check)/Study: Assessing or measuring the results and then comparing them to the expected
outcomes to detect any differences.
A (Act): First analyzing the differences between the expected and actual outcome…idea is to assess
what changes need to be made to rectify this and then carry out these changes
Deming’s 14 Key Principles
1. Create consistency of purpose toward improvement of product and service, with the aim to
become competitive and to stay in business, and to provide jobs.
2. Adopting the philosophy of cooperation (win-win), helps everybody to win and put it into
practice by teaching it to employees, customers and suppliers.
3. Cease dependence on inspection to achieve quality. Eliminate the need for inspection on a
mass basis by building in-built inspection process for maintaining quality.
4. Employers are suggested not just to look for short term cost advantages rather they should
work to minimize costs in the long run.
5. Improve constantly and forever the system of production and service, to improve quality and
productivity, and thus constantly decrease costs.
6. Institute training on the job regularly to update employees skills and knowledge in the changed
situation.
7. Institute leadership to adopt and manage skills, abilities, capabilities and aspiration of people.
Leaders in the organization must concentrate on helping people for better job.
8. Drive out fear and develop trust so that everyone may work effectively for the company
9. Break down barriers between departments since people in research, design, sales, and
production must work as a team to foresee problems of production and in use that may be
encountered with the product or service.
10. Eliminate slogans, exhortations, and targets for the workforce asking for zero defects and new
levels of productivity. Such exhortations only create adversarial relationships, as the bulk of
the causes of low quality and low productivity belong to the system and thus lie beyond the
power of the work force.
11. Eliminate numerical since only numerical goals and quotas can not work. Concept of MBO is
important to substitute leadership
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12. Remove barriers. It is the principle of removing all types of barriers that hinder joy of people at
work. This will mean abolishing the annual rating or merit system that ranks people and creates
competition and conflict.
13. Institute a vigorous program of education and self-improvement.
14. The transformation is everybody's job. All involved in organization should work honestly for
its transformation
According to Deming: Poor Quality is due to Management: 85% and worker Problem: 15%
Productivity and TQM
Traditional view: Quality cannot be improved without significant losses in productivity.
TQM view: Improved quality leads to improved productivity.
Quality dimensions in Eco-tourism
Quality dimensions in Eco-tourism
Quality in Tourism
Hardware
Environment
Software
Facilities
Landscape
Service
Functions
Adverse Effects
/ pollution
Information
Aesthetical
Aspects
Consumption of
Resources
Hospitality
Service chain with critical incidents and good service
Before On the spot After
Journey
home
Information/
Reservation
Local
Accommodatioport
Trans-
Journey information
Food
Activities
Entertainment
Post-vacation
goodwill
acivities
= Critical incidents
= Good service
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Total Quality Management and Continuous Improvement
• TQM is the management process used to make continuous improvements to all functions.
• TQM represents an ongoing, continuous commitment to improvement.
The foundation of total quality is a management philosophy that supports meeting customer
requirements through continuous improvement
Continuous Improvement versus Traditional Approach
Traditional Approach
Continuous Improvement
• Market-share focus Customer focus
• Individuals Cross-functional teams
• Focus on ‘who” and “why” Focus on “what” and “how”
• Short-term focus Long-term focus
• Status quo focus Continuous improvement
• Product focus Process improvement focus
• Innovation Incremental improvements
• Fire fighting Problem solving
The TQM System in Tourism
Objective
Continuous
Improvement
Principles
Customer
Focus
Process
Improvement
Total
Involvement
Elements
Leadership
Education and Training Supportive structure
Communications Reward and recognition
Measurement
Demand for Tourism
• Tourists are demanding tourism product & the host community supplies the facilities.
• Demand of tourism depends on:
• Price of the product
• Income of the tourists
• Price of related goods & services
• Tourists taste & preference
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• Leisure activities : goods, facilities
Elasticity of Tourism demand
Price elasticity of tourism demand
E p = dQ/Q ÷ dP/P
or
% change in quantity demanded for tourism services
%change in the price of the tourism services
Where,
Ep > 1 relatively elastic demand
Ep = 1 unitary elastic demand
Ep < 1 relatively inelastic demand
Income elasticity of tourism demand
Ey = dQ/Q ÷ dY/Y or
% change in quantity demanded for tourism services
%change in the tourist income
Where,
Ey > 0 in case of normal product
Ep < 0 in case of inferior product
Cross elasticity of tourism demand
E XY= dQx/Qx ÷ dPy/Py
or
% change in quant. demanded for tourism services X
%change in the price of the tourism services Y
Where,
Exy < 0 in case of complementary commodities & services. e, g,, Air fare and
accommodation.
Exy > 0 in case of substitute commodity & services. e.g., Resort & Hotel
Supply side of tourism
Three types of suppliers with different objectives: Commercial, Public & Voluntary.
Elements of supply in tourism:
Attractions: Nature, culture & human efforts.
Transport: bicycle, bus, trains, air service etc.
Accommodation: Hotel, resorts, lodge, hostel etc.
Infrastructure: Roadways, airport, parking, security, communication, electricity etc.
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Recreation & entertainment: Music, Museum, casino.
Tourist Expenditure Pattern
• Accommodation 25%
• Food & beverage 32%
• Entertainment 10%
• Local transport 5%
• Purchases 25%
• Other expenses 3%
Total 100%
Tourism Multiplier
• Chain reaction of spending triggered off by the injection of tourist money into the
destination economy in the form of output, income, employment & government revenue.
• Multiplier is the ratio of direct, indirect & induces changes within economy.
• Direct casual change with expenditure by tourist visiting the region known as direct or
primary expenditure.
• Rise in wage & salaries increase consumption expenditures, may give further effect on the
region as indirect or induced change are called secondary effects.
TIM = [1 – TPI] ÷ [ MPS + MPI ]
Where, TIM = Tourism income multiplier.
1 = Tourist dollar.
TPI = Tourist propensity to import.
MPS = Marginal propensity to save by residents.
MPI = Marginal propensity to invest by residents.
Production & Cost of Tourism Product
• Exploration
• Development
• Promotion/ Marketing
• Conservation for sustainability
• Short run cost
• Long run cost
• Opportunity cost
Socio-cultural Impact of Tourism
• Degradation of traditional cultural values, norms & life style.
• Imitating problem among youths.
• Damaged of historic and cultural sites
• Increase in social crime e.g., Prostitution, drug abuse, robbery etc.
• Changed in the socio-cultural structure of the host community.
• Overcrowding, traffic congestion, and problems of transferable diseases.
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Socio-economic Impact of Tourism
• Rise in price of land and housing.
• Higher demand raises the prices of consumer goods.
• Over expense of health & security by using local tax or receipts.
• Inequitable distribution of economic benefits among the local people.
• Temptation of easy and fast money.
• Problems of traditional occupation & life style.
Environmental Impact of Tourism
• Pollution of land & water resources.
• Deforestation & crisis for wildlife.
• Soil erosion & landslides.
• Depletion of bio diversity.
• Rapid development & overcrowding.
• Degradation of parks, reserves etc.
Unit 5: Management and Marketing of Ecotourism
Tourism: Tourism is an activity of a person travelling to and staying in places outside their usual
environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business or any other purpose.
WTO
Nature of TOURISM products
N
A
T
U
R
E
• Service as a product
• Perishability
• Variability
• Inseparability
• Intangibility
Elements of Tourism
Attractions, Accessibility Accommodation and Amenities
Tourism Products of Nepal
Mountaineering, Sightseeing, Trekking/hiking, White water Rafting, Paragliding, Rock climbing, Hot
air ballooning, Bungee Jumping, Canoeing, Ultra light craft, Bird watching, Jungle safari, Mountain
flight, Fishing, Mountain biking, Wave running, Cable car, Ridge walking, Hunting, Agro-tourism,
Village tours, Special Interest tours.
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Cultural
Tourism
Mountain
Tourism
Naturebased
Tourism
Eco -
tourism
Mass
Tourism
Tourism
Typology
Adventure
Tourism
Sustainable
Tourism
Agro-
Tourism
Responsible
Tourism
Sports
Tourism
Village
Tourism
Green
Tourism
Rural
Tourism
Others ?????
6
Glossary:
Eco-tourism: Perhaps the most over-used & mis-used word in travel industry. Travel to natural areas
which conserve the environment and improve the welfare of the local people.
Adventure Tourism: Soft adventure (lower risk, greater comfort) & Hard adventure (higher risk,
greater physical challenge)
Sustainable Tourism: Does not reduce the availability or resources and does not inhibit future travelers
from enjoying the same experience.
Responsible Tourism: Minimizes negative impacts on the environment
Nature-Based Tourism: More generic term for any activity or travel experience with a focus on nature
Green Tourism: Often used inter-changeably with eco-tourism & sustainable tourism.
Any activity or facility operating in an environmentally friendly fashion
Multi-sport Adventures: Focus on physical outdoor activities like rafting, mountain biking, climbing,
surfing, diving etc. in a same package
Cultural Tourism: Interacting with and observing unique cultures are the focus of this style of trip. All
of these definitions are debatable; “Eco” for one might be “Sustainable” for other and so on.
Distinction between these terms depends on motives and ethics
• Ecotourism: Traveling to undisturbed natural areas with specific object of studying, admiring
and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals as well as any existing cultural
aspects found in those areas. -WTO
• A purposeful travel to natural areas to understand the culture and natural history of the
environment taking care not to alter the integrity of the ecosystem while producing economic
opportunities that make the conservation of natural resources beneficial to local people. -
Ecotourism Society
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• Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being
of local people. - The International Ecotourism Society
• A form of tourism inspired primarily by the natural history of an area, including its indigenous
cultures. The ecotourist visits relatively underdeveloped areas in the spirit of appreciation,
participation and sensitivity. Non-consumptive use of wildlife and natural resources . . . .
directly benefiting the conservation issues in general and to the specific needs of the locals. -
Pacific Asia Travel Association
Principles of Ecotourism
Ecotourism is about uniting conservation, communities, and sustainable travel. This means that those
who implement and participate in ecotourism activities should follow the following ecotourism
principles:
• Minimize impact.
• Build environmental and cultural awareness and respect.
• Provide positive experiences for both visitors and hosts.
• Provide direct financial benefits for conservation.
• Provide financial benefits and empowerment for local people.
• Raise sensitivity to host countries' political, environmental, and social climate.
Ecotourism Criteria
• Rich natural attractions and conducive to travel
• Unique features and education to visitors
• Rich in flora and fauna, endemic/endangered species
• Not frequented by commercial tourists
• Native traditions of local people remain untouched
Rich in biodiversity
Eco-Tourism Products
Natural or environmental, Community, Heritage or historic, Cultural, Outdoor recreation, Tourism
services, Special events, Information/interpretive services
Aspects of Ecotourism
1. Local Economics: More $ to the people
2. Natural World Connection: Conservation & Protection, Outdoor Recreation
3. Cultural Emergence: “Off the beaten track”
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4. Educational : Language, Food, Festivals, Sports, History
Ecotourist Profile
• Experienced travelers
• Higher education
• Higher Income Bracket
• Age: middle to elderly
Opinion leaders: Ask & tell friends about trip, Important source of travel information
Marketing: Marketing is a societal process by which individuals and groups obtain what they need
and want through creating, offering, and exchanging products and value with others.
Marketing Management Philosophies
Production Concept
Product Concept
Selling Concept
Marketing Concept
Societal Marketing Concept
•Consumers favor products that are
available and highly affordable.
•Improve production and distribution.
•Consumers favor products that offer
the most quality, performance, and
innovative features.
•Consumers will buy products only if
the company promotes/ sells these
products.
•Focuses on needs/ wants of target
markets & delivering satisfaction
better than competitors.
•Focuses on needs/ wants of target
markets & delivering superior value.
Evolution of Marketing
4 Ps: Traditional marketing
7 Ps : Adds the service component of marketing
10 Ps: Adds tourism & hospitality components of marketing
13 Cs: Incorporates the focus on customer loyalty
Marketing Mix
Marketing
Mix
4 Ps
Product
Place
(Distribution)
Price
Promotion
21
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Service Marketing Mix
Marketing
Mix
7 Ps
Physical
Attributes
Refer: Shoemaker, Lewis & Yesawich (2007). Marketing leadership in hospitality and tourism (4 th ed). NJ: Pearson Education
Product
Planning
People
Price
Promotion
10 Ps of
Tourism
Marketing
Mix
Positioning
Programming
Place
Partnership
Refer: Edgell, David C. (2002). Best practices for international tourism development for rural communities. IOWA Life Changing
10 Ps
• Successful marketing means putting the customer first
• If you follow “The Ten „P‟s‟ of Tourism Marketing,” your customers will come first
• Because you will be able to understand them better.
• You will also make more effective use of your marketing dollars and, by doing so, increase
your profits.
13 Cs of Marketing
Customer
Capabilities of firm
Categories of offerings
Cost, profitability, and value
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Control of process
Customer care
Collaboration within firm
Chain of relationships
Customization
Capacity control
Communications
Competition
Customer measurement
TOURISM MARKETING
• Tourism is not tourism until it is sold
• Marketing is not just selling & advertising
• Its role is much broader as it is about matching the right product or service with the right
market or audience
• Marketing is indeed the management process that identifies, anticipates and satisfies customer
requirements profitably
• Marketing is the right product, in the right place, at the right time, at the right price.
ECOTOURISM MARKETING STRATEGY
• Should respond to the definition of Eco-Tourism
• Should respond to the development strategy
• Should meet Important Ecotourism criteria
Ecotourism Management Strategy
• Zoning for visitor use
• Visitors site planning and design
• Sustainable infrastructure design
• Revenue generating mechanisms
• Visitor monitoring and management
• Naturalist guides – the heart of ecotourism
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Ecotourism Management and Development Planning Process
Factors Influencing a Business Plan
OTHERS TRAINING REQUIREMENTS
• Culture of Tourism
• Tourism Awareness Seminar
• Basic Tour Guiding Techniques
• Waite ring and Bartending Seminar
• Front Office Management
• Tourism and E-Commerce
• Home stay Program
• Accreditation Program
Eco branding
Travel Agency Operation
• Create positive impressions in the minds of your customers by expounding all
environmentally-friendly aspects of your product or service.
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• Your eco-brand permeates your website, literature and even
the labeling of your product.
Eco-Branding: Beyond Green Washing
• The growing environmental awareness amongst consumers is
also affecting how brands are marketed.
• Many are now rushing to promote themselves as
environmentally responsible to appeal to today‟s eco
conscious consumer
• Great example of an eco brand is HOWIES clothing, which makes all of its clothes from eco
textiles, such as organic cotton, Merino wool and recycled cotton
• In recent years the eco movement has been joined by larger companies launching green
offshoots to their main operations.
• Currently the UK‟s green trend setters include Marks & Spencer‟s „Plan A‟, General Electric‟s
„Ecomagination‟ and BSkyB‟s „Carbon Neutral‟
• The Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) issued a warning that some of the green claims
being made by brands in their advertising might not be genuine
• Came after it took action against a number of car manufacturers because of their shaky „clean
technology‟ claims in their marketing.
Eco-labeling
• Eco-labels are affixed to products that pass eco-friendly criteria laid down by government,
association or standards certification bodies.
• The criteria utilize extensive research based on the product's life cycle impact on the environment.
• Examples of eco-labels include the Japanese Eco Mark, International Energy Star, USA Green
Seal and UK BREEAM.
Eco-labeling: Background
Eco-labeling entered mainstream environmental policy-making in 1977 through Germany‟s Blue
Angel program. Since then, eco-labels have become one of the most high-profile market-based tools
for achieving environmental objectives
Main features:
• Eco-labels differ from green symbols and environmental claims in that the latter are unverified and
created by the manufacture or service provider.
• Products awarded an eco-label have been assessed and verified by an independent third body and
are guaranteed to meet certain environmental performance requirements
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• Eco-labels may focus on certain environmental aspects of the product. Eg: energy consumption,
water use, source of timber etc.
• Government backing for eco-labeling schemes is essential.
• Almost all international eco-labeling schemes require government funding and support. They may
encompass the multiple environmental aspects
Eco-labeling Programs
• The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC);
• The Marine Stewardship Council (MSC);
• Germany‟s Blue Angel program;
• Fair-trade Labeling Organizations International (FLO); and
• The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM).
Ecotourism On-line Resources
www.ecotourism.org or www.ecotourism.cc or www.responsibletravel.com
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Unit 6: Ecotourism and the Environment
6.1 Linking conservation and community
Why linkage?
• One of the principles of conservation biology is that human presence must be included in
conservation planning. Any conservation efforts that do not account for humans (either as the
cause of the problem or part of the solution) are doomed to fail. Humans are part of the
problem, but we are also part of the solution (a better one for us)
• CBD also recognises the need of conservation – community linkages.
• The principle of contemporary conservation practices is based on at least „do no harm‟ to local
people.
• In a democratic society; it would be increasingly difficult to get political support if
conservation cannot gain popular approval.
• Moral, socio-political, economic, and environmental reasons.
Need of C-C linkages
• To utilise communities‟ conservation knowledge and traditions
• To recognise legitimate traditional rights
• To minimise/manage negative impacts
• To expand conservation activities in the larger area.
• To improve cooperation and reduce conflict
• To share conservation benefits
• To increase political/public support for conservation
• To generate fund for conservation
• To reduce conservation costs and increases conservation efficiency.
Opportunities
• Both in develop and developing world local constituencies are vital for sustainable
conservation.
• Studies suggest that people are not against park. They are only unhappy with the approach of
park management.
• There is a growing realization that the cost of protection has been largely skewed towards local
communities and that such unfair distribution of cost and benefits should be minimized.
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• A strong consensus has developed that protected areas need to make a solid contribution to
poverty alleviation and sustainable development.
• Biodiversity hot spots and poverty hot spots largely overlaps. Making the linkage between
nature conservation and poverty help contribute MDGs , CBD and other international
commitments.
• Politics of conservation can influence the politics of development
• All over the world, conservation, sustainable use and equitable benefit sharing have been the
main guiding principles of protected area management and inclusive, participatory and
livelihood-based conservation paradigms have been gaining ground since the mid 80s.
• The values and policies associated with protected areas are now very different from those that
prevailed in the past
• Mainstream conservation policy now favours socially just conservation.
Challenges
• It is quite difficult to understand and reconcile the interests, needs and expectations of a wide
range of stakeholders as well as the complexity of their relationships with the resource and
with one another
• Broad conservation benefit is unlikely to provide a sufficient incentive to offset the wildlife
costs incurred by an individual farmer. As multiple objectives pull in different directions , a
good balance between public and private benefits is always difficult.
• There are very few successful and convincing cases, which can show a positive relationship
between local livelihood improvement and conservation of protected area resources.
• Several studies reveal that conservation projects based on incentive and alternatives have many
limitations and have largely failed to achieve both conservation and development objectives.
• Linking conservation and communities runs the risk of misplaced priorities and confusion
between means and ends.
• Participation of people has been taken as a strategy rather than conservation principle
• Alternative livelihoods and related social activities are primarily designed to compensate social
costs – rather than to prevent them
• C-C linkages have sometimes been implemented as little more than a token gesture and as a
way to buy favour in order to maintain the old, strict management approach for the park
Limitations
• Conclusive results of such activities on biodiversity conservation have been debated .
• The livelihood linkage is a necessary, but not sufficient condition to take the place of
biodiversity conservation.
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• It has been cautioned not to idealize community based conservation as the panacea for the
world‟s protected area challenges due to the difficulty in achieving win – win outcomes of
poverty alleviation and biodiversity conservation
• Protected areas cannot solve the structural problems of society
Understanding linkages
• Linking conservation and poverty reduction means trying to achieve the best possible outcome,
not necessarily a perfect outcome
• The need for exploring complementarities and trade-offs rather than conflict between
conservation and development
• The question is not about promoting poverty reduction over conservation, but about
acknowledging that both poverty reduction and conservation are important objectives and that
it is often necessary to address both in order to achieve either.
Linking is balancing the conservation
• Reconciling the needs of people with conservation and long term
objectives of conservation with immediate needs of the people
• Sweet concept but hard to practice
• In contrary to manage as an isolated protected zone in the past,
protected areas are now seen as part of mosaic of land and natural resource uses and considered
as interdependent with communities and economies.
• The new paradigm of protected area management promotes building a wide range of
constituencies that support protected areas, locating protected areas within the wider agenda of
sustainable development, and giving greater recognition to the rights, needs and cultures of the
indigenous and local communities
• Conservation strategy should address the human and natural processes that influence the
ecology of the wider areas.
• “Ensuring benefits for people” is a principle that underlies the landscape and the ecosystem
based conservation approaches
Understanding linkages
The major functions of protected areas deliver different benefits at different scales.
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Many stakeholders have interests in protected areas and important roles to play in their
management.
Level of engagement
Macro level
No state actors
State actors
Micro level
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Strategies and approaches
• Meet, link, reconcile
• More collaborative
• Institutional restructuring -both management and governance, type and quality of governance
• Address not only fairness in the present and future arrangements but also re-dressing past
inequalities by sharing resource, rights and responsibilities.
• Equal playing field to avoid elite capture
• Empowering than employing
• Adopt good governance principles - Participation, Rule of law, Transparency, Responsiveness,
Consensus orientation, Equity, Accountability, Strategic vision.
You may agree?
• Protected areas must forge linkages with people based on equity, linked rights and
responsibilities if they are to continue to be important for biodiversity conservation.
• Conservation practices right to people will never be wrong to conservation.
6.3 Alternative versus mass tourism
Alternative tourism
• An umbrella term for indigenous tourism, soft tourism, green tourism, sensitized tourism
responsible tourism appropriate tourism, cottage tourism and local tourism – means almost
anything to anyone!
• Alternative approach to tourism should be: community centered, employ local resource,
relatively easy to manage, not destructive to nature and culture, benefit both hosts and guests
and even improve communication between them‟ (Jafari, 1990)
Alternative not restrictive or regressive
• Alternative tourism does not mean reducing tourism activities but diversifying tourism
opportunities and doing them in responsible ways.
• Promoting and sustaining tourism in opposite to „tourism kill tourism‟ approach of Mass
Tourism.
• There are more than sea, sand and sun
• Amore benign alternative to conventional mass tourism
• Tourism for forever
Advantages of AT
• Direct benefits to family or individual
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• Benefit to local community
• Benefit to host country
• Good for cost conscious but responsible travelers
• Benefits for international by promoting international – interregional –intercultural
understanding
Mass tourism
• Non local orientation,
• Very little benefits stays at the local level
• Generates little local income
• Big hotels/structures – use of non local materials
• Little requirements of local food products
• Generally owned by outsiders
• Commercialization of natural and cultural resources
• Inauthentic : Not operated with the interest of local people and the resources base in mind
• Enjoy, destroy and disappear
Mass and alternative tourism
Sustainable tourism practices
Unsustainable tourism practices
Mass tourism
Ecotourism
Hard reality
• Mass tourism does not go away due to economic and socio- philosophical reasons
• Easy travel, comfort, less risk, time, language, food etc
• One person‟s ecotourism dream may be another‟s touristic nightmare.
• Creating alternatives and improving the mass tourism operations will be an realistic strategy to
contribute to environment and local economy
Principle of ecotourism
• Ecotourism ecology and tourism tourism activities in ecologically sensitive areas.
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• „A responsible travel to actual areas which conserve environment and improves the welfare of
local people‟ – The Eco-tourism Society.
• Ecotourism more than responsible to nature but also responsible to the well being of local
people and their culture
• It is a responsible and purposeful travel based on mutual learning and respect.
• Just an idea and promoted without an understanding of its basic principles in 1980s
• International principles, guidelines etc developed throughout 1990s but still not single and
globally accepted principals and standards available.
Ecotourism sustainability
Requirements for ecotourism
Nine characteristics.
• It promotes positive environmental ethics and fosters "preferred" behaviour in its participants.
• It does not degrade the resource. In other words, it does not involve consumptive erosion of
the natural environment. (Hunting for sport, and fishing, may be classified as wildland (green)
tourism, but they are most aptly classified as adventure tourism, rather than ecotourism.)
• It concentrates on intrinsic rather than extrinsic values. Facilities and services may
facilitate the encounter with the intrinsic resource, but never become attractions in their own
right, and do not detract from the resource.
• It is oriented around the environment in question and not around man. Ecotourists accept
the environment as it is, neither expecting it to change or to be modified for their convenience.
• It must benefit the wildlife and environment. The question of whether or not the
environment (not just people) has received "benefits" can be measured socially, economically,
scientifically, managerially, and politically. At the very least, the environment must attain a net
benefit, contributing to its sustainability and ecological integrity.
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• It provides a first-hand encounter with the natural environment (and with any
accompanying cultural elements found in undeveloped areas). Zoological parks do not
constitute an ecotourism experience (although they may contribute to the development of a
person's interest in ecotourism). Visitor centres and on-site interpretive slide shows can be
considered to form part of an ecotourism activity only if they direct people to a first-hand
experience.
• It actively involves the local communities in the tourism process so that they may benefit
from it, thereby contributing to a better valuation of the natural resources in that locality.
• Its level of gratification is measured in terms of education and/or appreciation rather than
in thrill-seeking or physical achievement; the latter is more characteristic of adventure tourism.
• It involves considerable preparation and demands in-depth knowledge on the part of
both leaders and participants. The satisfaction derived from the experience is felt and
expressed strongly in emotional and inspirational ways
TES’s seven basic principles of ecotourism:
• It avoids negative impacts that can damage or destroy the character of the natural or cultural
environments being visited.
• It educates the traveller on the importance of conservation.
• It directs revenues to the conservation of natural areas and the management of protected areas.
• It brings economic benefits to local communities and directs revenues to local people living
near the protected areas.
• It emphasizes the need for planning and sustainable growth of the tourism industry and seeks
to ensure that tourism development does not exceed the social and environmental “capacity.”
• It retains a high percentage of revenues in the host country by stressing the use of locallyowned
facilities and services.
• Rely on infrastructures that are in harmony to local environment and use local resources
• Conservation,community and sustainable travel
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Philosophy of sustainability and intergenerational equity
• We do not inherit the earth from our parents; we borrow it from our children.‟ - an American
Native
• „The needs of the present generation are met without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.‟ - Bruntland Commission, 1987.
• Now responsible/sustainable travel is also important in the context of climate change
• Minimum ecological footprint at the local level is not enough minimum carbon foot print is
equally required
• Approx. 5% of the global emission. Approx. 40% from air travel.
• By 2035, under a “business as usual” scenario, carbon dioxide emissions from global tourism
are projected to increase by 130 per cent.
The attributes of ecotourism that make it a valuable tool for conservation
give economic value to ecosystem services that protected areas provide;
generate direct income for the conservation of protected areas;
generate direct and indirect income for local stakeholders,
creating incentives for conservation in local communities;
build constituencies for conservation, locally, nationally and internationally;
promote sustainable use of natural resources; and
Reduce threats to biodiversity.
Elements crucial to the ultimate success of an eecotourism initiative
have a low impact upon a protected area‟s natural resources;
involve stakeholders (individuals, communities, eco-tourists, tour operators and
government institutions) in the planning, development, implementation and monitoring
phases;
respect local cultures and traditions;
generate sustainable and equitable income for local communities and for as many other
stakeholders as possible, including private tour operators;
generate income for protected area conservation; and
Educate all stakeholders about their role in conservation.
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6.2 Sustainable tourism development
• Like ecotourism, such terms as sustainable tourism and responsible tourism are rooted in the
concept of sustainable development, or development that "meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs" (Bruntland
Commission, 1987).
• With this concept in mind, sustainable tourism was defined in the 1992 Agenda 21 for the
Travel and Tourism Industry as tourism that "meets the needs of present tourists and host
regions while protecting and enhancing opportunities for the future."
Three interfaces of sustainable tourism
• Tourism has its limitations and must operate within certain constraints – environmental quality,
inclusion of local people, and limit of growth
• Improvement of quality of all involved
• Recognization of interface of different stake groups.
Approaches and strategies
• Participatory planning
• Efficiency
• Environmental friendliness,
• Slow development
• High quality
• Humanistic
• Authenticity
Stakeholders and tourism sustainability
‣7- all win scenario
‣4,5,6 – one or two win
at the costs of other one
‣All lose scenario
1. Tourism
2. Protected
Areas
5 4
7
6
3. Local
communities
Requirements of sustainable nature tourism policy
• Sustainable tourism is the product of partnership of different stakeholders – government,
private sector, community.
• National support and advance planning
• Appropriate pricing and revenue policy
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• Local participation and benefits.
• Sustainable tourism can only be sustainable when it is designed in the framework of
sustainable development.
Strategy
• Tourism as a development tools must sensitive to fulfill the requirements of many stakeholder
groups.
• Relationship between ecotourism and indigenous people is necessary
• Good partnership is necessary to ensure a high quality product is delivered and tourism
experiences rely on aspects of communities.
• Education at all levels in different aspects of ecotourism
• Lack of capacity to link ecotourism directly with the market of developed country is the main
reason of income leakage
• Eco-lodge: a nature dependent tourist lodge that meets the philoshopy and principle of
ecotourism
Risks and limitations
• Manage nature and cultural resources
• Minimise energy and waste
• Example of successes are few
• Risk of turning ecotourism to mass tourism and local community to commercial control
Core indicators of sustainable tourism
• Site protection
• Stress
• Use intensity
• Social impact
• Development control
• Waste management
• Critical ecosystems
• Consumer satisfaction
• Local satisfaction
• Contribution to local economy
• Sustainable tourism is crucial to promote a positive park people relationship.
• Sixty-one percent of Americans believe their experience is better when their destination
preserves its unique natural, historic, and cultural sites
• The rationale behind ecotourism is that local tourism businesses would not destroy natural
resources but would instead support their protection.
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• Taking a stroll through a rainforest is not considered ecotourism unless that stroll benefits that
environment and the people who live there.
Ecotourism and opportunities for PA management
Potential ecotourism Opportunities
Potential tourism threats
A tourism business is a trap, it is a
tainted honey
Tourism: a key development
• A key development tool since 1990s.
• Tourism planning in regional scale
• Community based tourism
– Develop grassroots planning process
– Inventory regional tourism resources
– Set goal and objective in line with culture and natural resource sustainability
– Establishment of management board
Community based ecotourism
• Community involvement
• Community benefits
• Community ownership
• Local and community products – cultural, natural
Sustainable tourism planning and management strategy
• Be as culturally sensitive as possible
• Work within existing institutional frameworks as opposed to creating new
• Multi-sectoral planning to allow all affected stakeholders to participate in decision making
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Source: http://www.unwto.org/facts/eng/pdf/highlights/UNWTO_Highlights10_en_HR.pdf
Ecotourism and its global contexts
• In 2002, ecotourism became recognized around the world as a legitimate form of tourism.
During this year the United Nations celebrated the“International Year of Ecotourism”
• The primary focus of ecotourism should be on the conservation of the natural environment and
the quality of life for the local community
• Developing countries look to ecotourism as a way to earn revenue from foreign countries,
especially those of the rich developed world.
• Countries where ecotourism is a significant portion of gross domestic product are: CostaRica,
Ecuador, Nepal, Kenya, Madagascar, Bolivia, Belize, Dominica, Mongolia, Vietnam,
Cambodia, Fiji, Namibia, Uganda, and Zimbabwe.
• Tourism and travel is a primary source of foreign exchange earnings in 46 out of 50 of the
world‟s LDC.
• The share in international tourist arrivals received by emerging and developing countries has
steadily risen, from 32% in 1990 to 47% in 2009.
• The contribution of tourism to economic activity worldwide is estimated at some 5%.
Tourism‟s contribution to employment tends to be slightly higher relatively and is estimated in
the order of 6-7% of the overall number of jobs worldwide (direct and indirect).
Key Trend
• Rich and educated tourists
• Regional demand
• Increasing wealth
• Attitude to experience new and unique
• Clean and green economy
Ecotourism has opportunity and challenges.
• National capacity and awareness • Regionalization (Asia)
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• Devolution and decentralization
• Conservation of culture and nature
• Link to other regional attractions
• Eco and unique tourism products
• Development of service
lines/production
• Education and training to enhance
capacity
• Infrastructure development
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