The Impact of Direct Democracy on Society - UniversitÃƒÂ¤t St.Gallen

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– 24 –2 Constitutional Changes between 1997 and 2003<strong>The</strong> time span between 1997 and 2003 appears to have been a period favoring the adoption <strong>of</strong>new constitutions. Table 2.1 displays a list <strong>of</strong> all 26 cantons and their constitutional changesthat affect those direct democratic institutions on which the index <strong>of</strong> direct democracy isbased (state: 18th <strong>of</strong> August, 2004). <strong>The</strong> cantons FR, SH, SG, GR, TI, VD, and NE – aboutone fourth <strong>of</strong> all Swiss cantons – all passed new, totally revised constitutions between 1997and 2004 (the canton <strong>of</strong> LU is also currently drafting a new constitution, which should bevoted upon in 2007 45 ). <strong>The</strong> reason for this 'clustering' could lie both in a "Year 2000" effectcombined with a "200-years jubilee" effect <strong>of</strong> membership in the Swiss federation, whichemerged from a confederation <strong>of</strong> single independent states. However, not all <strong>of</strong> these newconstitutions necessarily brought about alterations in the existing direct democraticinstitutions: some <strong>of</strong> the new constitutions aimed primarily at rewriting the outdatednineteenth-century wording and giving it a more modern structure without altering its legalcontent. <strong>The</strong> rest <strong>of</strong> this section is devoted to an assessment <strong>of</strong> the amendments in theconstitutional stipulations.With respect to the mandatory and optional statutory referendum, there is a weakening <strong>of</strong> thedirect democratic institution through a shift <strong>of</strong> the political power from the electorate towardthe cantonal parliament. Quite <strong>of</strong>ten, the application <strong>of</strong> the mandatory statutory referendumhas been restricted by the inclusion <strong>of</strong> a majority requirement <strong>of</strong> the cantonal parliament in theconstitution (SO, BL, SH, AG) or by restriction <strong>of</strong> the issues to be regulated through legalstipulation (GL) 46. Alternatively, the mandatory statutory referendum has been completelyabolished and replaced by an optional statutory referendum, as happened in four cantons (ZH,OW, AR, GR (2004)). In general, such changes lead to a decline in the index <strong>of</strong> directdemocracy in these cantons.45See www.neueverfassung.lu.ch (7/10/2004) and personal communication with Mr. ZEMP (20/04/2005).46 In case the majority restriction serves only as a means for disciplining the cantonal parliament, the introduction<strong>of</strong> such a majority restriction has to be regarded as equivalent to a de facto elimination <strong>of</strong> the mandatoryreferendum. Only observation <strong>of</strong> the daily political usage over a longer period <strong>of</strong> time can provide a basis fora correct evaluation <strong>of</strong> this institution.
– 25 –Table 1: Changes <strong>of</strong> the Institutions <strong>of</strong> <strong>Direct</strong> <strong>Democracy</strong> from 1997 to 2003CantonInstitutional Changesbetween 1997 and 2003(dates <strong>of</strong> effectiveness)CommentsIndex(1996) 47(STUTZER, 1999)Index(2003)ZH GRR*: 1 Jan 1999,FRR*: 1 Jan 19994.417 3.500BE 3.020 3.021LU 4.420 4.417UR VIR, GIR, GRR: 1 Oct 1997FRR: 1 Oct 19975.290 5.125SZ 4.990 4.927OW GIR, GRR*: 29 Nov 1998 Abolishment <strong>of</strong> LandsgemeindeFRR*: 8 June 1997, (29 Nov 1998) 4.62529 Nov 1998NW 4.438GL GRR*: 5 May 2002 LandsgemeindeFRR: 5 May 20025.500ZG 4.420 4.479FR New constitution by 1 Jan 2005 2.850 2.792SO GRR*: 11 Dec 1998FRR: 11 Dec 19985.670 5.250BS FRR: 1 Jan 1998 Change in cantonal law 4.400 4.396BL GRR*: 1 Jan 2000 5.690 5.479SH GRR*: 1 Jan 2003 New constitution by 1 Jan 2003FRR: 1 Jan 20035.210 5.021AR GRR*: 1 June 2000 Abolishment <strong>of</strong> Landsgemeinde(28 Sept 1997)4.917AI FRR: 28 Apr 2002 Landsgemeinde 5.438SG VIR, GIR: 1 Jan 2003 New constitution by 1 Jan 2003GRR: 1 Jan 2003Einheitsinitiative 3.580 3.521FRR: 1 Jan 2003GR New constitution by 1 Jan 2004 4.750 4.833AG GRR*: 1 Jan 2003FRR: 1 Jan 20035.460 5.438TG 4.330 4.333TI GRR: 1 Jan 1998New constitution by 1 Jan 1998FRR: 1 Jan 19982.100 2.250VD VIR, GIR: 1 Sept 2003 New constitution by 1 Sept 2003FRR*: 1 Sept 2003,2.420 2.41729 Nov 1998VS 3.580 3.583NE GRR: 1 Jan 2002,New constitution by 1 Jan 2002FRR*: 1 Jan 20022.190 2.729GE 1.750 1.750JU 4.020 3.708<strong>The</strong> constitutions and the changes tracked for them are based on their newest versions as <strong>of</strong> the 18th <strong>of</strong> August, 2004.Updated cantonal constitutions can be obtained from http://www.admin.ch/ch/d/sr/13.html#131. In case <strong>of</strong> FR thesource was http://www.fr.ch/constituante/doc/fichiers/proj_def/proj.pdf. Empty cells indicate that no relevant revision<strong>of</strong> the constitution or cantonal law had been observed. FRR: Fiscal Referendum, GIR: Statutory Initiative, GRR:Statutory Referendum, VIR: Constitutional Initiative. *indicates abrogation or restriction <strong>of</strong> a mandatory referendum.47 <strong>The</strong> value <strong>of</strong> ZÜRICH has been corrected. See section 7 <strong>of</strong> this chapter.
Page 1 and 2: The Impact
Page 3 and 4: - 3 -DanksagungDie Arbeit an der vo
Page 5 and 6: - 5 -HilfsmittelThe</strong
Page 7 and 8: - 7 -3.1 Cross section of</
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Page 11 and 12: - 11 -2 Theoretica
Page 13 and 14: - 13 -rights 14 . Similar empirical
Page 15 and 16: - 15 -under specific circumstances
Page 17 and 18: - 17 -3 Switzerland as a Perfect La
Page 19 and 20: - 19 -Chapter II:Direct</st
Page 21 and 22: - 21 -(Verwaltungsreferendum), a re
Page 23: - 23 -Landsgemeinde cantons, i.e. t
Page 27 and 28: - 27 -precisely specified. Moreover
Page 29 and 30: - 29 -CantonLuzern(21 Oct 2003)Uri(
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Page 33 and 34: - 33 -Table 3: Requirements for a S
Page 35 and 36: - 35 -caused a duplication
Page 37 and 38: - 37 -During the time period under
Page 39 and 40: - 39 -constitution, the stipulation
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Page 47 and 48: - 47 -present members so demand (ar
Page 49 and 50: - 49 -Table 5: Optional Statutory R
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Page 57 and 58: - 57 -The cantonal
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Page 61 and 62: - 61 -CantonSt. Gallen(old)Graubün
Page 63 and 64: - 63 -also be observed in the canto
Page 65 and 66: - 65 -5.3. Optional Fiscal Referend
Page 67 and 68: - 67 -CantonSolothurn(30 Mar 2004)B
Page 69 and 70: - 69 -CantonWaadt(21 Oct 2003)newco
Page 71 and 72: - 71 -respect to the extraordinary
Page 73 and 74: - 73 -new optional (fiscal) referen
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- 75 -awarded based on its requirem
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- 77 -Hence, in these cantons, the
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- 79 -higher (4.417 instead <strong
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- 81 -democracy. Hence, the majorit
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- 83 -Chapter III:Happiness
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- 85 -equilibrium. 81 Consequently,
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- 87 -are difficult to measure and
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- 89 -a weighted ordered probit mod
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- 91 -In general, how satisfied are
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- 93 -dichotomous variable indicati
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- 95 -obvious that omitting the lan
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- 97 -Table 2: Results for Differen
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- 99 -significant impact on persona
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- 101 -Table 3a: Personal Subjectiv
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- 103 -Table3c: Personal Subjective
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- 105 -result from the creation by
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- 107 -5 AppendixTable A.1: Distrib
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- 109 -Table A2: Results for Switze
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- 111 -Table A.3: Descriptive Stati
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- 113 -Chapter IV:Income Redistribu
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- 115 -The latter
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- 117 -coalition because they can e
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- 119 -wing parties. If additional
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- 121 -democracy as an explanatory
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- 123 -political process. In genera
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- 125 -democracy does not appear to
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- 127 -Table 1: Fiscal Referenda an
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- 129 -The more fi
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- 131 -NER (2001), who argue that d
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- 133 -redistribution, the cross se
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- 135 -Table 3: Inequality and Redi
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- 137 -some political scientists: <
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- 139 -8 AppendixTable A.1: Expendi
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- 141 -Chapter V:Public Safety
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- 143 -average probabilities. An op
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- 145 -legislative institution itse
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- 147 -death less probable than oth
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- 149 -2.4 The Rol
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- 151 -Testable Hypothesis 1:<stron
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- 153 -(1) log O = f (D 1 , D 2 , Y
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- 155 -Higher clear-up and detectio
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- 157 -Following the procedure <str
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- 159 -(per capita) 188 . In this s
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- 161 -Regarding the additional fis
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- 163 -Table 3: Property Crime 1986
Page 165 and 166:
- 165 -from 1986 to 2001, it is pic
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- 167 -Table 4: Violent Crime and S
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- 169 -In sum, in the structural mo
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- 171 -same. It is for robbery and
Page 173 and 174:
- 173 -Violent CrimeTable 6 display
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- 175 -Table 6: Violent Crime and S
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- 177 -the policemen in direct demo
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- 179 -becoming a victim of
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- 181 -Table A.2: Security Expendit
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- 183 -Table A.4: Summary Statistic
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- 185 -Table A.6: Property Crime, O
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- 187 -Table A.8: Property Crime, O
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- 189 -Table A.10: Deleted Observat
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- 191 -Table A.11: Description <str
Page 194 and 195:
- 194 -Questionnaires
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- 196 -Halten Sie die Erfassungspra
Page 198 and 199:
- 198 -Frage:Was wird neben dem Die
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- 200 -Est-ce que vous jugez la pra
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- 202 -Question:Les catégories sui
Page 204 and 205:
- 204 -1 IntroductionDirect
Page 206 and 207:
- 206 -possible to analyze the impa
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- 208 -2.3 U.S. Empirical Evidence
Page 210 and 211:
- 210 -political autonomy by the Sw
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- 212 -weakly induces more spending
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- 214 -economics literature. In gen
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- 216 -of the scho
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- 218 -2002) 249 . One exception is
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- 220 -4.2 Quantile Regression Resu
Page 222 and 223:
- 222 -quantiles, the index <strong
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- 224 -the corresponding subject. <
Page 226 and 227:
- 226 -that the H 0 -hypothesis <st
Page 228 and 229:
- 228 -Overall, the robustness test
Page 230 and 231:
- 230 -average student is found for
Page 232 and 233:
- 232 -appears to be influential in
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- 234 -Regarding the direct impact
Page 236 and 237:
- 236 -application of</stro
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- 238 -Table 8.1: OLS Regressions f
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- 240 -Table 8.2: Quantile Regressi
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- 246 -Table 9.1: OLS Regression fo
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- 254 -Table 10.1: OLS Regression f
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- 256 -Table 10.2: Quantile Regress
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Page 262 and 263:
- 262 -11 Appendix: Descriptive Sta
Page 264 and 265:
- 264 -Selective schoolRegular test
Page 266 and 267:
- 266 -Table 11.2: Indices
Page 268 and 269:
- 268 -Table 11.4: Descriptive Stat
Page 270 and 271:
- 270 -Chapter VII:Conclusion
Page 272 and 273:
- 272 -should lead, on average, to
Page 274 and 275:
- 274 -References
Page 276 and 277:
- 276 -ARTALE, A. and H.-P. GRÜNER
Page 278 and 279:
- 278 -CARD, D. and A. PAYNE (2002)
Page 280 and 281:
- 280 -EASTERLIN, R.A. (1974), Does
Page 282 and 283:
- 282 -FELD, L.P. and J.G. MATSUSAK
Page 284 and 285:
- 284 -FREY, B.S. and A. STUTZER (2
Page 286 and 287:
- 286 -HANUSHEK, E.A. (1986), <stro
Page 288 and 289:
- 288 -KESSLER, A. (2003), Represen
Page 290 and 291:
- 290 -LEHMAN, D.R., R.O. LEMPERT a
Page 292 and 293:
- 292 -MORGAN, M.C. and M. HENRION
Page 294 and 295:
- 294 -PROKHOROV, A.V., C. WARNEKE,
Page 296 and 297:
- 296 -SCHALTEGGER, CH. and L.P: FE
Page 298 and 299:
- 298 -TRECHSEL, A. and U. SERDÜLT
Page 300:
- 300 -Curriculum VitaeBorn on the
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