Epigraphs Note on Terminology Acknowledgments Introduction

44. Gen. Groves to Sen. McMahon, February 18, 1946, Groves Papers, NARA.
45. Giordano interviews conducted in 1997 by Joel Griffiths and Clifford Honicker
on a trip to the peach orchards. Clemente interview conducted by
telephone and e-mail with the author in 2002.
46. C. A. Taney Jr., Major, Corps of Engineers, to William C. Gotshalk, September
24, 1945, cc. General Groves, in Groves file on New Jersey pollution,
NARA, via Joel Griffiths.
47. William Gotshalk to Maj. C. A. Taney, U.S. Engineer Office, New York, NY,
August 28, 1945, Groves Papers, NARA.
48. Maj. C. A. Taney to Gen. L. R. Groves, June 1, 1945, Groves Papers, NARA.
49. Thiessen, interviewed several times for this book, is a senior scientist with
SENES Oak Ridge, Inc., Center for Risk Analysis. She is the author of Summary
Review of Health Effects Associated with Hydrogen Fluoride and Related
Compounds. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December 1988.
50. Lt. Col. Cooper B. Rhodes, “Memorandum for the Files. Subject: Peach
Crop Cases, Kille et al. vs. DuPont, May 2, 1946, Cc: General Groves, General
Nichols.” Groves Papers, NARA, via Honicker and Griffiths.
Chapter 6
1. Time, April 24, 1944, p. 43.
2. D. B. Ast, “A Plan to Determine the Practicability, Efficacy, and Safety of
Fluorinating a Communal Water-Supply, Deficient in Fluorine, to Control
Dental Caries,” in W. J. Gies, ed., Fluorine in Dental Public Health (New
York: New York Institute of Clinical Oral Pathology, 1945), p. 44.
Ast’s paper was delivered at a symposium of the New York Institute of
Clinical Oral Pathology, New York City, October 30, 1944. According to the
editors of Fluorine in Dental Public Health, “Dr. Ast’s address (pp. 40–45)
states the basis for, and the procedure in, the effort in the State of New York
to determine, in a comprehensive and extended research, whether mass
prevention (control) of dental caries (under the conditions stated in the
preceding paragraph) is attainable without inducing toxic effects elsewhere
in the body,” p. 6 (emphasis in the original). See also F. McKay, Fluorine
in Dental Public Health, p. 18, “Newburgh has become another ‘biological
experiment station,’ in which the rationale is applied directly to humans
without previous laboratory experiments on animals.”
3. Memorandum “Summary of Conference with Colonel Nichols,” dated New
York City, July 23, 1943, notes, “5. Agreed to farming out Fl and HF toxicity
experiments to Dr. Fairhall of the U.S. Public Health Service, Bethesda, Mr
[left blank] through Dr. Wenzel—with experiments outlined by Drs Hodge
and Ferry.” Thus, the Manhattan Project is secretly directing the wartime
PHS fluoride studies. Bomb-program medical planners, including Drs.
Hodge, Friedell, and Warren, decided on August 31, 1943, that there was
need for an “orientation conference on fluorine toxicity under auspices of
the U.S. Public Health Service or OSRD.” New York Operations Research