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above, English may be introduced orally with basic English literacy later but it is taught as a subject,not used for learning content. The objectives are basic literacy in both languages and sufficientproficiency in English to enter the mainstream by the end of the 3 rd Grade.Programme 5 – Content-based ESL. In these programmes, as in Programme 3 above, minoritylanguage children learn English via content instruction by teachers who have been specially trainedfor this type of ESL teaching. This learning often takes place in self-contained ESL contentclassrooms, taught by ESL teachers. As the children move along in ESL development, they mayspend a part of the day in mainstream classes until they are fully mainstreamed after 2-4 years.The objective is that the children will have acquired enough English so they can function in themainstream classes without lagging too far behind in the content areas.Programme 6 – Language-based (traditional) ESL. Language minority children receive basicor traditional ESL instruction usually in pull-out classes. The objective is that they will acquiresufficient mastery of English to function in English mainstream classes.86
The Role of Language in Learning:What Does International Research Say?By Kimmo Kosonen, Ph.D.SIL International and Payap University, Chiang Mai, ThailandLanguage and LearningLanguage plays an important role in learning. Anyone who has attempted any educational activityin a language other than her/his own knows this from personal experience. Since language is themain way of communicating meaning in most learning activities, without a sufficient understandingof the instructional language, learning is inferior to that of learners who are fully proficient in thelanguage.This article will discuss the role that language plays in learning. The focus will be on researchfindings that justify the use of the learner’s mother tongue as the most beneficial medium of education.Research on learning a second language by minority students will also be briefly introduced. 1Most research on bilingual education that shows the benefits of using the mother tongue comesfrom developed countries in Europe and North America. A brief summary of these research findingswill be presented later in this article.Among countries in the Asia-Pacific region, a wealth of research on bilingual education has beenconducted in China. These studies provide support and justification for the use of the mother tongueas the medium of instruction in order to achieve bilingualism in a minority language and Mandarin.On the basis of their research, Chinese scholars suggest that a major reason for minority children’spoor educational performance is that learners’ mother tongues have not been used in schools. Further,the mother tongue is considered to be the best medium for early learning, and essential for thedevelopment of minority students’ intellectual ability (Blachford 1997; Lin 1997). Thus, “bilingualeducation is seen as the most feasible policy and effective practice to solve minority language andeducation problems, and to maintain a balance between the national unity and minority aspirations”(Blachford 1997, 159).There are also some credible comparative studies, such as CAL (2001) and Dutcher & Tucker (1996)that discuss these issues on the basis of a number of developing countries. Likewise, UNESCOhas provided well-grounded evidence for the use of learners’ mother tongues in education in twoseminal reports (UNESCO 1953, 2003b). Conclusions from one comprehensive study on languagein-educationissues in the Asia-Pacific region are quite straightforward:1For definitions of the terminology used here, please refer to Appendix 1 at the end of the next article ‘Education in LocalLanguages: Policy and Practice in Southeast Asia.’87
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Asia-Pacific Programme of Education
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FOREWORDSome 6,000-7,000 languages
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Part IOutcomes of the Workshop
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used as the medium of educational i
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Viet NamApproximately 100 languages
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Regionally, there is an increased i
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stakeholders - will share the respo
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materials for children. The researc
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non-formal bilingual education prog
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materials for minority language gro
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NepalNepal is a land-locked country
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UNESCO-APPEAL, the Office of Non-fo
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CHAPTER 3Community Mobilization and
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Case Study: Cambodia - Community Mo
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at a community/village forum. Initi
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CHAPTER 4Developing Minority Langua
Page 35 and 36: It is important that the principles
Page 37 and 38: ThailandStages in the development o
Page 39 and 40: Literature to help people move from
Page 41 and 42: • adapt majority language materia
Page 43 and 44: of books. There are teacher instruc
Page 45 and 46: to local pronunciation. During test
Page 47 and 48: Reflections on Field VisitSocio-eco
Page 49 and 50: Topic (includesubtopics)Issues Guid
Page 51 and 52: CHAPTER 7Training for Facilitators
Page 53 and 54: Training of FacilitatorsWhen?What?T
Page 55 and 56: E. Developed Hilltribes Curriculum
Page 57 and 58: CHAPTER 8Strategies and Tools for E
Page 59 and 60: Four Types of Evaluation in Literac
Page 61 and 62: • Constructive• Achievable and
Page 63 and 64: CHAPTER 9Strategies for Government
Page 65 and 66: a linguistically diverse country. T
Page 67 and 68: There is a desire to replicate and
Page 69 and 70: egional languages of education, and
Page 71 and 72: RESOURCE PAPERSEducation for Multil
Page 73 and 74: Lack of skills necessary for paid e
Page 75 and 76: in its third year, was planned spec
Page 77 and 78: Stage 4 - Ongoing education. At thi
Page 79 and 80: “The minority languages lack grad
Page 81 and 82: • Provide funding or identify and
Page 83 and 84: Easton, C. (2003) Designing orthogr
Page 85: Benson, 2003) have come to the same
Page 89 and 90: eading skills in the mother tongue
Page 91 and 92: familiar, because they have learned
Page 93 and 94: ConclusionsThe findings of the stud
Page 95 and 96: Moll, L. (1992) Bilingual classroom
Page 97 and 98: It is often argued that providing e
Page 99 and 100: crucial in language development, cu
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