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Chapter 3: Electric Vehicle History 61muscular in response to this onrushing need. Batteries became the focused targets ofwell-funded government-industry partnerships around the globe; lead-acid, sodiumsulfur,nickel-iron, and nickel-cadmium batteries advanced to new levels ofperformance. Everyone began quietly looking at the mouth-watering possibilities oflithium-polymer batteries.Table 3-2 compares electric vehicle specs from the major automotive manufacturersat the beginning 1960s to the 1990s. At first glance, Table 3-2 appears to be a stepbackward from Japan’s accomplishments of the 1970s as shown in Table 3-1. But firstimpressions are misleading. The 1990s electric vehicles offer substantial technologyimprovements under the hood, are more energy-efficient, and are closer to beingmanufacturable products than engineering test platforms. Six trends highlight EVdevelopment during this fourth wave:• High levels of activity at GM, Ford, and Chrysler• Increased vigor created by new independent manufacturers• New and improved prototypes• High levels of activity overseas• High levels of hybrid activity• A boom in individual internal combustion vehicle conversionsLeading up to the 1990s, General Motors warmed to EVs through a series of events.First, GM decided to enter the 1987 Australian World Solar Challenge, a projectchampioned from within by Howard Wilson, then vice president of Hughes. Theyturned for help to a little company called AeroVironment, founded by Paul MacCready.MacCready had already won prizes for the longest human-powered flight with hisultra-lightweight and efficient “Gossamer Condor” in 1977, and for the first humanpoweredplane to cross the English Channel with his “Gossamer Albatross” in 1979; inaddition, his solar-powered “Solar Challenger” flew 163 miles from Paris to the Englishcoast in 1981. AeroVironment was now given the ultimate challenge from GM—creatinga vehicle capable of going 1,900 miles across the Australian outback on solar poweronly. AeroVironment did it. GM’s winning “Sunraycer” beat the competition by 2½days, proving what was possible with electric drive.GM Ford Chrysler BMW NissanImpact car Ecostar van Epic van E2 car FEV carRange (miles) 120 100 120 150 150Top speed (mph) 75 65 65 75 80Power train 2 ea 54 hp ac 75 hp ac 65 hp dc 45 hp dc 2 ea 27 hp acBattery pack Lead-acid Sodium- Nickel-iron Sodium- Nickelsulfursulfur cadmium 1Curb weight (lbs) 2200 3100 3200 2020 19801Augmented by crystal-silicon solar battery.Ta b l e 3-2 Leading Electric V ehicles From The 1990s Compared