Epigraphs Note on Terminology Acknowledgments Introduction

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44. Gen. Groves to Sen. McMahon, February 18, 1946, Groves Papers, NARA. 45. Giordano interviews conducted in 1997 by Joel Griffiths and Clifford Honicker on a trip to the peach orchards. Clemente interview conducted by telephone and e-mail with the author in 2002. 46. C. A. Taney Jr., Major, Corps of Engineers, to William C. Gotshalk, September 24, 1945, cc. General Groves, in Groves file on New Jersey pollution, NARA, via Joel Griffiths. 47. William Gotshalk to Maj. C. A. Taney, U.S. Engineer Office, New York, NY, August 28, 1945, Groves Papers, NARA. 48. Maj. C. A. Taney to Gen. L. R. Groves, June 1, 1945, Groves Papers, NARA. 49. Thiessen, interviewed several times for this book, is a senior scientist with SENES Oak Ridge, Inc., Center for Risk Analysis. She is the author of Summary Review of Health Effects Associated with Hydrogen Fluoride and Related Compounds. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December 1988. 50. Lt. Col. Cooper B. Rhodes, “Memorandum for the Files. Subject: Peach Crop Cases, Kille et al. vs. DuPont, May 2, 1946, Cc: General Groves, General Nichols.” Groves Papers, NARA, via Honicker and Griffiths. Chapter 6 1. Time, April 24, 1944, p. 43. 2. D. B. Ast, “A Plan to Determine the Practicability, Efficacy, and Safety of Fluorinating a Communal Water-Supply, Deficient in Fluorine, to Control Dental Caries,” in W. J. Gies, ed., Fluorine in Dental Public Health (New York: New York Institute of Clinical Oral Pathology, 1945), p. 44. Ast’s paper was delivered at a symposium of the New York Institute of Clinical Oral Pathology, New York City, October 30, 1944. According to the editors of Fluorine in Dental Public Health, “Dr. Ast’s address (pp. 40–45) states the basis for, and the procedure in, the effort in the State of New York to determine, in a comprehensive and extended research, whether mass prevention (control) of dental caries (under the conditions stated in the preceding paragraph) is attainable without inducing toxic effects elsewhere in the body,” p. 6 (emphasis in the original). See also F. McKay, Fluorine in Dental Public Health, p. 18, “Newburgh has become another ‘biological experiment station,’ in which the rationale is applied directly to humans without previous laboratory experiments on animals.” 3. Memorandum “Summary of Conference with Colonel Nichols,” dated New York City, July 23, 1943, notes, “5. Agreed to farming out Fl and HF toxicity experiments to Dr. Fairhall of the U.S. Public Health Service, Bethesda, Mr [left blank] through Dr. Wenzel—with experiments outlined by Drs Hodge and Ferry.” Thus, the Manhattan Project is secretly directing the wartime PHS fluoride studies. Bomb-program medical planners, including Drs. Hodge, Friedell, and Warren, decided on August 31, 1943, that there was need for an “orientation conference on fluorine toxicity under auspices of the U.S. Public Health Service or OSRD.” New York Operations Research
and Medicine Division, Correspondence 1945–1952, Box 36, RG 326. The conference transcripts are in a file in the same box coded “G-118.” 4. James Conant, Chairman NRDC, to Mr. J. J. Townsend, Public Health Service, Bethesda, MD, September 25, 1943; and Townsend to Conant, September 29, 1943, Documents 295 and 296, Records of Section S-1 Executive Committee, RG 227.3.1. 5. Transcript of Metabolism of Fluorides Conference, main session, Hotel Pennsylvania, New York, NY, January 6, 1944, Dr. Neal, p. 24, via Pete Eisler, USA Today. 6. Ibid., Dr. Calvary, Chief of the Division of Pharmacology, FDA, p. 22. On animal tests, see Memo to Safety Section files, Joseph Faust, Assoc. Engineer (Safety) January 14, 1944, Oak Ridge Reading Room, ORO #1304. 7. Transcript of “Metabolism of Fluorides” Conference, main session, Hotel Pennsylvania, New York, NY, January 6, 1944, via Pete Eisler, Ast comment at p. 27. (Interviewed by me in 1997, David Ast said that he could not remember having attended the New York conference.) 8. Memorandum to The Area Engineer, Rochester Area, Rochester, NY. Subject: Funds for Incidental Expenses of Meeting on “Fluoride Metabolism,” December 31, 1943. John L. Ferry, Md 123 (729.3), File labeled G-118 (c), A2, Box 36, Accession #72C2386, Atlanta FRC, RG 326. 9. “I think it would be a definite step forward if we forgot about definite limits and called them ‘control limits,’” stated Helmuth Schrenk from the U.S. Bureau of Mines. Committee on Fluoride Metabolism, Round Table Discussion During Luncheon Period, continued in the Evening, January 6, 1944. All of these quotes come from the same lunchtime conference transcript. Transcript in file labeled G-118 (c), A2, Box 36, Accession #72C2386, Atlanta FRC, RG 326. 10. E. R. Schlesinger, D. E. Overton, and H. Chase, “Newburgh-Kingston Caries-Fluorine Study II. Pediatric Aspects—Preliminary Report,” Am. J. Public Health (June 1950), p. 725. 11. “It is unknown,” for example, complained Captain Peter P. Dale of Harold Hodge’s Division of Pharmacology, in September 1945, “what the critical levels of T, F or ‘P’ storage in man are [codes for uranium, fluoride, and plutonium], or whether they may have a potentially deleterious effect. Are such factors as the age, sex and the physical and chemical properties of the reagent important?” “Dental Research Program” Memo to Stafford L. Warren, September 24, 1945, from Capt. Peter P. Dale, Capt., DC AUS. 12. D. E. Gardner, F. A. Smith, and H. C. Hodge (with D. E. Overton and R. Feltman) UR 200 Quarterly Technical Report (October 1, 1951–December 31, 1951), University of Rochester, “Fluoride Concentration of Placental Tissue,” p. 4. “D. E. Overton of the Newburgh Fluorine Demonstration secured the samples from patients in that city.” Published version in Science 115 (February 22, 1952), p. 208. 13. Memo to Lt. Col. Hymer Friedell from Capt., Henry L. Barnett, February 8, 1946, “Organizational Plan for Manhattan District Personnel Assigned
Page 1 and 2: Notes Epig
Page 3 and 4: J. R. Fuchs of the Truman Library,
Page 5 and 6: Hardy Limeback dated May 15, 2003,
Page 7 and 8: 13. M. Hertsgaard and P. Frazer,
Page 9 and 10: ight foot. It was pretty hard for m
Page 11 and 12: (1935), p. 399. For worker conditio
Page 13 and 14: interosseous membranes are often os
Page 15 and 16: Mottled teeth in children in the fa
Page 17 and 18: 56. P. C. Lowery to C. F. Kettering
Page 19 and 20: on Freon toxicity. Several of the p
Page 21 and 22: is it known whether Dean had been o
Page 23 and 24: oxide, uranium hexafluoride and ura
Page 25 and 26: 19. On teeth falling out, see New Y
Page 27 and 28: “Douglas P. Meigs died as a resul
Page 29 and 30: fluorine, leaving a thin film of fl
Page 31 and 32: determined to be ten times less tox
Page 33 and 34: hexafluoride became overheated duri
Page 35 and 36: the fluoride plant. The state inspe
Page 37 and 38: to keep the cascade in proper opera
Page 39 and 40: 6. “Harold C. Hodge, 1904-1990, P
Page 41 and 42: tion, with estimates of the amount
Page 43 and 44: to the Rockefeller Institute for Me
Page 45: 33. Lt. Col. Cooper Rhodes memo to
Page 49 and 50: 20. Author interview, December 3, 2
Page 51 and 52: epresenting Col. Warren’s office,
Page 53 and 54: the people working in the atomic en
Page 55 and 56: 5. From 1925 to 1958 Kehoe was the
Page 57 and 58: (a few months to 7 years; av. 2.6 y
Page 59 and 60: Corporation, aluminum smelters were
Page 61 and 62: example, in preparing its 1953 repo
Page 63 and 64: 39. Largent was familiar with Rohol
Page 65 and 66: eplaced with a prosthesis but that
Page 67 and 68: March 18, 1934, Society Section, p.
Page 69 and 70: 38. “Therefore the Company comes
Page 71 and 72: 18. A. Ciocco and D. J. Thompson,
Page 73 and 74: 14. D. McNeil, Fight for Fluoridati
Page 75 and 76: of Dental Caries: A Report of the C
Page 77 and 78: to Dr. Arthur Bushel, Director of t
Page 79 and 80: use the term ‘artificial fluorida
Page 81 and 82: of Dental Consultants and Executive
Page 83 and 84: minum plant and who claimed that th
Page 85 and 86: 13. D. A. Greenwood, “Background
Page 87 and 88: 8. Minutes of the meeting of the Fl
Page 89 and 90: smokestacks and worker paychecks.
Page 91 and 92: 36. Richard Wilson and John Spengle
Page 93 and 94: vies Island. Sauvies Island. Portla
Page 95 and 96: Frank Seamans and Keith Taylor orga
Page 97 and 98:
could be related to fluorine effect
Page 99 and 100:
Jersey State Dental Soc., vol. 37 (
Page 101 and 102:
tor, Criteria & Standards Division,
Page 103 and 104:
30. For Michigan, see T. L. Hagen,
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6. “It would be desirable,” Col
Page 107 and 108:
“Did they tell you how the patien
Page 109 and 110:
DuPont has since paid $1.3 billion
Page 111 and 112:
generation died while [at the lower
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Epigraphs Note on Terminology Acknowledgments Introduction

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