Part I.pdf - MTB-MLE Network

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Research studies have repeatedly demonstrated that a strong foundation in the first language anda carefully planned process of bridging to the new language is an important factor in minority languagelearners’ success in education. In the report of their long-term study of over 40,000 children fromnon-English speaking backgrounds in United States schools, Thomas and Collier concluded thatThe strongest predictor of L2 [second language] student achievement is the amount of formal L1[the children’s first language] schooling. The more L1 grade-level schooling, the higher L2 achievement(Wayne Thomas and Virginia Collier, 2001). 5Results of studies from other parts of the world (cf. Williams, 2001; Muskin, 1999) also affirm theimportance of this kind of “strong foundation and a good bridge.”Variety of MLE programmes in AsiaPresently, most MLE programmes in Asia are found within non-formal education systems and arethe result of “grassroots” movements – local communities usually supported by NGOs andoccasionally by universities. However, a limited number of programmes have also been initiatedin primary schools with varying degrees of support from local, state or national governments.Programmes are established for children and adults, in some cases to help ML speakers bridge intothe LWC for education and/or employment, and in other cases to help learners bridge back intotheir heritage language, usually as part of a larger language revitalization movement.Four categories of MLE programmes can be identified (Malone, 1998):Type 1. ML→LWC for childrenFor educational success and maintenance ofheritage languageType 2. LWC→ML for childrenFor revitalization and/or maintenanceof heritage languageType 3. ML→LWC for adultsFor employment, access to information,education, socio-economic integration, etc.Type 4. LWC→ML for adultsFor access to heritage language texts,for revitalization and/or maintenanceof heritage languageType 1. Programmes for ML children who must learn the LWC to succeed in formal education.MLE classes for ML children begin in the children’s heritage language and later add the LWC.Some programmes begin as pre-primary classes and continue as after-school and weekendclasses once the children start (LWC) school. Other programmes are incorporated into theformal system. Examples of Type 1 programmes are the elementary classes that have beenestablished in over 300 languages in Papua New Guinea, 6 the Kalinga language programmein the Philippines 7 and the Dong language programme in China. 8 The Dong programme, now5678See the Annex for Thomas and Collier’s graph which shows the relative effectiveness of several types of MLE programmes.Kale and Marimyas, 2003; Klaus, 2003.Dekker and Dumatog, 2003.Geary, 2002; Cobbey, 2003.74
in its third year, was planned specifically to provide a strong foundation in the ML and goodbridge to Chinese. It begins with two years of pre-primary classes in which focus is on thechildren’s oral language development in Dong and on helping them acquire reading and writingskills in that language. The children are then introduced gradually to oral and written Chinese.Over the six years of primary school, the time devoted to Chinese will increase each year sothat the children will achieve the government’s expectations for Chinese language learningby the time they finish Grade 6. Dong language and culture will remain a vital part of thecurriculum throughout primary school. 9Type 2. Programmes for ethnic minority children for whom the LWC has become the firstlanguage. The purpose of Type 2 programmes is to help ethnic minority children who havelost most or all of their heritage language learn to speak, read and write that language. InAsia, MLE/language revitalization programmes of this type may be established inside the formalsystem, sometimes incorporated into the “Culture Time” component of the school curriculum,or as after-school or weekend classes. An example of a Type 2 programme in the formalsystem is the Chong language revitalization programme in Thailand. 10 In this programme,ML classes begin in Grade 3 and focus on helping the children become comfortable usingoral Chong, then help them bridge into reading and writing the language. Because the Chongorthography is based on Thai script with only a few adaptations, the children are able to transferfrom Thai into Chong literacy relatively quickly.Type 3. Programmes for young people and adults with no previous education who aremonolingual in their heritage language (ML). Successful MLE classes for monolingual adultsbegin by introducing them to literacy in their heritage language. As they gain fluency in readingand writing that language, they are introduced to the oral LWC but bridge to LWC literacyonly when they have developed confidence and oral fluency, a process that may take severalyears. An example of a successful programme of this type is the Central Subanen adult literacyprogramme in the Philippines. According to reports, the adult learners in this programmehave become bilingual and bi-literate (their own language and Filipino). 11Type 4. Programmes for young people and adults who are bilingual in their heritage languageand the LWC and have learned to read and write the LWC. The purpose of this type of MLEprogramme is to help bilingual adults, who have some LWC literacy skills, bridge back intoliteracy in their heritage language. Learners may attend these classes for a variety of reasons:to read their sacred texts and/or traditional literature; to write letters to family members; orsimply to re-establish their ties to their heritage language and culture. Mother tongue speakersof the language who want to be teachers in the community’s MLE programme may also attendthese classes. If the ML and LWC use the same script, the bridging process might requireonly self-study transfer guides and diglot reading materials (text in both ML and LWC).Unfortunately, there are few written reports of these types of programmes, possibly becauselearning is often informal and independent.9The Dong programme might be classified as a “One-way developmental programme” on Thomas and Collier’s graph(see Annex).10Choosri and Sisombat Sirirat, 2003.11Pina, 2003.75
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Asia-Pacific Programme of Education
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FOREWORDSome 6,000-7,000 languages
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Part IOutcomes of the Workshop
Page 9 and 10:
used as the medium of educational i
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Viet NamApproximately 100 languages
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Regionally, there is an increased i
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stakeholders - will share the respo
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materials for children. The researc
Page 19 and 20:
non-formal bilingual education prog
Page 21 and 22:
materials for minority language gro
Page 23 and 24: NepalNepal is a land-locked country
Page 25 and 26: UNESCO-APPEAL, the Office of Non-fo
Page 27 and 28: CHAPTER 3Community Mobilization and
Page 29 and 30: Case Study: Cambodia - Community Mo
Page 31 and 32: at a community/village forum. Initi
Page 33 and 34: CHAPTER 4Developing Minority Langua
Page 35 and 36: It is important that the principles
Page 37 and 38: ThailandStages in the development o
Page 39 and 40: Literature to help people move from
Page 41 and 42: • adapt majority language materia
Page 43 and 44: of books. There are teacher instruc
Page 45 and 46: to local pronunciation. During test
Page 47 and 48: Reflections on Field VisitSocio-eco
Page 49 and 50: Topic (includesubtopics)Issues Guid
Page 51 and 52: CHAPTER 7Training for Facilitators
Page 53 and 54: Training of FacilitatorsWhen?What?T
Page 55 and 56: E. Developed Hilltribes Curriculum
Page 57 and 58: CHAPTER 8Strategies and Tools for E
Page 59 and 60: Four Types of Evaluation in Literac
Page 61 and 62: • Constructive• Achievable and
Page 63 and 64: CHAPTER 9Strategies for Government
Page 65 and 66: a linguistically diverse country. T
Page 67 and 68: There is a desire to replicate and
Page 69 and 70: egional languages of education, and
Page 71 and 72: RESOURCE PAPERSEducation for Multil
Page 73: Lack of skills necessary for paid e
Page 77 and 78: Stage 4 - Ongoing education. At thi
Page 79 and 80: “The minority languages lack grad
Page 81 and 82: • Provide funding or identify and
Page 83 and 84: Easton, C. (2003) Designing orthogr
Page 85 and 86: Benson, 2003) have come to the same
Page 87 and 88: The Role of Language in Learning:Wh
Page 89 and 90: eading skills in the mother tongue
Page 91 and 92: familiar, because they have learned
Page 93 and 94: ConclusionsThe findings of the stud
Page 95 and 96: Moll, L. (1992) Bilingual classroom
Page 97 and 98: It is often argued that providing e
Page 99 and 100: crucial in language development, cu
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