Following Odysseus Not the end of the world Amarna city of light ...

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indulgence, ‘wherefore, for this ourindulgence, they ought to prayto their God for our safety, for thatof the republic, and for their own,that the commonwealth may continueuninjured on every side, andthat they may be able to live securelyin their homes’.Christians’ meeting places andother properties confiscated fromthem were to be returned. Theirproperty was not restored to them,however, until the Edict of Milanwas signed. The new edict, whichaccording to the latest academicresearch is to be considered more ofa letter of instruction to provincialgovernors than a proper edict likethat made by Galerius, also directedthe provincial magistrates to executethe new orders ‘at once, withall energy, so that public order maybe restored and the continuance ofthe Divine favour may preserve andprosper our successes together withthe good of the state’.The development of Christianityin the 4th century from a privateform of worship into a state religioncan be assessed at this early stagewhen religious tolerance prevailed,from the fact that both pagan andChristian symbols were often presenton the same object. Constantineencouraged both Christians andpagans alike to observe the Day ofthe Sun, an esoteric form of worshiplinked to Mithraism. He also77. Marble portrait ofEmperor Constantine.AD 306-337. H. 42cm.York Museum Trust,York.8. Textile fragmentfrom a tent, linenembroidered withcoloured wool,showing a jewelledcross within a wreath.6th/7th century AD.D. 6.7cm. Victoriaand Albert Museum,London.9. Siliqua, mintedat Ticinum, showinga representation ofConstantine.AD 306-337. D. 2.41cm.KunsthistorischesMuseum, Vienna.10. Marble sculpturethought to be ofthe Good Shepherd.Second half of the2nd century AD.H. 49cm. MuseiCapitolini, Rome.chose the symbol of the sun forhis coinage. However Constantineused the krismon or chi-rho, (thetwo initial letters of the name ofChrist in Greek), as a graphic symbolof the new imperial policy onhis military insignia at the Battleof the Milvian Bridge in AD 312.It was there he defeated Maxentius(r. AD 306-312) son of the formeremperor Maximian and son-in-lawof Emperor Galerius, who vied withhim for rulership of the WesternEmpire. Later legends ascribedConstantine’s choice of the chi-rhoto a vision: he dreamt of a crosssurrounded by blazing light and,shining above it, the words ‘In hocsigno vinces’, ‘In this sign you shallconquer’ (‘En touto nika’ in Greek).But how serious and wholeheartedhe was about his new faithis debatable especially as when hededicated Constantinople (formerlyByzantium, now Istanbul) as the newcapital of the empire, no Christiansymbols were displayed, and hewore an Apollonian sun-rayed diadem.The Arch of Constantine,built in Rome in AD 315 to celebratehis victory at the Battle of theMilvian Bridge, is equally devoid ofChristian symbols.Nevertheless it is the krismonthat holds pride of place inthe Milan exhibition with somebeautiful and interesting exampleson show, including a ring on8 9 1040
11. Stone reliefshowing the godMithras wrestling abull. Early 2nd centuryAD. H. 36.5cm. W. 41cm.ArchaeologischesMuseum Carnuntinum.12. Brass and enamelpectoral worn onparade. End of the 3rdcentury. H. 23.6cm.W. 22.4cm. NationalMuseum of Serbia,Belgrade.loan from the KunsthistorischesMuseum in Vienna, and a rare5th-century embroidered textilefragment from the Victoria andAlbert Museum in London.There are, of course, many otherobjects and coins documenting thenew public representations of theemperor, his family and his courtfollowing the edict. Some of themost precious of these belonged tothe new elite of the empire, thepowerful Christian clergy, and theirnewly built churches and religiousinstitutions. Among these leaders isone of the Church Fathers, SaintAmbrose (circa AD 330-397), theArchbishop of Milan.More than 200 historical treasuresare on display in the newexhibition, which is subdivided intosix different sections. The themesrange from Mediolanum as a capitalto the role of the army, the decisiveprotagonist of the period. Theresults of recent archaeologicalinvestigation illustrate the evolutionof Mediolanum from a richprovincial city into the administrativehub of the Western empire.Archaeological evidence also showsthat the Palatium, the seat of theemperor, was a large complex madeup of several buildings, courtyardsand gardens for both his private andpublic life. Artefacts from the largepublic baths, private houses andnecropolis are on show.The exhibition ends with a specialsection devoted to Constantine’smother, Helena, who may havebeen instrumental in her son’s conversionto Christianity. Little isknown about her other than thatshe was from humble origins. Amedieval tradition claims that shewas a native of Britain, but it ismore likely that she came fromBithynia in Asia Minor. While workingas a stable-hand and serving girlin an inn, she attracted theConstantius Chlorus, then an armyofficer who later rose through theranks to become emperor.Constantine himself (AD 272-337) was born in Serbia at Naissus(now Nis), so Helena must haveaccompanied Constantius there andpossibly married him. He divorcedher in AD 289, no doubt for reasonsof state, so he could to marryTheodora, Maximian’s daughter.Constantius died in Eburacum(York) in AD 306 and Constantinewas proclaimed his successor.From lowly stable-hand, servinggirl and single mother, Helena wasto become Dowager Empress – thedivorced widow of ConstantiusChlorus, mother of Constantineand grandmother to his offspring.She also became a saint in theprocess, notwithstanding rumoursthat she may have instigated themurder of her daughter-in-lawFausta, who suffocated in anoverheated bathhouse in Pola in121113. Cima daConegliano’s Sant’Elena, circa 1495,shows Helena as asaint holding theHoly Cross. H. 31.30cm.National Gallery ofArt, Washington13Croatia. Following Helena’s proclamationas Augusta, inscriptionsappeared in the empire using hernew title and she became the demurerole model for later Roman andByzantine empresses.Her elevation to sainthood comesfrom her association with the relicsof the True Cross, on which Jesuswas crucified, whose location onGolgotha in Jerusalem she identifiedand had excavated. The miraculousevent took place during a two-yearpilgrimage to the Holy Land inAD 327-328 that Helena undertookwith the intention of travelling inthe footsteps of Jesus Christ.Astonishingly, she did this atthe age of 82, two years beforeshe died. Yet despite her great age,the empress dowager had timeto supervise the construction ofmany churches in Palestine, amongthem the Church of the Nativity inBethlehem, and to shower gifts andlargesse on the population at large,the poor and sick especially.The nails from the True Crosswere incorporated into a helmet anda bridle, to give Constantine a formof divine protection. Pieces of thecross itself multiplied over the centuriesto such an extent that Calvinwrote in his Traité des Reliques:‘... if all the pieces that could befound were collected together, theywould make a big ship-load. Yet theGospel testifies that a single manwas able to carry it.’ nCostantino 313 DC is on show atPalazzo Reale, Piazza del Duomo,Milan (00 39 (0) 2 88448046;www.adartem.it) until 17 March2013. The exhibition will thentravel to Rome, where it will beon view at the Colosseum and theCuria Iulia from 27 March 2013.The catalogue is edited by GemmaSena Chiesa and Paolo Biscottini,and published by Electa at €29.Minerva November/December 201241
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