Epigraphs Note on Terminology Acknowledgments Introduction

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Commission at Oak Ridge was “concerned with the long-term radiological effect that enriched uranium may have upon production employees who have inhaled dusts, mists and fumes of uranium.” Accordingly, uranium injections were given to Massachusetts General Hospital patients following their tumor operations, in order to obtain “data on the distribution and excretion of uranium in these patients” and to “determine the permissible intravenous dose.” S. R. Bernard and E. G. Struxness, A Study of the Distribution and Excretion of Uranium in Man, An Interim Report, ORNL-2304, Box S09F01B294, ACHRE, RG 220. 9. Morgan interview, January 6, 1995, by Gil Wittemore and Miriam Bowling, p. 109, ACHRE, RG 220. 10. And as an early member of a group of scientists known as the American Conference of Government and Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), Hodge helped set standards for the “threshold” levels of chemicals and contaminants that millions of citizens breathe in factories and mills. 11. Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments, Final Report (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1995). 12. The biomedical work had continued during the cold war at the Rochester Atomic Energy Project (AEP), funded with millions of dollars from the federal Atomic Energy Commission. 13. In the 1930s generally workers had contracted jaw cancer from licking their brushes as they painted radium onto watch dials. The poisoning was widely reported in the press and guided the Manhattan Project in its insistence on secrecy to prevent similar lawsuits or bad publicity. For example, in a letter to Charles Keller of the AEC Declassification Branch, L. F. Spalding of the Insurance Branch contemplates declassifying a medical document “Biochemical Studies Relating to the Effects of Radiation and Metals” by Samuel Schwartz. Spalding warns that “the contents thereof might arouse some claim consciousness on the part of former employees” and writes that “in the event latent disabilities due to the exposures reported in this document should result in publicity similar to that which arose out of the “radium dial” industry, the public relations section would be involved.” When Guttman’s team asked in 1995 for the files of the AEC Insurance Branch, he recalled, nobody at today’s DOE had even heard of the Insurance Branch. Finding the old documents was like “asking my nephew for his grandfather’s stamp collection,” Guttman said. 14. AEC Memorandum dated October 8, 1947, to Advisory Board on Medicine and Biology, “Subject: medical policy,” Document DOE #1019707, also marked RHTG Classified Docs, Box RHA 248-7 2 of 3, Building 2714.H, Vault. Via Peter Eisler, USA Today. 15. “Questions of General Policy,” November 16, 1943, Md 319.1 Report Medical Ferry Box 25, Manhattan Engineer District Accession #4nn 326-85-005, Atlanta FRC, RG 326. See also Jack Hein interview with UK journalist Bob Woffinden, at timecode 04:18:55 1997; “They also did extensive studies on
the people working in the atomic energy plants that might be exposed to fluoride.” 16. “Memorandum to Major J. L. Ferry, Manhattan District Oak Ridge, from Capt. B. J. Mears, July 5, 1945, subject, Visit to E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Co.” “Preparation of the IBM cards will be done by Dr. Evans [DuPont] after he has received his new equipment and the operators have been instructed by Mr. M. Wantman [Rochester]. . . . The results of the statistical survey will be available only to the Medical Section of the Manhattan District,” Md 701, Medical Attendance, Box 54, Accession #4nn 326-85-005, Atlanta FRC, RG 326. 17. Whether fluoride damaged kidneys, and whether fluoride in urine would therefore be a good measurement of occupational fluoride exposure, was key information sought by the bomb program. (Extra fluoride was stored in the bones of those injured patients, the government scientists found.) AEC No. UR-38, 1948, Quarterly Technical Report. Also cited in Kettering Lab unpublished report, “Annual Report of Observations on Fluorides. October 25, 1954.” Kettering did similar experiments on patients with damaged kidneys, according to this report. 18. Special Report 454, “Report on the Work of the Pharmacology Division,” included in summarized subsection “The Toxicology of Special Materials,” via Joel Griffiths. 19. Roholm to Col. J. P. Hubbard, Public Health Section, Dagmarhus, July 20, 1945. Hubbard is probably an Allied occupation official. The letter is in the files of the Rockefeller Archive, Folder 2102, Box 310, RF RG2 713. Roholm explained that he wanted to recontact H. T. Dean at the National Institute of Health and Margaret C. Smith at the University of Arizona, who had discovered that fluoride causes dental mottling. 20. Roholm to Frank J. McClure (U.S. National Institutes of Dental Research), June 13, 1946. On Roholm’s attitudes toward American health care: Danish newspaper clipping in Roholm family scrapbook, translated by daughterin-law Karin Roholm. Personal meeting in New York, May 2001. 21. “Fluorine interferes with the normal calcification of the teeth during the process of their formation,” the U.S. Department of Agriculture claimed in 1939, “so that affected teeth, in addition to being unusually discolored and ugly in appearance, are structurally weak and deteriorate early in life. For this reason, it is especially important that fluorine be avoided during the period of tooth formation, that is from birth to the age of 12 years . . . this dental disease is found when water containing even as little as 1 part per million is used.” Yearbook of Agriculture (1939), p. 212. “Fluorides are general protoplasmic poisons,” the American Medical Association warned in 1943, “probably because of their capacity to modify the metabolism of cells by changing the permeability of the cell membrane and by inhibiting certain enzyme systems. . . . The sources of fluorine intoxication are drinking water containing 1 part per million or more of fluorine. . . . Another source of fluorine intoxication is from the fluorides used in the
Page 1 and 2: Notes Epig
Page 3 and 4: J. R. Fuchs of the Truman Library,
Page 5 and 6: Hardy Limeback dated May 15, 2003,
Page 7 and 8: 13. M. Hertsgaard and P. Frazer,
Page 9 and 10: ight foot. It was pretty hard for m
Page 11 and 12: (1935), p. 399. For worker conditio
Page 13 and 14: interosseous membranes are often os
Page 15 and 16: Mottled teeth in children in the fa
Page 17 and 18: 56. P. C. Lowery to C. F. Kettering
Page 19 and 20: on Freon toxicity. Several of the p
Page 21 and 22: is it known whether Dean had been o
Page 23 and 24: oxide, uranium hexafluoride and ura
Page 25 and 26: 19. On teeth falling out, see New Y
Page 27 and 28: “Douglas P. Meigs died as a resul
Page 29 and 30: fluorine, leaving a thin film of fl
Page 31 and 32: determined to be ten times less tox
Page 33 and 34: hexafluoride became overheated duri
Page 35 and 36: the fluoride plant. The state inspe
Page 37 and 38: to keep the cascade in proper opera
Page 39 and 40: 6. “Harold C. Hodge, 1904-1990, P
Page 41 and 42: tion, with estimates of the amount
Page 43 and 44: to the Rockefeller Institute for Me
Page 45 and 46: 33. Lt. Col. Cooper Rhodes memo to
Page 47 and 48: and Medicine Division, Corresponden
Page 49 and 50: 20. Author interview, December 3, 2
Page 51: epresenting Col. Warren’s office,
Page 55 and 56: 5. From 1925 to 1958 Kehoe was the
Page 57 and 58: (a few months to 7 years; av. 2.6 y
Page 59 and 60: Corporation, aluminum smelters were
Page 61 and 62: example, in preparing its 1953 repo
Page 63 and 64: 39. Largent was familiar with Rohol
Page 65 and 66: eplaced with a prosthesis but that
Page 67 and 68: March 18, 1934, Society Section, p.
Page 69 and 70: 38. “Therefore the Company comes
Page 71 and 72: 18. A. Ciocco and D. J. Thompson,
Page 73 and 74: 14. D. McNeil, Fight for Fluoridati
Page 75 and 76: of Dental Caries: A Report of the C
Page 77 and 78: to Dr. Arthur Bushel, Director of t
Page 79 and 80: use the term ‘artificial fluorida
Page 81 and 82: of Dental Consultants and Executive
Page 83 and 84: minum plant and who claimed that th
Page 85 and 86: 13. D. A. Greenwood, “Background
Page 87 and 88: 8. Minutes of the meeting of the Fl
Page 89 and 90: smokestacks and worker paychecks.
Page 91 and 92: 36. Richard Wilson and John Spengle
Page 93 and 94: vies Island. Sauvies Island. Portla
Page 95 and 96: Frank Seamans and Keith Taylor orga
Page 97 and 98: could be related to fluorine effect
Page 99 and 100: Jersey State Dental Soc., vol. 37 (
Page 101 and 102: tor, Criteria & Standards Division,
Page 103 and 104:
30. For Michigan, see T. L. Hagen,
Page 105 and 106:
6. “It would be desirable,” Col
Page 107 and 108:
“Did they tell you how the patien
Page 109 and 110:
DuPont has since paid $1.3 billion
Page 111 and 112:
generation died while [at the lower
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Epigraphs Note on Terminology Acknowledgments Introduction

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