iif_kgpm_Dictionary_of_Media

forewordCopyright © 2009 by M.E. Sharpe, Inc.All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any formwithout written permission from the publisher, M.E. Sharpe, Inc.,80 Business Park Drive, Armonk, New York 10504.Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataDanesi, Marcel, 1946–Dictionary of media and communications / Marcel Danesi; foreword by Arthur Asa Berger.p. cm.Includes bibliographical references.ISBN 978-0-7656-8098-3 (hardcover : alk. paper)1. Mass media—Dictionaries. 2. Communication—Dictionaries. I. Title.P87.5.D359 2008302.2303—dc22 2008011560Printed in the United States of AmericaThe paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements ofAmerican National Standard for Information SciencesPermanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials,ANSI Z 39.48-1984.~BM (c) 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1——— —————————————————Images provided by Getty Images and the following: AFP: page 235; Andreas Solaro/Stringer/AFP:82; Aubrey Beardsley/The Bridgeman Art Library: 27; Bernard Gotfryd/Hulton Archive: 190; BlankArchives/Hulton Archive: 16; Buyenlarge/Time & Life Pictures: 5, 155; CBS Photo Archive/HultonArchive: 256; Dave Bradley Photography/Taxi: 127; Deshakalyan Chowdhury/Stringer/AFP: 60;disney/Hulton Archive: 118; Ethan Miller: 43; Evan Agostini: 55; George Pierre Seurat/The BridgemanArt Library: 234; Hulton Archive/Stringer: 36, 92, 129; Italian School/The Bridgeman Art Library:153; Mario Tama: 67; Michael Ochs Archive/Stringer: 147; Paul Nicklen/National Geographic: 223;RDA/Hulton Archive: 53; Shelly Katz/Time & Life Pictures: 178; Stringer/AFP: 303; Stringer: 137;Susanna Price/Dorling Kindersley: 134; Time & Life Pictures/Stringer: 55, 182, 184; TranscendentalGraphics/Hulton Archive: 188; Vince Bucci/Stringer: 221; Walter Sanders/Time & Life Pictures: 219;Yoshikazu Tsuno/AFP: 229. Image on page 116 provided by Erich Lessing/Art Resource.

forewordContentsForewordby Arthur Asa BergerIntroductionviixiA–Z 3Chronology 313Bibliography 325Resources on the World Wide Web 329About the Author 333v

forewordForewordWith each year that passes, the mass media and the various means of communicationavailable to us exert a greater and more direct impact upon our cultures,societies, economies, and everyday lives. Most of us live in a media-saturatedsociety and spend increasing amounts of time with different kinds of media.According to a 2005 study by the Kaiser Family Foundation, young peoplefrom the ages of eight to eighteen in the United States devote approximatelyforty hours a week to using media of all kinds for recreational purposes.In addition to more time, most of us also spend more money on accessingthe media and on buying devices for recording information and for communicatingwith one another. Consider how much your family spends, for example,on all of the following:access to the Internet,cable and satellite services,video game players and video games, andcell phones and cell phone contracts,not to mention all of the other gizmos and gadgets that come flooding onto themarket in rapid succession. Think, for example, of the price tag on those largescreenhigh‐definition digital television sets; some run into thousands of dollars.Every day, meanwhile, we send billions of e-mail messages and receivebillions of others—wanted or unwanted—from friends, family members,fellow student and colleagues, or spammers. Internet technology makes it aseasy to send someone a message 10,000 miles away as it is to send a messageto someone ten feet away. In barely more than a decade, cell phone use hasexploded all over the world, with still new (non-talking) uses of the device—vii

forewordfrom texting to searching the World Wide Web to accessing satellite navigationsystems—constantly are being developed. Cell phones have already exerted amajor impact on society and our daily lives, shaping everything from politicsto the dating behavior of adolescents. At the same time, video games and videogame players now constitute a multibillion-dollar industry, even larger than thefilm industry. Apple’s iPods, other portable media players, and all the devicescreated for them have radically altered the way many of us, especially youngpeople, access and listen to music.Powerful tools for using the Internet likewise have had a transformativeeffect, enabling millions of people to spend time blogging, buying and sellingproducts on eBay, looking up information on Google and other search engines,ordering books and other products on Amazon.com and similar sites, compilingtheir pages on Facebook and MySpace, watching videos on You Tube, andguiding their avatars on Second Life. We use the Internet now to do everythingfrom finding dates and marriage partners to looking up travel information,obtaining medical data, paying bills, and buying stocks.As the media and the means of communication have grown in importanceand influence, studying them has become ever more widespread in high schoolsand universities. Courses on subjects that involve media literacy—such asadvertising, marketing, linguistics, anthropology, and sociology—have becomecommon. These courses are designed to teach students about the impact of themedia and communications on our institutions and way of life, as well as onthose in other countries—also part of the “global village.”Given the ubiquitous nature of old and new media and the new technologiesthat are constantly being developed, it is invaluable to have a single,handy reference book that covers all of them and related cognate fields (disciplines)in an informed and insightful manner. The Dictionary of Media andCommunications enables students from high school to graduate school to findaccessible, authoritative explanations of essential theories and concepts in allrelevant subject areas. Also included are portraits of leading figures in mediascholarship and clear, straightforward explanations of practical methods andconstructs used in media studies, communications, and related fields, such assemiotics and psychoanalytic theory.With more than 2,000 entries of varying lengths, the Dictionary of Mediaand Communications is an authoritative and reader-friendly reference that enablesanyone interested in the media and communications to find clearly writtendefinitions and explanations. In addition to defining terms, individual entriesmay also include examples of how the terms are used and background historyon the origins and development of related concepts. For visual appeal and toillustrate diverse subjects in terms that are meaningful to readers, the volumealso includes dozens of photographs, line drawings, and diagrams.viii

forewordIn addition to the alphabetical listing of definitions, the Dictionary ofMedia and Communications contains several information-packed appendices.The Chronology is a detailed list of historic events for various media types,industries, means of communication, and cognate fields. To help readers pursuefurther research, the Bibliography suggests recommended books in the field,also organized by media and communications categories. Finally, Resources onthe World Wide Web offers similar assistance with an extensive list.The Dictionary of Media and Communications is an invaluable resourcethat is readable, comprehensive, and authoritative. It is more than a referencebook. Because of the centrality of media and communications in modern life,it is, in effect, an introduction to contemporary culture and to the wide-rangingtheories and concepts that scholars have developed to better understand theworld—some would say the “brave new world”—in which we now live.Arthur Asa BergerProfessor EmeritusBroadcast and Electronic Communication ArtsSan Francisco State Universityix

introductionIntroductionIn 1938, a truly significant event took place that epitomized the power of theemerging role of the media in the modern world. That event was the radioadaptation of H.G. Wells’s novel about interplanetary invasion, The War ofthe Worlds. It was created by the famous actor and director, Orson Welles, asa radio drama simulating the style of a news broadcast. Welles pulled off his“reality-inducing effect” by using a series of fake “on-the-spot” news reportsdescribing the landing of Martian spaceships in New Jersey. An announcerwould remind the radio audience, from time to time, that the show was fictional.But many listeners believed that what they were hearing was factual.In New Jersey, many people went into a state of panic, believing that Martianshad actually invaded the Earth. Concerned citizens notified the police and thearmy; some ran onto the streets shouting hysterically; and a few even contemplatedescaping somewhere—anywhere. The event was a watershed one in thehistory of the modern world, becoming itself a topic of media attention and, ayear later, leading to the first psychological study of the effects of the mediaon common people, called the Cantril Study, after Hadley Cantril who headeda team of researchers at Princeton University. Cantril wanted to find out whysome believed the fake reports and others not. After interviewing 135 subjects,the research team came to the conclusion that the key was critical thinking—better-educated listeners were more capable of recognizing the broadcast as afake than less-educated ones.The Cantril report also laid the foundation for a systematic study of themedia in universities and colleges, leading eventually to the establishment ofdepartments, institutes, journals, book series, and the like for the study of modernmedia. Since the 1940s, such study has skyrocketed, becoming an area ofxi

introductionintense interest, not only on the part of academics and researchers, but also onthe part of virtually everyone.A seemingly different path of study was opened up in the late 1940s by thelate engineer Claude Shannon (1916–2001). Shannon was the one who laid thefoundations for investigating the relation between communication (in all itsforms) and technology. He did this by devising a theoretical framework intendedoriginally to improve the efficiency of telecommunication systems. Knownas the “bull’s-eye model,” the framework was intended originally to identify themain components of such systems and describe in precise mathematical termshow they functioned in the transmission and reception of information. In bareoutline form, Shannon’s model consisted of a sender aiming a message at a receiveras if in a target range—hence the designation bull’s-eye model. Shannonalso introduced terms such as feedback and noise into the lexicon of communicationsstudy. However, few at the time saw a connection between the studyof media and communications until a Canadian professor at the Universityof Toronto started to amalgamate the two domains in the 1950s. That professorwas the late Marshall McLuhan (1911–1980), whose work on the relationbetween media and communications technologies brought to common awarenessthe fact that culture, social evolution, and technology are intrinsicallyintertwined. Ever since, the study of media and communication as an integratedphenomenon has been the rule in academia.McLuhan’s basic approach was to show that there exists a built-in synergybetween media, mass communications technologies, and culture. He claimedthat each major historical era took its character from the medium used mostwidely at the time. For example, he called the period from 1700 to the mid-1900s the “Age of Print,” because in that period printed books were the chiefmedia through which mass communications took place. But that is not all thatoccurred. The Age of Print changed the state of the world permanently, he suggested,because print literacy encouraged a radical new form of individualismand the subsequent growth of nationalism. The “Electronic Age” displaced theAge of Print in the twentieth century. The consequences of that displacementalso have been colossal. Because electronic technology has increased both thebreadth and rapidity of communication, it has radically changed how peopleinteract and behave socially. Phones, radios, computers, and instant messagingdevices have influenced the lives of everyone, even those who use them sporadicallyor who do not use them at all. The Electronic Age may in fact be leading,as McLuhan suspected, to the end of individualism and literacy-inspirednotions of nationalism generated by the previous Age of Print.In a fundamental way, the study of the media-communication nexus is anexercise in unraveling the psychological reasons why we evolve through communicationdevices and why modern economies and political systems dependso much on these devices. Without the media and its supporting mass com-xii

introductionmunications technologies to “spread the message,” so to speak, fads and crazessuch as sports spectacles, Hula Hoops, recipes, posters, songs, dance crazes,sitcoms, and clothing fashions, would hardly gain popularity. The world welive in is largely fabricated by a media-communications interconnection. Nowonder, then, that studying this interconnection has become so critical. Masscommunications technologies have literally brought about Huxley’s “brave newworld”—a world described rather accurately by the prophetic 1999 movie, TheMatrix. Like the main character of that movie, Neo, we all live our daily lives“on the screen” and our engagement with reality is more often than not throughthe “matrix”—which means both the network of circuits that defines computertechnology and “womb.” With the advent of the Internet, new generations arenow born within two kinds of wombs—the biological one and a technologicalone, as the movie so brilliantly brings out.The study of the media-communications nexus now has its own set of theoriesand analytical frameworks. These provide concepts and discourses that canbe applied in part or in whole to a study of all modern-day cultural trends orprocesses. The appeal of such study is that it leaves the interpretation of theseprocesses open to variation. This is the reason why there is no one theory of themedia, but many. Media analysts today use a blend of concepts and techniquesat various stages of analysis and for diverse purposes.Purpose of This DictionaryAs McLuhan anticipated, the media and mass communications devices areat the center of our world, shaping lifestyle and worldview. Relatively youngby academic standards, media and communication studies started growing inthe late 1950s, after McLuhan’s influential writings started receiving internationalattention. The field has since produced a vast repertory of notions, ideas,techniques, theories, and methods of analysis. Many of these were originallyborrowed and adapted from cognate disciplines such as psychology, linguistics,semiotics, philosophy, anthropology, and sociology; but many others have beenself-generated, and are thus new, interesting, and often controversial. Newcomersto this area may thus experience unease or consternation with the vast repertoryof terms that populate the field. This dictionary is an attempt to provide acomprehensible map through that field.Thus it contains entries dealing with the basic ideas, concepts, personages,schools of thought, theories, and technical trends that come up recurrently inthe literature on media and communication. Since the literature also makesfrequent references to cognate fields such as semiotics, psychology, linguistics,mythology, literary studies, cultural anthropology, and a few others, some ofthe most frequently used terms and ideas within these are also included. I mustwarn the user, however, that to keep the proportions of this dictionary withinxiii

introductionthe limits of a compact practical reference work, I have had to limit my choicesto the main items that recur in the relevant literature. Inevitably, there will besome omissions and gaps. Nevertheless, I have tried to cast as broad a net aspossible, so as to gather within two covers the bulk of the ideas and technicalterms that the beginning student or interested general reader will need to knowin order to decipher the relevant literature.Cross‐references to other terms contained in this dictionary are indicatedwith small capitals. The commentary provided for each of the personages consistsof a brief statement about his or her relevance and/or contribution to thefield. Only those personages to whom the technical literature regularly alludeshave been included in this dictionary. A bibliography of relevant works is includedat the back. Also listed are timelines for specific media or media genres,as well as a list of useful Web sites.Hopefully, the user will find in it all the relevant information she or hemight need for conducting a personal analysis of the media-communicationsnexus that now “rules the universe,” so to speak. I also hope to have provided aframework for understanding the world we live in and probably will live in forthe foreseeable future.AcknowledgmentsI wish to thank the editorial staff at M.E. Sharpe for all their advice, support,and expert help in the making of this dictionary. I am especially grateful toPeter Mavrikis, without whom this volume would never have come to fruition.Needless to say, I alone am responsible for any infelicities that remain in thevolume.I also wish to thank Victoria College of the University of Toronto forhaving allowed me the privilege of teaching and coordinating its Program inSemiotics and Communication Theory over many years. Another debt of gratitudegoes to the many students I have taught. Their insights and enthusiasmhave made my job simply wonderful! They are the impetus for this dictionary.xiv

A roll footage used in anedited film sequence, consistingmainly of interviewsor images that relate tothe theme or topic beingshowcasedA&E Network [abbreviation ofArts and Entertainment Network]cable and satellite television channellaunched in 1984 that produces andbroadcasts programs dealing with thearts and educational topics, as wellas documentaries, biographies, andpopular entertainment formats. Website: www.aetv.comA&R executive [abbreviation ofArtists and Repertoire executive]an executive of a record companywho oversees artists and the recordingprocessAAA [see American Academy ofAdvertising]AAAA [see American Associationof Advertising Agencies]AAI [see audience appreciationindex]AB roll sequence of two segments(video, musical), composed so that asone fades away the other one blends inlast itemA3abbreviation shortening of words,phrases, or sentences: for example, hi(hello); bye (good-bye). Abbreviationis a major feature of communicationin online chat rooms, text messages,and other types of digital communications:for example, bf =boyfriend; gf = girlfriend.ABC [see AmericanBroadcasting Company]abduction in contrast to, but alsoin complement with, induction(generalizing on the basis of observationsof particular patterns inherentin something) and deduction(forming a conclusion on the basisof given premises); this term wasproposed by American philosopherCharles Peirce to characterize amethod of reasoning carried out byinformed hunches or “best guesses”on the basis of previous experience,knowledge, or understanding. Inclassic mystery stories, the detectiveprotagonistsolves a crime by usingabduction—that is, crime scene cluesare interpreted in terms of skilledinference and previous experience.aberrant decoding interpretationof a media product or text that is notthe one intended by the creator of theproduct or text. The term was coinedby Umberto Eco in 1965 to describewhat happens when a message that isput together according to a specificcode (a set of meanings) is interpretedaccording to another code. Forexample, specific groups who are exposedto a particular media message(such as an ad for beer) will decodeit differently—an abstinent groupmight see it as an immoral message,while another group might view itas a lifestyle message that promotesbeer as a component of that lifestyle.

aberrant readingaberrant reading interpretation of atext in a way that was not intended orexpected by its authoraberration distortion of a videoimage, caused by a corrupt signal orimproper adjustmentAboriginal People’s Television Network[abbreviated as APTN] televisionnetwork launched in 1999 withheadquarters in Winnipeg (Canada)devoted to broadcasting the storiesand cultural interests of Canada’sFirst Nations. It is available nationallyon basic cable and via satellite.Web site: www.aptn.caabove-the-fold 1. top part of thefront page of a newspaper (storyand/or photo) that is visible whenthe newspaper is folded; 2. the mostvaluable part of a Web page, placedat the top part of the screen so thatthe user does not have to scroll downto see it; 3. any prominent story (inany medium)above-the-line advertising promotionalmessage for which a commissionis paid, such as commission foran ad in a magazine or a stand at atrade fairabove-the-title the location of creditsthat appear before the title of a movie(for example, the names of the starringactors, the name of the director,and the name of the producer)absence the exclusion of a sign (aword, a symbol) from a specific locationto show that the same positioncan be filled by other signs, but withdifferent meanings. For example, inthe sentence The . . . ate the cake,the empty slot can be filled by nounssuch as boy, girl, woman, or man.Absence is a technique for showingways in which meaning is determined.absence-of-language techniqueadvertising strategy employing theomission of taglines, slogans, or anyother kind of verbal commentary,suggesting implicitly that a product“speaks for itself.” Print ads withoutcaptions and TV commercial sceneswithout dialogue or explanationare common absence-of-languagetechniques. Sometimes, the techniqueis intended to provoke the viewerthrough the image.absolute cost actual cost of placingan ad in some medium (magazine,newspaper, radio, television, Internet)absolute time length of time that anaudio disc has been playingabstract data type in computerprogramming, a data set definedby the programmer in terms of theinformation it can contain and theoperations that can be performedwith itabstract expressionism a movementin twentieth-century art thatbroke away from the concept of artas representation, promoting insteada mode of painting that expresses the4

Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciencesabsurdist theater [also calledtheater of the absurd] popular andinfluential nonrealistic drama genreof the 1950s and 1960s. Influencedby existential philosophy, andespecially by Albert Camus’s essay“Le Mythe de Sisyphe” (1942; “TheMyth of Sisyphus”), absurdist dramasare characterized by such featuresas the elimination of traditional plotlines, the reduction of language to agame, the downgrading of charactersto archetypes, the allusion to settingsand locations as nonspecific, andportrayals of the world as alienatingand incomprehensible. Key works inthe genre include Samuel Beckett’sWaiting for Godot (1952) and EugèneIonesco’s Le Rhinocéros (1959).Upward (1929) by Wassily Kandinskyemotions spontaneously through theact of transferring paint onto a canvas.The term was used originally todescribe Russian-born artist WassilyKandinsky’s painting style between1910 and 1914. Influenced by Europeanavant-garde artists, the abstractexpressionist movement found itsmain home in New York City in the1950s. Abstract expressionist paintingsconsist mainly of shapes resultingfrom the gestures made by theartist’s hand, called action paintings;or compositions of colors and shapesfor their own sake, called color fieldpaintings. Jackson Pollock, Willemde Kooning, Mark Rothko, HelenFrankenthaler, and Robert Motherwellare some well-known abstractexpressionists.AC Nielsen leading global marketresearch firm, founded in 1923, bestknown for its Nielsen’s ratings,which measure audience size and reactionto media programs and events.Web site: www.acnielsen.comAcademy Award [also called theOscar] prestigious honor conferredannually by the Academy ofm otion Picture Arts ands ciences in the United States to outstandingactors, directors, composers,and others involved in motion picturesAcademy of Motion Picture Artsand Sciences professional organizationfounded in 1927 to promote theadvancement of the motion pictureindustry; composed of over 6,000motion picture professionals, includingactors, directors, writers, produc-5

Academy ratioers, and technical artists. Web site:www.oscars.orgAcademy ratio the ratio (1.33 to 1)of the width of a film frame to theheight of the frame, as standardizedby the Academy of MotionPicture Arts and Sciences before thedevelopment of widescreen formatacceleration factor increasedefficiency in communicationstechnologies, which causes a moreimmediate impact of events upon themediaaccent distinctive manner in whicha language is pronounced, characteristiceither of individuals, a region,a social group, or some other communityaccess ability of people to view,investigate, or question the products,activities, or motives of major mediaoutlets and companiesaccess channel in cable television, anonbroadcast channel dedicated to localissues (for example, educational,governmental, among others)access controller 1. device thatmoves image data to a video controller;2. hardware that provides datalink connectivity for area networkproviders such as Ethernetaccess head disk drive component ofa computer that moves to a specificpart of the disk’s surface to read theinformation stored thereaccess number telephone numberdialed by a computer to link it to anInternet service provider or othertype of network provideraccess panel group monitored forresearch purposes so as to documenttheir television viewing habitsaccess provider [see Internet serviceprovider]access television television thatbroadcasts independently of statecontrols, usually with a small budgetand reaching a limited areaaccessed voices individuals who aregiven exposure by the media (celebrities,politicians, experts) becausetheir views are considered to bedistinctive or, at least, not necessarilyrepresentative of those of the generalpublicaccessing practice of including verbalquotations and taped interviewsfrom various media originating frompeople not employed by the mediaorganizationsaccessory shoe camera bracket towhich an accessory such as a flashunit may be attachedaccordion insert advertisementinserted in a magazine, folded in anaccordion styleacculturation adaptive process bywhich change in culture occurs whentwo or more societies (with their own6

acronymcultural traditions) come into contactfor an extended period of time. Oftenthe result is a bidirectional adaptation,whereby the beliefs, conventions,customs, and art forms of eachsociety in contact become fused ormixed (to varying degrees); or onesociety may undergo partial or totaladaptation to the culture of the othersociety (or societies).accumulation audience-countingmethod by which people exposedto a specific media product arecounted once within a specified timeperiodacid house electronic disco musicpopular in the 1980s, associated withthe use of the drug Ecstasyacid jazz musical genre consisting ofa blend of funk, jazz, and soul musicthat emerged in the 1980sacid rock type of rock music popularin the 1960s that used peculiar instrumentaleffects suggestive of psychedelic(hallucinatory) experiencesACORN [acronym for a classificationof residential neighborhoods]consumer research method of classifyingresidential areas according tothe type of people who live in them,the type of homes in which they live,and other such categoriesacoustic rock style of rock musicplayed mainly on acoustic instruments(instruments without amplification)acoustics study of the wave patternsproduced by language sounds( consonants, vowels, tones, etc.).Now classified as a branch ofphonetics, the physical analysis oflinguistic sound waves is traced toTonempfindungen als physiologischeGrundlage für die Theorie der Musik(1863; On the Sensation of Tone asa Physiological Basis for the Theoryof Music) by the German physicistHermann von Helmholtz.Acoustic phoneticians record andanalyze speech waves with devicesand instruments designed to identifyrecurrent patterns.acquiescent audience people whoare receptive to advertising andare more likely to be impressed byhumorous, clever, or eye-catchingadsacquisitions editor editor of a bookpublishing house who seeks newworks or evaluates submissionsacronym word, form, or abbreviationconstructed with the initialletters of a phrase, expression, orgroup of words (or parts of words):for example, CD = compact disc,DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid, laser= light amplification by stimulatedemission of radiation, IQ = intelligencequotient. Acronymy is a majorfeature of the language used in onlinesocial sites such as chat rooms, textmessages, and other types of digitalcommunication venues: for example,cm = call me; ruok? = are you OK?;g2g = got to go.7

Acta diurnaActa diurna (Acta publica or Actapopuli) the first known newspaper,written on a tablet, which reported onmatters of public interest in ancientRome, after 27 b.c.e.actant in narrative theories, a recurrentrole that manifests itself in storiesacross the world and across time: forexample, a hero, an opponent, a helper,etc. The notion was developed primarilyby the twentieth-century French semioticianAlgirdas Julien Greimas,who claimed that actants relate to eachother in a binary fashion, giving thenarrative its trajectory and plot form:subject vs. object, sender vs. receiver,helper vs. opponent, and so on.actantial theory model of narrativeanalysis based on the concept ofactantaction code 1. code used to describeevents in a narrative; 2. commandsused in computer programmingaction code script (abbreviated asACS) scripting language used insome modem Doom source portsaction genre story that revolvesaround pugilistic action, martial artsaction, or some other form of violentcombat featuring a large number ofaction sequencesaction replay repeat of a brief filmedsegment, often in slow motionaction shot scene involving movementin a film or television programaction theory in some philosophicalsystems, the idea that actions aredifferent from behaviors. The termcomes up occasionally in mediastudies in discussions of the relationbetween media and its effects on humanbehavior.ActionMedia trade name of a digitalvideo system developed by Intel thatallows a computer to record, playback, and manipulate videoactive audience in uses and g r at i-fications theory, the people whodo not accept a media representationor text as it is presented to them, butinterpret it, or interact with it, fortheir own purposes and in their ownway, regardless of the intention of thecreator of the representation or textactive listening manner of listeningto a speaker, group, or media product(such as a documentary, feature film,or television program) so as to takeinto serious consideration the point ofview being put forwardactive participation way in whichmedia intrude upon and influencethe stories they are supposed to bereporting impartiallyactive pixel region area of a computerscreen that displays graphicinformationactive reader in uses and g r at i f i-cations theory, the individual whodoes not read a media representationor text as it is presented to him or her,8

Adbustersusing it instead for his or her ownpurposes and in his or her ownway, regardless of the intentions ofthe maker of the representation ortextactive video part of a video signalthat contains picture informationactivism theory, doctrine, or practiceof assertive, often militant, action,such as mass demonstrations orstrikes, used as a means of opposingor supporting a controversial issue,entity, or personactual malice reckless disregard ofthe truth or falsity of some publishedor broadcast storyactuality the live recording of anevent on location as it actually unfoldsad [see advertisement]ad agency [see advertising agency]ad campaign [see advertisingcampaign]ad copy printed text or spoken wordsin an advertisementAd Council [see AdvertisingCouncil]ad hoc balancing of interests inFirst Amendment cases, factors thatshould be taken into consideration indetermining how much freedom thepress is grantedad impression opportunity to seean advertisement; in online advertising,ad impressions are the numberof times an ad is downloaded from aWeb pagead panel [see advertisement panel]adage [also called aphorism] formulaicstatement designed to bring out somegenerally accepted intuition, experience,or truth, gaining currency overtime: for example, haste makes waste;necessity is the mother of invention.adaptive control expenditure modelused by advertisers that takes into accountconsumer responses to advertisingcampaigns. It does so typicallyby using statistical methods thatindicate the success of a campaignand, thus, how much money can bepoured into it.Adbusters Canadian group of socialactivists with a popular Web siteand magazine who are critical of theadvertising process itself. The Website and magazine of the same namewere founded in 1989 by Kalle Lasnand Bill Schmalz in Vancouver. Theorganization offers not only seriouscritiques of advertising and consumerism,but also many clever parodiesof advertising campaigns, articles,and forums on how one can recognizemedia manipulation, informationon lawsuits and legislation on consumerissues, and links for sendinge-mails to big businesses to contesttheir marketing strategies. Web site:www.adbusters.org9

added valueadded value extra or additional promotionservice or benefit that a publicationcan offer its advertisers, suchas supplements or special sectionsaddendum section of a book, magazine,or Web site that is tacked on,usually at the end, such as an appendixor a further reading sectionaddressable technology equipmentenabling a program provider (such asa cable television provider) to switchto pay servicesaddressee in Roman Jakobson’smodel of communication, thereceiver(s) of a message; the person(s)to whom a message is addressedaddresser in Roman Jakobson’smodel of communication, term referringto the sender(s) of a message;that is, the person(s) who addresses amessage to someoneadjacency commercial break betweentelevision programsAdler, Alfred (1870–1937) Austrianpsychiatrist who coined the terminferiority complex, which he saw asthe primary source of characteristicbehaviors and of most neuroses—incontrast to Freud’s emphasis onsexual drives as the primary psychicforces. Adler’s most influential worksare Über den nervösen Charakter(1912; The Nervous Constitution)and Menschenkenntnis (1927; UnderstandingHuman Nature). His worksare often cited in psychological studiesof media reception and communicationproblems.admass segment of society at whichan advertising campaign is aimedadministrative research term firstused by Paul Lazarsfeld in 1941to describe the type of research carriedout by teams of researchers orinstitutions, using empirical methods(such as opinion polling) and seekingto answer clearly defined problems(who watches TV, why they watch it,how effective are advertising messages,and so on)adnorm measure of readership averagesfor print publications over atwo-year period, used as a baselinefor comparing specific ads on averagetermsAdobe Acrobat trade name for softwaredeveloped by Adobe Systemsthat converts documents and formattedpages in such a way that they canbe viewed on a computerAdobe Photoshop graphics editingsoftware developed by AdobeSystemsAdorno, Theodor (1903–1969)influential German Marxist thinkerwho was a leading figure in the socalledFrankfurt School. Adornoberated pop culture as an aberrationof true culture. He and MaxHorkheimer (another FrankfurtSchool founder) coined the termculture industry to describe the10

advertisement panelprocess by which mass forms ofculture were produced—in analogywith the industrial manufacturingof commercial products. Adornodid not see pop culture as a threat tosocial authority, but rather as a wayto homogenize cultural products sothat they can be consumed easily andwithout thought. His ideas are oftencited in media studies. His work TheCulture Industry: Selected Essays onMass Culture (English translationpublished posthumously in 1991) isconsidered significant.adperson [previously adman]person whose job is in the field ofadvertisingADR [see automatic dialoguereplacement]ADSL [see Asymmetrical DigitalSubscriber Line]adspeak kind of jargon used in theadvertising fieldadspend amount of money spent onadvertising a particular productadult contemporary music genrepopular music that appeals mainlyto an older audience; this genre caninclude music that was once aimedprimarily at teenagers, such as themusic of Frank Sinatra, the Beatles,the Rolling Stones, or Madonnaadult movie [also called pornmovie] sexually explicit movie that isprimarily of prurient interestadvance statement given to themedia in advance of an event’s occurrenceso as to optimize coverageadventure spy genre narrative thatinvolves espionage, mystery, crime,and/or adventureadventure story action tale revolvingaround daring heroes and sly villainsin fantastic situations. Robert LouisStevenson’s novel Treasure Island(1883) is an example of this popularform of children’s literature.advergame term that appeared inWired magazine’s “Jargon Watch”column in 2001, now applied to freeonline games commissioned by majorcompanies to promote their products.Advergaming is the practice ofusing games to advertise a product,organization, or viewpoint. Typically,companies provide interactive gameson their Web sites in order to drawpotential customers to them so thatusers will spend more time on theWeb sites, becoming more aware oftheir products.advertisement [abbreviated as ad]public promotion of a product orservice by means of a notice, such asa poster, newspaper display, or paidannouncement in some electronic ordigital medium, designed to attractpublic attention or patronageadvertisement panel [abbreviatedas ad panel] specially designedadvertising space in a newspaper ormagazine11

advertiseradvertiser manufacturer, servicecompany, retailer, or supplier thatadvertises its product(s) or service(s)advertising public announcement,promotion, support, or endorsementof a product, a service, a business,a person, an event, etc., in order toattract or increase interest. A posterfound in Thebes, dated to 1000 b.c.e.,which offered gold for the capture ofa runaway slave, reveals that advertisinghas been practiced since antiquity.In both the ancient and medievalworlds, advertising was also carriedout by town criers—people who readadvertising materials to the public—since many people were illiterate. Inthe seventeenth century, the LondonGazette became the first newspaperto set aside a section for purposes ofadvertising. Book publishers, seedcompanies, railroads, and steamshiplines were among the early usersof nationwide advertising. Today,advertising has morphed into adominant form of social discourseinfluencing lifestyle, worldview,economic systems, politics, andeven traditional values, since it isdesigned to suggest how people canbest satisfy their needs and reachtheir goals.advertising agency [abbreviated asad agency] company that creates advertisingcampaigns for products.The first modern agency was foundedin 1841 by Philadelphia entrepreneurVolney B. Palmer. A few years later,Palmer opened offices in major EastCoast cities (New York, Boston,and Baltimore). In the first decadeof the twentieth century advertisingagencies began to hire psychologiststo help create campaigns designedto increase the desire to buy goodsthrough persuasion techniques.American psychologist John B.Watson, for instance, was hired bythe J. Walter Thompson Agency.Today the ad agency business hasdeveloped into an enterprise so hugethat, for some critics, it has cometo symbolize the style of Americancapitalism—a style based on hypeand evangelical fervor.advertising boycott boycott organizedagainst companies so as topersuade them to abandon an advertisingcampaign for a specific socialor political reasonadvertising brief list of objectivesand instructions issued by a companyto an advertising agency forthe design of an advertisingcampaignadvertising campaign [abbreviatedas ad campaign] series of advertisementsconstructed around the sametheme or using the same style, whichtogether attempt to make the identicalpitch for a product in a specificway. For example, the McDonald’s“I’m lovin’ it!” campaign directedits message to a young audience; theDeBeer’s “Diamonds are Forever”campaign used images of elegance,romanticism, and the like to pitch itsmessage about the beauty and classicelegance of the company’s diamonds.12

aerialAdvertising Council [abbreviatedas Ad Council] private nonprofitorganization founded in 1942 thatproduces and disseminates publicservice announcements on behalf ofvarious sponsors. Web site: www.adcouncil.orgadvertising impressions number oftimes that an advertisement actuallyreaches an intended audience, that is,the total number of views by all audiencemembersadvertising media communicationchannels that carry advertising messagesto consumers. These includeprint media (newspapers, magazines,pamphlets), electronic media (radio,television), outdoor signs and posters,phone directories, direct mailings,novelties, and the Internet.advertising page exposure measureof the opportunity for readers tosee a particular print advertisement,whether or not they actually look atthe adadvertising plan explicit outline ofwhat goals an advertising campaignshould achieve, how to accomplishthose goals, and how to determinewhether or not the campaign was successfulin achieving those goalsadvertising rate amount of moneycharged for advertising space or timeadvertising space any space availablefor advertising in a mediaproduct (for example, newspaper,magazine, radio program, televisionslot)advertising specialties special items,such as T-shirts, mugs, pens, or cards,given away as part of an advertisingcampaignadvertising techniques proceduresdesigned to inform or persuadepeople. Among the most commontechniques are the attentiongettingheadline, the basic appeal,the comparison of products, theproduct character, repetition inadvertising, the slogan, and thetestimonial.advertising time amount of timeon radio or television set aside foradvertisingadvertorial advertisement that hasthe appearance of a news article oreditorial, in a print publicationadvice column section of a newspaper,magazine, or Web page thatis intended to give advice to readerswho have sent in questions or queriesadvocacy advertising type of advertisingused to promote a particularposition on a controversial politicalor social issueadvocacy journalism type of journalismintended to promote a positionon a political, controversial, or socialissueaerial [also called antenna] metallicapparatus used for sending and/or13

aerial advertisingreceiving electromagnetic waves orsignalsaerial advertising ads of productsor services displayed in the air fromballoons or planesaerial perspective technique of makingobjects appear more distant byportraying them less sharply; basedon the phenomenon of atmosphericdistortionaerial shot camera shot taken from ahigh position above the actionaesthesia in both art criticism andpsychology, a subject’s sensory andemotional reaction to a stimulus(a melody, painting, etc.), inducinga heightened sensitivity to itsbeautyaesthetics the perception and experienceof beauty and meaning in art;aesthetics deals in particular with thequestion of whether such perceptionexists in the mind of the interpreteror whether it is an intrinsic part ofa work of art (independent of aninterpreter). The term was introducedin 1753 by the German philosopherAlexander Gottlieb Baumgarten.Media scholarship has shown thataesthetic value is often determinedby tradition, trends, and other socialpressures on tastes, regardless of theintrinsic value of a work. For example,in the early eighteenth centurythe plays of William Shakespearewere viewed as barbaric and obscene.Today, they are considered to beamong the greatest works of theaterever written.affective behavior category of humanbehavior based on feelings,sentiments, and emotionsaffiliate local radio or television stationthat is part of a national networkaffiliate fee monthly fee that cableprogramming services charge localcable operators for the right to carrytheir programsaffiliate marketing practice of promotingcompanies that pay to havetheir products or services advertisedon a centralized Web siteaffiliate partner company that putsadvertising for other companies on itsown Web siteaffiliate program form of advertisingon the Internet in which businessesuse banners or buttons on theirWeb sites to advertise the products orservices of another businessaffirmative disclosure identifyingthe source of information containedin an advertisement, required by theFederal Trade Commission or otherauthority, which may not be desiredby the advertiser. This consists generallyin some statement that admits tosome limitation in the product or theoffer made.Afrocentric talk term coined byAmerican researcher Jennifer Wood14

aidato refer to the use of oral storytellingtraditions and themes by AfricanAmericans to make sense of theirworld and thus to build self-identityand a sense of dignityAfropop contemporary music fromAfrica and African communitiesAfropop Worldwide public radiointernational that features Afropopmusic. Web site: www.afropop.orgafterimage visual sensation in whichan image persists after the visualstimulus has been removed; for example,the spot of light one seesfollowing a burst of light, such as thatfrom the flash of a cameraafterpiece short comedic entertainmentthat follows the performance ofa playagate line standard measure of newspaperadvertising space, used especiallyfor classified advertisements(1 column wide by 1/14 inch deep)age profile audience for a particularmedia event, ad, or product, classifiedaccording to age groupagency 1. means or mode of actingor behaving in a socially meaningfulway; 2. ability of individuals to actself-consciously and to exert theirwill through involvement in socialpractices; 3. an establishment thatconducts business for anotherparty (e.g., an advertisingagency)agency commission agency’s fee fordesigning and placing advertisementsagency roster list of different advertisingagencies that work for the samecompanyagenda list of items or issues to becovered (e.g., by the media) in orderof their purported importanceagenda setting according to onetheory, influential role played by themedia in their determination of whichissues are covered and their relativeorder of importanceagent person who is authorized to actas the representative of another party(for example, a literary agent whorepresents a writer)aggregator Web site that collectssyndicated news from other Web sitesaggressive cues theoretical modelthat identifies certain classes ofpeople as acceptable media targetsfor real-world aggressionagit-prop practice of using the mediato spread propagandaagora 1. a gathering place; in particular,the marketplace in ancientGreece; 2. a marketplace on theInternetAI [see artificial intelligence]AIDA [acronym for Attention,Interest, Desire, and Action] model15

aided recallof how to use advertising to get theconsumers’ attention, then developtheir interest in a product, followedby consumers’ desire to purchasethe product, and finally resulting inconsumers’ action to actually go outand purchase itaided recall research methodfrequently used to determine whatconsumers remember about an advertisementthey have seen or heardAIR [see average issue readership]airbrush technique for covering imperfectionsor removing flaws fromphotographic imagesairdate date of a radio or televisionbroadcastairplay occasion when a recording isbroadcast on the radio, or the numberof times a record is actually playedairtime amount of time given toa program in radio and televisionbroadcastingairwaves radio waves making broadcastingpossiblealbum recording of music that isissued and marketed as a singleproduct, e.g., a record album or a CDalbumalbum cover jacket of a recordalbum (originally for a 33 1/3 rpmrecord album), often of interest eitherbecause of its relation to the musicalAlbum cover of Yellow Submarine (1969)text or its representation of a theme.Famous album covers include thosecreated for the Velvet Undergroundby Andy Warhol, featuring the imageof a banana, and several createdfor the Beatles, especially the Sgt.Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band(1967) cover.alienation term coined by KarlMarx to describe a sensed estrangementfrom other people, society, orwork. Today, psychiatrists definealienation as a blocking or dissociationof a person’s feelings. Somephilosophers believe that alienationis produced by a shallow and depersonalizedsociety. Fourth-centurytheologian Saint Augustine wrotethat. due to its sinful nature, humanitywas alienated from God. To Austrianpsychoanalyst Sigmund Freud,alienation resulted from the split betweenthe conscious and unconsciousparts of the mind. French socialtheorist Émile Durkheim suggested16

alphabetthat alienation stemmed from a lossof societal and religious tradition.Existentialists saw some measure ofalienation as an inevitable part of thehuman condition.alienation effect in Marxist theory,the result of using alienating techniques,such as unsettling lightingeffects or bizarre soundtracks, thatforce an audience to develop a criticalattitude toward a performance ormessage to which they are exposedAl Jazeera influential satellite televisionchannel, based in Qatar andlaunched in 1996, that broadcasts inArabic. Al Jazeera came to internationalnotice after the terrorist attacksof September 11, 2001, because ofits contrasting coverage of worldissues compared with that of Westernmedia. Web site: www.aljazeera.net/Englishall-channel legislation U.S. federallaw, passed in 1962, requiring alltelevision sets to be equipped withboth VHF and UHF receiversallegory literary work with a purelysymbolic meaning; that is, a workin which the characters and eventssymbolize spiritual, moral, orpolitical meanings or ideas. Somehistorically important allegoricalworks are Le roman de la rose( thirteenth century) by Guillaumede Lorris and Jean de Meung; TheDivine Comedy (1321) by DanteAlighieri; and Pilgrim’s Progress(1678) by John Bunyan.alliteration rhetorical (poetic technique)consisting of the repetitionof the initial consonant sound(s) inseveral words in a phrase, expression,etc.: The sun always shines in summer;Peter plays the piano perfectlyalliteration technique advertisingmethod based on alliteration, usuallyinvolving the name of the brandbeing advertised, purportedly enhancingthe probability that a product’sname will be remembered: Marlboroman; Guinness is good; FrostedFlakes; Tony the Tigerallness attitude the outlook ofpeople who think that they knoweverything there is to know aboutsomeone or something. In the field ofsemantics, this attitude is thought tomake communication more difficult.allofmp3.com one of numerousRussian Web sites that offer popularmusic (for downloading to a computeror mp3 player) for a fraction ofwhat iTunes chargesallusion indirect reference (to person,character, idea, etc.) in commondiscourse or narrative artAlpha international code word forthe letter A, used in radio communicationsalphabet system of symbols, commonlycalled letters or characters,used for representing speech sounds.Alphabets are distinguished fromother systems by the fact that, ideally,17

alphanumericeach letter in the system stands for aparticular sound in a word. A syllabary,on the other hand, consists ofsymbols representing syllables; a pictographicsystem consists of picturesymbols for representing things andideas (rather than sounds in words);and an ideographic system consistsof picturelike symbols that standfor complex ideas (such as motion,states, etc.).alphanumeric letters, numericalsymbols, and punctuation marks,mathematical symbols, and otherconventional symbols, used in somecombination to create words, phrases,or entire sentences. This is a majorfeature of language used in chatrooms, text messages, and other typesof digital communications: g2g =Got to go; 2dA = today; gr8 = great.alt Internet Web site that posts discussionsabout alternative subjects ofall kindsalterity [also called otherness] viewthat emphasizes diversity in philosophy,the arts and sciences, andmedia representations. This conceptgained prominence after Michelf oucault’s allegation in the 1980sthat the Other—anyone who wasdifferent in sexual orientation, ethnicity,etc., from those with socialpower—had been excluded from ormarginalized by Western systems ofrepresentation.alternate media any media of advertisingother than direct mailalternative comedy style of comedyand/or humorous material that is deliberatelydifferent from mainstreamcomedyalternative media nonmainstreammedia forms (such as pamphlets orgraffiti) that arise to complementand sometimes challenge traditionalmedia formsalternative newspapers [see alternativepress]alternative press nonmainstreampress with a small circulation, whichespouses radical viewpoints, especiallyin the area of politicsalternative rock rock music that isperformed by relatively unknownmusicians and/or is promoted bysmall record companiesAlthusser, Louis (1918–1990)French Marxist scholar whose ideasare often cited in the literature onmedia and pop culture, especially hisview that media are part of ideologicalsystems. Among his importantworks are Pour Marx (1965; ForMarx) and Lénine et la philosophie(1969; Lenin and Philosophy).AM radio [abbreviation of amplitudemodulation radio] radio broadcastingsystem based on a carrier wave of constantfrequency but of varying amplitudeAmazon.com Web-based bookstorethat has become one of the largestbookstores in the world18

Asciiambient advertising [also calledambient media] advertising intendedfor the outdoors (posters, ads onsubway platforms, ads on buses) sothat people can be exposed to an adduring their everyday activitiesambisonics [also called surroundsound] technique of using severalseparate audio channels to record andproduce sounds so that they completelysurround listenersambivalence category used by advertisersto describe consumers who areneither interested in, nor opposed to,advertisingambush interview line of questioningthat is intended to catch aninterviewee off guardAmerica Online [abbreviated asAOL] online service provider createdby Steve Case in 1985 as QuantumComputer Services. It changed itsname to America Online and its corporatestructure in 1991. In January2000, AOL announced its plans tomerge with Time-Warner; the mergerwas approved by the Federal TradeCommission in January 2001, and thenew corporate entity became one ofthe world’s largest media conglomerates.Web site: www.corp.aol.comAmerican Academy of Advertising[abbreviated as AAA] association ofadvertising educators, students, andprofessionals, dedicated to the evaluationand improvement of advertisingeducation. The association publishesthe well-known Journal of Advertising.Web site: www.aaasite.orgAmerican Association of AdvertisingAgencies [abbreviated as AAAA]U.S. national trade associationfounded in 1917 whose members aread agencies. Web site: www.aaaa.orgAmerican Broadcasting Company[abbreviated as ABC] broadcastingnetwork created in 1943 that,along with CBS and NBC, was oneof the Big Three in the golden eraof television from the 1950s to the1970s. ABC is now a New York CitybasedAmerican communicationscorporation, whose holdings includetelevision and radio stations, Internetservices, and print publications.The company was acquired by WaltDisney Company Media Networks in1996. Web site: www.abc.orgAmerican dream belief that anybodycan succeed in America, regardlessof background, race, gender, andso onAmerican Society for Composers,Authors and Publishers [abbreviatedas ASCAP] major U.S. performingrights organization founded inNew York City in 1914 to protect authors,composers, and publishers bylicensing and distributing royalties.ASCAP’s earliest members includedIrving Berlin and John Philip Sousa.Web site: www.ascap.orgAmerican Standard Code forInformation Interchange [abbrevi-19

aT&Tated as ASCII] standardized way ofconverting text into a format that canbe interpreted by any computerAmerican Telephone and TelegraphCompany [abbreviated as AT&T]one of the largest communicationscompanies, providing voice, data,video, and online communicationsservices to residential, business,and government customers throughoutthe world. AT&T also operatesa cable television system and offerslocal telephone service throughits cable lines in some parts of theUnited States. Its headquartersare in New York City. Web site:www.att.comAmericanization purported influencethat the United States has on theculture of other nations. The term hasa negative connotation if the influenceis imposed unwillingly; it has apositive connotation if the influenceis sought voluntarily.A-movie in contrast to a B-movie,a film that is considered to be ofthe best quality aesthetically andtechnicallyamplification technological enhancementof sound transmission toincrease volumeamplification of deviance processwhereby some activity, labeled asdeviant, is exaggerated as a result ofsocial reaction to it, which is largelyshaped and influenced by the massmediaamplifier device or equipment thatmakes sound louderanachronism something that is, orseems to be, out of its proper time;for example, using the word thourather than you would be consideredan anachronism in modern Englishanaglyph photograph or paintingshowing different perspectivesor aspects of something with twocontrasting colors that are superimposedon each other. The imageis perceived as a three-dimensionalobject when viewed with “3-Dglasses” (two correspondinglycolored lenses).anagram a word or phrase producedby rearranging the letters of anotherword or phrase: for example, Elvis =lives; Presbyterian = best in prayer;deliver = live redanalog 1. mechanism in which dataare represented by continuously variablequantities; 2. transmission of acontinuous electrical or radio frequencywave; opposite of digital;3. recording that uses magnetic tapeanalog channel communications line(such as a telephone line) that carriesanalog signalsanalogy 1. comparison betweentwo things that are similar in somerespects, so as to explain one of thethings or make it easier to comprehend:the atom can be understood asa miniature solar system;20

angle2. process by which language formsare created on the model of alreadyexisting forms: the suffix -ize (usedfor example in apologize, realize,categorize, symbolize, etc.) has beenextended to create new words such asenergize or digitizeanalytic editing type of video or filmediting in which a sequence of imagesis constructed to follow a plot,rather than to explain itanalytical engine calculatingmachine invented by British mathematicianCharles Babbage in the1830s, of which only a part was everbuilt. Babbage’s engine was, in effect,the first general-purpose digitalcomputer, although it was conceivedlong before electronics technologyappeared. It had the capacity to performvarious mathematical operations,using punched cards as a formof permanent memory.anamorphic lens a lens that “squeezes”or distorts a filmed image forwidescreen projectionanarchist cinema genre that revolvesaround the theme that life is meaninglessor unfair and that includes ananti-authoritarian element.anchor main presenter of the news ina televised newscastanchorage in advertising, the abilityof captions to influence the meaninggleaned from images (photos, printads, etc.). The term was coined bythe twentieth-century semioticianRoland Barthes.ancillary market movie revenuesource other than the domestic boxoffice one (foreign box office, videorights, television rights)ancillary-to-trade any product orservice, such as advertising, that supportstradeAndersch, Staats and Bostrom’smodel of communication modelproposed in 1969 stressing thetransactional nature of communication,in which meanings are createdand interpreted by both the senderand the receiver in tandem, andare partially shaped by outsideinfluencesandrocentric revolving around oremphasizing a male perspectiveanecdote short account that helpsto illustrate or stimulate interest in amore general issueAng, Ien (1960–) internationalmedia scholar known for her workon audiences, identity politics, andmedia representation. Some of herimportant works include DesperatelySeeking the Audience (1991) andLiving Room Wars: Rethinking MediaAudiences for a Postmodern World(1996).angle main point or focus of a story,in journalism usually emphasized asa headline21

animal communicationanimal communication [also calledzoosemiotics] discipline that studiesways in which animals communicate,focusing on innate signaling systemsanimated motion picture movie basedeither entirely or in part on animationanimation moviemaking techniqueof showing slightly different drawingsin rapid succession, creating theillusion of continuous motion (thisvisual illusion is also illustrated by“flip books”)animatronics technique of usingelectronic and/or mechanical devicesto animate puppets, models, or anyrelevant objectanime [also called manga] Japanesecomic-book drawing techniquecharacterized by very large eyes anda layout in which the panels run fromright to leftannals records of published events orinformation within a particular fieldannotation act or process of providingcritical commentary or explanatorynotes to a text or performanceannouncement formal or public noticeuttered or communicated in somemedium (oral, written, or recorded)announcer person who introducesradio or television programs orshows; in sports, person who providescontinuous commentary duringthe broadcast of a sports eventanomie term coined by sociologistEmile Durkheim to refer to the senseof alienation and purposelessnessexperienced by a person or a classas a result of a breakdown or lackof standards and values. The term isoften used in the literature by thosewho believe that anomie makes somepeople more susceptible to the effectsof mass media.anonymous written, created, orproduced by an unknown person orpersonsanonymous audience listeners orrecipients who have no connectionto any single group and who areunknown to the creator of a mediaproductanonymous FTP method of connectingto a remote computer withoutrequiring special permission or apassword to download filesanonymous remail service forforwarding e-mails or newsgrouppostings so that personal details areexcludedanswerprint final edited version ofa filmed piece to be checked for finalcorrections or modificationsantenna [see aerial]anthology collection of variousworks taken from a specificgenre within a medium (for example,essays, poems, sitcoms, ordocumentaries)22

antimonopoly controlsanthology drama popular form ofearly television programming thatbrought live theater to televisionaudiencesanthropology study of humankindfrom all points of view (evolution,culture, etc.). Lewis Henry Morgan,who conducted research on the culturesof the Iroquois in the nineteenthcentury, is considered the NorthAmerican founder of the discipline;in Europe, British scholar Edward B.Tylor is credited with its foundation.In the 1970s, anthropological methodssuch as ethnography (studyingsome cultural phenomenon throughsystematic observation) were adoptedby media researchers to gain insightsinto the ways in which traditionalforms of culture have been changedby the mass media and mass communicationstechnologies.anthropomorphism in literatureand the arts, the attribution of humanqualities to objects, animals, plants,or godsanthroposemiotics branch of semioticsstudying sign use in the humanspecies (as opposed to sign use acrossspecies). Biosemiotics is the more genericterm, used to refer to the studyof sign use across species.anti-aliasing technique that minimizesthe distortion of a digital imageor sound signal, accomplished by“smoothing,” or removing componentsthat have too high a frequencyto be resolved by the recording deviceanticlimax rhetorical techniqueof sequencing ideas in a phrase orsentence in diminishing importance,usually for some humorousor satirical effect: He is intelligent,handsome, but short. Thousands diedin that horrific war; a great deal oftime was also lost. The term anticlimacticis often used to describea sudden change from somethingserious to something trivial or fromsomething compelling to somethingdull.antics ludicrous or extravagant actionsperformed by an actor playingan exaggerated comic roleantihero character in a story wholacks the traditional qualities associatedwith heroes, such as bravery,strength, idealism, or courageantilanguage 1. language created bya specific group in order to excludeoutsiders from the group; 2. languagecreated and sustained by a specificgroup to express opposition to adominant linguistic order. An exampleof anti-language is that foundin some rap lyrics, characterized byintentional misspellings and otherdevices that are in breach of standardEnglish.antimonopoly controls regulatorylegislative measures designed toinhibit the control of business or supplyby a single entity (for example,to prevent media conglomerates frommonopolizing the delivery of masscommunications)23

antinarrativeantinarrative [see antinovel]antinomy putting together tworeasonable but opposite premises in aseemingly contradictory fashion so asto achieve some rhetorical effect: forexample, what is bad is really goodfor you; inelegance is in fashionantinovel [also called antinarrative]novel lacking the traditional elementsof the narrative, such as plot structure,realistic characters, etc. Molloy(1951) by Samuel Beckett is anantinovel.antirealism storytelling technique inwhich no attempt is made to representa situation realisticallyantithesis use of words, phrases,clauses, or expressions of opposingmeaning to emphasize contrastingconcepts: for example, He is laughing;I am crying. They are growing;I am shrinking.antitrust laws legislative measuresdesigned to protect trade and commercefrom unlawful control by largecorporations or single entitiesantiwar genre narrative that revolvesaround a plot or a situation thatbrings out the absurdity or depravityof warantonomasia 1. use of a title orhonorific (Your Honor, Your Majesty,etc.) in place of the person’s name; 2.using the name of a well-known personageto describe someone who hassimilar characteristics (for example,calling a philanderer a Don Juan)antonym word that means the oppositeof another word: light is theantonym of dark; hot is the antonymof coldAOL [see America Online]AP [see Associated Press]Apache silence in sociolinguisticanalysis, the use of silence as a formof communication in situations wherewords are difficult to findaphorism [see adage]apocalyptic thriller genre in whichthe story revolves around a cataclysmicevent or disastrous end to life on earthapocryphal of questionable authorshipor authenticityapologue fable intended to imparta moral lesson, in which animals orinanimate objects represent humancharacters: for example, the stories inAesop’s Fables (sixth century b.c.e.)and in the late nineteenth-centuryUncle Remus tales by Americanwriter Joel Chandler Harrisaporia in discourse theory, the stateor expression of doubt or uncertaintyabout how to proceed in a conversationor in a communicative exchangeapostrophe rhetorical strategywhereby an actor (or writer) turns24

arbitrary codefrom the other characters, the audience,or the reader to address a person,a god, etc., who is either absentor deceased: for example, What islife, my long-departed uncle?; OhDeath, who are you?apothegm [also called maxim] tersestatement designed to embody a selfevidenttruth: for example, Beauty isskin deep; Night follows dayappeal 1. degree of likability of anadvertisement; 2. program or adcampaign asking for donations for aparticular causeappendix material added to theend of a text (book, Web page,video)apperception process of understandingby which new observations arerelated to past experience. This termis used in the psychological literatureon media processing.Apple Computer Corporation tradename for a computer technologycompany founded in 1976 by SteveJobs and Steve Wozniak that hasdeveloped, among its many products,the Apple Macintosh personal computerand the iPod. Web site: www.Apple.comapplication service provider [abbreviatedas ASP] 1. technology fordelivering software applications anddata via the Internet; 2. a businessthat sells ASPs on a subscription orrental basisapplication software computersoftware designed for a specific task,such as word processing, accounting,or inventory managementappreciation index measure of howmuch someone has enjoyed a televisionor radio program that he or shehas viewed or listened to. The subjectis asked to record his or her degree ofenjoyment as a score from 1 to 10.appropriation process by whichinnovative or resistant cultural formsare taken up and commodified bymedia or culture industries; forexample, rap music and lifestyle havebeen appropriated by various brandsto advertise their products via imagesand personalities associated with rapcultureAPTN [see Aboriginal People’sTelevision Network]arbitrariness in Saussureansemiotics, the theory that a signstands for something in an arbitraryway and not in a way motivated bythe nature of its referent. There is noevident reason for using, for example,cat to designate “a small felineconsidered to be a domestic animal.”Indeed, any well-formed word couldhave been coined for this namingpurpose—as long as it was consistentwith the word-formation patterns ofEnglish.arbitrary code system of signals orsymbols that bears no direct relationto the ideas it portrays or reflects25

arbitronArbitron provider of radio and televisionrating and marketing services,founded in 1949, that publishes regularreports for selected markets. Website: www.arbitron.comarchetype an inherited memory representedin the brain by a recurringimage, form, or pattern. This meaningof the term was introduced bypsychologist Carl Gu s tav Jung torefer to symbolic and ritualistic formsthat manifest themselves universallyacross cultures. A humorous clownishor jester figure, known as the trickster,for instance, is an archetype.This archetype surfaces as a buffoonor fool at various rituals (as incarnivals), in narratives (for example,Rumpelstiltskin), and in the assumedcharacter of modern-day comedians.Jung suggested that archetypesare the building blocks of culture,enabling people to react to variouslife situations in ways similar to theirancestors.archie early search system (consideredthe first Internet search engine)for locating publicly accessible filesor softwarearchitecture-opera exhibition consistingof a walk-through installationand a live opera, presented on a setwith video sculpturesarchive public records or historicaldocuments that have been preservedfor future access; material (such asnewspaper articles and film segments)that can be used again if neededarchive site on the Internet, a sitethat provides a large collection ofdownloadable public-domain filesand programsAreopagitica pamphlet (1644) writtenand distributed by John Milton,which defended freedom of the pressand the inviolability of booksargot jargon used by a particulargroup for in-group communication(although it can spread to the societyat large). The term is generallyused to refer to the language usedby criminals or those belonging todelinquent organizations.argument summary of the plot ortheme of a literary workAristotle (384–322 b.c.e.) Greekphilosopher, a student of Pl at o,whose ideas on logical thinking andon the nature of reality have influenced(and continue to influence)modern-day Western philosophyand scientific method. Aristotle’snotion of catharsis has becomewidespread in the study of mediaaudiences.Arnold, Matthew (1822–1888)nineteenth-century British poet andsocial critic whose ideas against thebanality of popular forms of cultureare still cited today. His classic studyCulture and Anarchy (1869) is a polemicagainst Victorian materialism.Arpanet [abbreviation for AdvancedResearch Projects Agency network]26

articlewide-area network created in the1960s by the U.S. Department ofDefense for the free exchange ofinformation between universities andresearch organizations, also used bythe military for its own communications.Arpanet was the network fromwhich the Internet evolved.art any work or text (a painting, asculpture, a musical composition,etc.) that evokes an aesthetic reaction,impelling people to contemplateits meaning and its qualities. Thedrawings found during the Paleolithicperiod, some 20,000 to 35,000 yearsago, are likely to be the first works ofart. Twenty-first-century art includesa wide range of media, such as film,video, sound recordings, and digitalimages.art deco design style of the 1910s,1920s, and 1930s, which emphasizedsleek elegance in form, reflectiveof “modern” technology. The stylebecame popular in 1925 at the Parisexhibition called Exposition Internationaledes Arts Décoratifs et IndustrielsModernes. Prominent examplesof art deco style include the interiorof the Chrysler Building (1930) andRadio City Music Hall (1931), bothlocated in New York.art director individual who coordinatescreative artwork in advertising,or the individual who oversees thedesign of a television or movie setart film experimental film created asan artwork, not aimed at mass audiences,but at cinema connoisseursIsolde (1895) by Aubrey Beardsleyart nouveau style of painting of thelate nineteenth and early twentiethcenturies, characterized primarily bythe depiction of leaves and flowers inflowing, sinuous lines. The earliestexamples of art nouveau are usuallyconsidered to be a chair designed in1882 and an engraved frontispiece foran 1883 book (Wren’s Early Churches)by English architect Arthur Mackmurdo.The illustrations of Aubrey Beardsleyare considered the most prominentexamples of this style. In the twentiethcentury, the art nouveau style becamefashionable in interior decor as well asmagazine illustrations.article 1. text on a particular subjectin a newspaper and magazine; 2.online message or posting27

articulationarticulation 1. process of expressingsomething; 2. in Marxist theory, aterm referring to the joining togetherof social forces in a hierarchicalway (with one being dominant overthe other); for example, in manypresent-day societies, capitalism isthe dominant force even in politicalsystems that include different modesof productionartificial intelligence [abbreviatedas AI] branch of computer sciencedevoted to the development of programsthat will allow computers tosimulate or even replicate patterns ofhuman intelligence (problem solving,speaking, etc.)artificial language linguistic systeminvented for a particular purpose.The best-known artificial languagedevised to facilitate communicationamong people of different languagesand cultural backgrounds is esperanto.ASCAP [see American Societyfor Composers, Authors andPublishers]ascription in media studies, adjustmentof statistical information toreflect unexpected circumstances; forexample, the reduced circulation of amagazine due to a printing delayA-side the more important side of amusic single (recording) that usuallycontains the title trackASCII [see American StandardCode for Information Interchange]ASP [see application serviceprovider]aspirer in advertising research, thetype of individual who wants productsthat improve his or her lifestyleimageassets data components (audio,video) that are used in multimediaapplicationsassignment desk [also called newsdesk] in print and televised media,staff responsible for dispatching reportersand/or camera crews to covernews eventsassimilation [see acculturation]assistive technology [abbreviated asAT] technology designed to assistdisabled individualsAssociated Press [abbreviated asAP] major international news agencyfounded in 1949 in New York City.Serves as a source of news informationand visual images for print media,radio, and television. Web site:www.ap.orgassociation psychological notionwhich contends that concepts areformed on the basis of one thoughtleading to another that is connectedwith it in some way (through experience,analogy, comparison, etc.).Starting in the 1920s, psychologistsof the behaviorist school used thetheory of association to explain thedevelopment of mental skills and28

attention-getting headlinethe acquisition of language. Thetheory has been used to explain howcertain media products are receivedand linked both to each other and tosocial life.association principle in advertising,persuasive technique that aimsto associate a product with a culturalvalue or theme, even though thecultural value may have no actualconnection to the productassonance poetic effect achieved byusing words containing the same orsimilar vowel sounds: for example,I hate to be late for my dateasterisk a symbol (*) used to indicatean omission or a reference to anote. Asterisks are sometimes usedto replace letters of words, or entirewords, that are considered obscene.Asymmetrical Digital SubscriberLine [abbreviated as ADSL]high-speed technology providinghigh-speed Internet access to localtelephone service customers overconventional phone linesAsynchronous Transfer Mode[abbreviated as ATM] high-speedcommunications network technologythat allows multiple types of traffic(voice, video) to be transmitted overa network in bundles called cellsAT [see assistive technology]AT&T [see American Telephoneand Telegraph Company]ATM [see Asynchronous TransferMode]atmosphere 1. dominant mood ortone elicited by a work; 2. ambientnoise added to a recording in order tomake the sound track more realisticatmospherics 1. noises that interferewith radio reception, caused by naturaldisturbances in the atmosphere;2. in advertising, tools for the creationof an “atmosphere” or identityfor a brand, such as its name, logo,and so onATR [acronym for awareness, trial,repeat] advertising model whichclaims that a consumer first becomesaware of a product through advertising,then buys it once to try it, andwill buy it again if it is acceptable orsuitableattack ad political advertisement thatemploys repeated negative assaultson another candidate’s characterattention economy theory that linksthe present-day wealth of informationto an economy, or scarcity, ofattention by individuals, particularlyas consumers; the proliferation ofavailable information on the Internetis viewed as a significant factor inattention economyattention-getting headline style ofheadline used in printed advertisements,designed to immediatelyattract the attention of the consumer.Some headlines attract attention by29

attention model of mass communicationpromising that some benefit willensue from buying a product (such asa savings in money, improvement inphysical appearance). Other headlinesare worded to arouse curiosity,or to attract the attention of a specificgroup (e.g., “For those who areyoung at heart”).attention model of mass communicationparadigm that presents thedesign of mass communication interms of attracting and maintainingthe attention of consumers, viewers,or listenersattention value likelihood that anadvertisement or media product willattract and maintain attention and/orinterestattitude in media studies, the dispositionof an individual toward amedia product, especially as acquiredthrough cultural conditioningattitude change theory in mediastudies, a principle that aims toexplain how people’s attitudes areformed and/or changed through mediaexposureaudience any group of peopleexposed to media. Some audiences(such as those for sports events orconcerts) are physically present atthe media event. Other audiences(such as those for novels, television,or radio) are not. Additionally,audience members need not undergothe experience at the same time (forexample, not everyone reads thebook or sees the movie at the sametime). The idea of audience enteredmedia studies through psychologicalresearch on people’s responsesto certain media messages accordingto age, social class, gender, and soon. It is now believed that there is aconstant dynamic interplay betweenaudiences and producers of mediaproducts. Audience research aimsto identify the views, habits, andopinions of media audiences of allkinds.audience appreciation index [abbreviatedas AAI] measure of audiencereaction to a certain media product.The measure is used as a factor in ratingsresearch.audience competence knowledgethat audience members build upregarding their interests, which maycreate an increase in audience satisfactionaudience differentiation classifyingaudiences into categories, such asage, social status, gender, and education,so as to determine the needs ofeach groupaudience duplication percentage ofpeople reached by an advertisement(or other media event) more thanonceaudience ethnography researchmethod in which the researcher joinsa specific audience group in order toobserve their reactions to media fromwithin the group30

audiologyaudience factor average number ofaudience members for a specific typeof program or eventaudience flow particular patternshown by audiences who change radioor television channels throughouta given period of timeaudience measurement researchtechnique that identifies what kinds ofaudiences receive a particular kind ofmedia product and how they react toit. The audience is determined accordingto some variable or set of variables(age, class, gender, ethnicity).audience positioning advertising,designing, and showcasing a productin such a way as to appeal to an audiencecharacterized as having certaindemographic or psychographicfeaturesaudience segment specific groupof individuals exposed to a mediaproduct. The group is determinedaccording to some variable or set ofvariables (age, class, gender, ethnicity,specialized tastes, media habits).audilog diary kept by selected audiencemembers to record which televisionprograms they watched over agiven period of time. It was introducedby AC Nielsen as a means ofrating television shows.audimeter electronic recordingdevice that keeps track of when atelevision set is in use and to whatstation it is set. It was introducedby AC Nielsen to monitor viewinghabits.audio related to sound or its reproduction;recorded sound material ofany kind, including the sound componentof a video or film recordingaudio branding building a brandidentity through auditory associationtechniques, such as jingles and songsaudio console unit consisting of electronicand/or digital components suchas a radio tuner or a disc playeraudio description oral description ofwhat is happening on screen for thevisually impairedaudio feed sound recording sentfrom one place to anotheraudio insert device on video equipmentthat allows dubbing (the additionof new sound effects or dialogueto previously recorded material)audio recording sound reproductionof any kind. The first devicethat allowed for sound reproductionwas Thomas Edison’s phonograph,invented in 1877.audiocassette an audiotape in asmall plastic box for use in a tape recorder.Audiocassettes have virtuallydisappeared, having been replaced byother kinds of audio recording andplayback devices.audiology science devoted to thediagnosis and treatment of hearing31

audiophileproblems. Audiologists also study theeffect of partial or total hearing losson a person’s ability to communicate.audiophile individual who has anavid interest in stereo or high-fidelitysound recordingsaudiotape narrow magnetic tapeused to record sound for subsequentplaybackaudiovisual [abbreviated as AV]materials, such as films and DVDs,that present information in audibleand pictorial formAudit Bureau of Circulation independentbody consisting of membersfrom the media and the advertisingfield, which provides circulationfigures for print media. It also auditsthe circulation of print publicationsto insure that reported circulationfigures are accurate. Web site: www.accessabc.comAustin, John L. (1911–1960) Britishphilosopher who developed a logicaltheory of speech acts, describingutterances in terms of the functionsthey have and the actions they aredesigned to bring about. His ideas areoften cited in media and communicationstudies.auteur filmmaker or director who isperceived as having a uniquepersonal style or approach to filmmakingand who takes completecontrol over all aspects of filmproductionauteur theory view that a director maybe regarded as a film’s author, whetheror not he or she wrote the scriptauthor creator of a media product(book, poem, play, program, etc.). Intraditional literary theory, the authoris seen, implicitly, as the one whoinjects a personal viewpoint intoa work; the role of the reader is todiscern and comprehend the author’sviewpoint. Recent theories, however,view the meaning of a work as resultingfrom a negotiation of meaningbetween the author and the reader.authoring systems and softwarecomputer systems and/or softwarethat allow for the creation of multimediatexts (texts that incorporateprint, video clips, images, and sound)authoritarian theory hypothesiswhich claims that the role of thepress is to serve the interests ofgovernment, not of the citizenry,and should submit to governmentalcontrolautobiography biography of aperson written by himself or herself.The term probably was coined bythe British Romantic poet RobertSouthey in 1809.autofunction device used for videoediting and playback that performsfunctions such as focusing ortrackingautomatic dialogue replacement[abbreviated as ADR] process that32

Ayer Agencyallows actors to re-record dialoguewhile watching themselves on screen(during feature film production)autonomy in aesthetic theory, theact of creating a work without anyreliance on some other idea, culturalproduct, or valueautoscript type of prompting deviceor system used by television announcersor presentersAV [see audiovisual]availability time and number of slotsin a medium available for advertisingpurposesavant-garde experimental workwhose style or content falls outsidethe mainstreamavatar 1. in virtual realityenvironments (such as certain typesof Internet chat rooms), a picture,photograph, or animation of a humanuser, chosen by the user to depict hisor her virtual-reality identity; 2. inadvertising, a brand icon designed tomove or morph freely across mediaaverage audience 1. average numberof homes or persons tuned into aradio or television program during aminute of broadcasting time; 2. averagenumber of persons who viewedan issue of a print publicationaverage frequency 1. average numberof times that the same individualis reached by the same advertisingcampaign; 2. average number of opportunitiesthat individuals have toview an advertisementaverage hours per head averagenumber of television viewing hoursthat an entire population spent, orcould have spent, watching a particularprogram or seriesaverage issue readership [abbreviatedas AIR] estimated number ofpeople who have read an issue of apublication during the period that ithas been in printaverage quarter-hour averagenumber of people listening to a radioprogram, or watching a televisionprogram, during a 15-minute periodavi extension for a multimedia videoformat fileawareness test advertising researchtechnique that measures the cumulativeeffect of an ad campaign interms of a product’s ability to enterinto consumer consciousnessaxiom notion universally believed tobe true and therefore accepted withoutproof. Mathematics, for instance,is constructed on the basis of axioms,which are consistent with one anotherand few in number.Ayer Agency one of the first documentedad agencies in the UnitedStates, founded by advertisingpioneer Francis W. Ayer in 1869 inPhiladelphia33

B movie [also called Bpicture] 1. motion pictureproduced on a low budget;2. low-budget motion pictureproduced to accompanythe main feature of a doublebilling during the 1930s and 1940sb2b advertising [see business-tobusinessadvertising]Babbage, Charles (1792–1871)English mathematician who designeda machine (called the analyticalengine) that he claimed would becapable of carrying out complexoperations. Although he never builteven a working model of the machine,lacking appropriate technologyand funding, its principles of designforeshadowed the modern computer.His book Economy of Machines andManufactures (1832) became the basisof the field of study known todayas operational research.baby boomer individual belongingto an age category of people bornduring the period after the end ofWorld War II (1945) through 1961.This category is quoted often inthe media literature. Baby boomersconstitute a market segment inadvertising.first itemBfor various purposes (foradvertising, to explain thecontents of the book, etc.)back issue previous issueor edition of a periodicalback projection cinematic techniquein which the background for a sceneis created by projecting images ontoa screen that is behind the actionbeing filmed; also called backgroundprojection or rear-screen projectionbackground 1. setting or part ofscene (in a movie, photograph, etc.)that appears to be located at the backof the scene; 2. information that providesdetails or resources for a newsstory; a background story providesinformation on events that precededthe current news storybackground music music that accompaniesaction or dialogue in afilm or television program, usuallyadded at the postproduction stagebacking 1. accompaniment providedfor a solo musician or singer, usuallyrecorded on a separate track; 2. in thetheater, a flat piece of scenery placedbehind an opening such as a windowor doorback catalog all the publications,recordings, videos, etc., that a particularartist or company has everproducedback cover back of a book or magazineon which text is normally addedbacklist list of books that are notcurrently promoted by a publisher butthat are still in printbackup 1. accompaniment to themain performer of a piece of popularmusic; 2. a reserve or replacement, as34

annerin backup computer files or a backupschedule for filmingbadge distinctive branding that isgiven to a product in order to increaseits appealBaird, John Logie (1888–1946) Scottishelectrical engineer who was a pioneerin the televising of moving objectsBakhtin, Mikhail (1895–1975)Russian literary theorist who claimedthat communication, including bothliterature and dialogue among people,is not merely an exchange of information,but rather, a negotiation ofmeanings. Bakhtin also introducedthe idea that pop culture servesthe same kind of social functionsas medieval carnivals. Among hismost important works are Problemytvorchestva Dostoevskogo (1929;revised in 1963 as Problemy poetikiDostoevskogo; translated in 1973 asProblems of Dostoyevsky’s Poetics)and Voprosy literatury i estetiki(1975; The Dialogic Imagination,1981).balance leveling of a signal comingfrom each channel in a stereo audiorecording, so that the sound can beblended for various acoustic andaesthetic purposesbalanced programming the practiceof giving fair and/or impartial coverageto a topic or issueballad 1. song or poem, in folk ortraditional style, dealing with romanceand love; 2. popular romanticsong with a slow tempoballoon in comics and cartoons,figure resembling a balloon, whichcontains words that represent eitherthe speech or thoughts of a characterbandwagon effect advertisingstrategy that focuses on the pressureto conform to a commonly held view;it incorporates exaggerated claimsthat everyone is using a particularproductbandwidth 1. range of frequenciesinvolved in radio and telecommunicationstransmission; 2. amount of datathat a communication channel, suchas an Internet connection, is capableof transmittingbank 1. place of storage, such asa data bank; 2. secondary part of aheadline, running just below it (normallyin smaller type)banned books books that havebeen banned from public libraries orschools for social, political, moral,or other reasons. Among the mostfamous banned books in the UnitedStates are The Adventures of HuckleberryFinn (Mark Twain), Of Miceand Men (John Steinbeck), and TheCatcher in the Rye (J.D. Salinger).banner 1. print media term forthe headline of a story of unusualimportance, stretching over the entirewidth of the page; 2. slogan used bya newspaper immediately below its35

anner exchangein Europe in the late 1500s, lastinguntil the mid-1700s, characterizedby ornamentation. In music the styleis emblemized by the composersJohann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750)and Antonio Vivaldi (1678–1741).barrier signal a defensive nonverbalsignal, such as crossing the arms orholding a hand in front of the faceP.T. Barnumtitle; 3. online advertising messagethat runs across the top of a Web pagebanner exchange agreement betweentwo businesses allowing banneradvertisements to be displayed oneach other’s Web siteBarnum, P.T. (1810–1891) famousU.S. showman who presented suchpopular and sensationalized attractionsas General Tom Thumb, amidget, and Chang and Eng, conjoinedtwins. With James Bailey,he founded the Barnum & Bailey Circus,which merged with the RinglingBrothers Circus in 1919 to becomethe Ringling Brothers and Barnum& Bailey Circus. To promote his attractions,Barnum relied on colorfuladvertising and publicity stunts.Baroque style in painting, literature,and music that first appearedbarter deal in television syndication,an arrangement whereby no money isexchanged between the local stationand the syndicator. The syndicatoroffers a new program in exchange fora portion of advertising revenue.Barthes, Roland (1915–1980)French semiotician who has becomewidely cited in media and pop culturestudies, particularly concerning hisview that modern systems of representation,as well as performancesand spectacles, are recreations ofancient myths. Popular wrestling, forinstance, is a complex performancein which bodies, facial expressions,gestures, and speech evoke ancientforms of theater and spectacle. Bartheswas also a founder of the “NewCriticism,” a literary movementprominent after World War II, whichemphasized the interpretation of atext itself, independent of authorialintentions or historical factors. Hismost quoted work in media studies isMythologies (1957).base and superstructure in Marxisttheory, an economical system iscalled the “base” of society, around36

each boxwhich a “superstructure” (consistingof laws, religion, culture, etc.) isconstructedbase band 1. in telecommunications,the narrow range of frequenciesrequired for transmitting a singlemessage; 2. form of a satellite signalas it is being transmitted, before it isconverted into sound and/or picturesBASIC [abbreviation of beginner’sall-purpose symbolic instructioncode] a simplified high-level programminglanguage developed inthe mid-1960s by John Kemeny andThomas Kurtz at Dartmouth College.It is widely considered to be one ofthe easiest programming languagesto learn.basic cable service package oftelevision channels that a cable companymakes available to subscribers,usually at a lower cost than packagesthat include premium channelsBasic Telecommunications Agreementof 1997 accord drawn up by theWorld Trade Organization to allowfree trade for telecommunicationsservices. The agreement was signedby 69 countries.Bass’s double action model of internalnews flow (1969) model thatdescribes news as being processedin two stages before release: first, bythose who gathered the information(reporters, researchers, etc.), andsecond, by those who process the informationto make it consistent withthe values and norms of the newsorganization (editors, writers, etc.)bathos sudden stylistic descent fromthe lofty to the trivial, producing acomical effect: or example, Whatshall I do? I lost my best friend andmy scarf!baud rate speed of data transferwithin a network in bits per secondBaudrillard, Jean (1929–2007)French sociologist often quoted inmedia studies. Among Baudrillard’sideas, perhaps the one most discussedis that of the simulacrum, whichclaims that people have becomeso accustomed to viewing realitythrough the media that they are nolonger capable of distinguishingpractically between fact and fiction.The gap between the two is filled bya simulacrum, or a mode of seeingone in terms of the other. Amonghis most quoted works in the medialiterature are La société de consommation(1970; The Consumer Society,1998) and Simulacres et simulation(1981; Simulacra and Simulations,1994).Bay Psalm Book the first bookpublished in the American coloniesin 1644; originally titled The WholeBooke of PsalmsBBC [see British BroadcastingCorporation]beach box device that connects anexternal microphone to a digital37

eamvideo camera, designed to providebetter sound recording qualitybeam (n) 1. shaft of light; 2. directionalradio signal; (v) 3. to broadcastradio or television signalsbeat generation 1950s generationof American writers, including JackKerouac, Allen Ginsberg, William S.Burroughs, and Lawrence Ferlinghetti.Beat writers became famous fortheir eccentric lifestyle and literature,which was intended to denouncethe American dream of wealth andprosperity. Their style was typicallyimprovisational and dealt with therole of drugs, sex, and mysticism inmodern human life. The beat writersare often considered to have set thestage for the hippie and counterculturemovements of the 1960s.bebop style of jazz music that originatedin the 1940s, when a number ofyoung American musicians began experimentingwith more complicatedchord patterns and melodic ideas in acombo (small group) settingbeginner’s all-purpose symbolicinstruction code [abbreviated asBASIC] programming languagedeveloped in the mid-1960s byJohn Kemeny and Thomas Kurtzat Dartmouth College. It is widelyconsidered to be one of the easiestprogramming languages to learn.behaviorism the study of observableand quantifiable behavior as theonly legitimate form of psychologicalinquiry (term coined in 1913 by JohnB. Watson). Behaviorism traces itsroots to the ideas and methods of theRussian psychologist Ivan Pavlov. In1904, Pavlov introduced the idea ofconditioned response, on which behaviorismis based. He demonstratedthe notion with an experiment thathas become a classic in the annals ofpsychology. He started by presentinga piece of meat to a dog, noting thatthe animal would salivate instinctively,as anticipated. Pavlov called thisthe dog’s unconditioned response. Hethen began to ring a bell while presentingthe meat; after a number ofrepetitions, the dog began to salivatein response to the ringing bell, even ifno meat were presented. The ringing,Pavlov noted, would not have madethe dog salivate initially, but associatingit with the meat eventuallybrought about a conditioned responsein the dog. Starting in the 1960s,behaviorism became marginalizedwithin psychology. Today it has beenrevived somewhat to explain certaintypes of behaviors and is thus viewedas part of a more comprehensivetheory of human behavior. It is usedas well in media studies to explainresponses to mediated stimuli.Bell, Alexander Graham(1847–1922) Scottish-born Americaninventor of an apparatus for thetelephonic transmission of voice, firstdemonstrated in 1875, patented as thetelephone in 1876.Bell, Daniel (1919–) Americansociologist whose work concerns38

Bettelheim, Brunothe effects of political and economicstructures, including mass media, onthe individual. Among his frequentlycited works are The End of Ideology(1960) and The Cultural Contradictionsof Capitalism (1976).below-the-fold 1. the lower half ofthe front page of a newspaper, generallyconsidered to have less importancethan the upper half; 2. the partsof a Web page that can be seen onlyby scrolling down the pagebenchmark 1. point of reference; 2.in advertising, a measure of a targetaudience’s response to the early stagesof an advertising campaign, whichis later compared to the response atthe end, so as to test the efficacy ofthe campaignBenedict, Ruth (1887–1948)American anthropologist whoconducted important research onNative American cultures in the1920s and 1930s. Benedict claimedthat culture largely determinedthe choices that individuals madethroughout their lives. Among hermost influential works are Patternsof Culture (1934); Zuñi Mythology(1935); Race: Science and Politics(1940); and The Chrysanthemumand the Sword: Patterns of JapaneseCulture (1946).Benjamin, Walter (1892–1940) philosopherand aesthetician associatedwith the Frankfurt School, oftencited in media literature with regardto his view that pop culture providesa channel for the release of pent-upemotionsBerne Convention [full form:International Convention for theProtection of Literary and ArtisticWorks] international copyrightagreement, originally adopted in1886. The agreement provides aframework for the protection of intellectualproperty, copyright, patents,and trademarks.Berners Lee, Tim (1955–) inventorof the World Wide Web and directorof the World Wide Web Consortium,which seeks to create protocolsand standards for the sharing ofinformationBernstein, Basil (1924–2000) Britishsociologist who developed theconcept of social code as a meansof understanding social beliefs andbehaviors. Among his works areClass, Codes, and Control (1971)and Pedagogy, Symbolic Control andIdentity (1996).best seller product such as a book,compact disc, etc., that sells verywell, often shortly after it is publishedor issuedBET [see Black EntertainmentTelevision]Beta trade name for a video format,known for the fact that it was overtakenin the consumer marketplace by VHSBettelheim, Bruno (1903–1990)American psychologist (born in39

Bezos, Jeffrey PrestonAustria) who is well-known in mediastudies for his penetrating analyses offairy tales. Bettelheim claimed thatthe fairy tale represents a universalneed to engage with the workings ofthe imagination and an innate senseof fantasy. Its elements (from thecharacters to its settings) are essentiallyarchetypes, in the Jungiansense of the term. His major work isThe Uses of Enchantment: The Meaningand Importance of Fairy Tales(1976).Bezos, Jeffrey Preston (1964–)founder and CEO of Amazon.com(in 1994)bias 1. failure to cover the news inan impartial manner (intentionallyor not); 2. a high-frequency voltagecombined with an audio signalduring recording in order to reducedistortionbibliography list of books, articles,etc., consulted and thus consideredto be pertinent to a given subject.The General Catalogue of PrintedBooks maintained by the BritishLibrary, the catalogs of the BibliothèqueNationale in Paris, and theLibrary of Congress in Washington,D.C., are widely used bibliographicalcollections. Publishers also issuebibliographies for informational (andpublicity) purposes. In the UnitedStates, Publishers Weekly first appearedin 1872, and Books in Print in1948. The International Federationfor Documentation and the AmericanDocumentation Institute are institutionsthat promote the standardizationof bibliographical methods andresearch.Big Band music music popular in the1930s and 1940s, performed by largedance or jazz bands, usually featuringimprovised solos by lead playersbig beat [also called electronica]type of electronic music that blendselements of rock with other styles,distinguished by its constant rockstyledrum beatsBig Brother concept introduced byGeorge Orwell in his 1949 novel1984, describing a totalitarian societyin which the government, like a “bigbrother,” constantly watches andmonitors its citizens in order to detectany signs of unrest or nonconformitybig city dailies newspapers publishedin cities such as New York, Los Angeles,Chicago, and BostonBig Five studios the five major motionpicture studios—Paramount,MGM, Warner Brothers, TwentiethCentury Fox, and RKO—during the1930s and 1940sBig Four networks CBS, NBC,ABC, and Fox, the leading televisionnetworks (before the advent of cableand satellite television)big idea an innovative new ideabehind an advertising campaignintended to attract potentialconsumers40

inary oppositionbig screen movies made to be seen ina movie theater rather than on televisionor on a Web siteBig Three networks the originalnetworks—CBS, NBC, ABC—considered the leading televisionnetworks before the advent of Foxand of cable and satellite televisionBildungsroman literary genre thatemerged in the early part of theRomantic period; a novel revolvingaround the development of ayoung protagonist in psychologicaland social terms. Perhaps themost famous Bildungsroman isGoethe’s The Sorrows of YoungWerther (1774). J.D. Salinger’s TheCatcher in the Rye (1951) is a wellknownAmerican example of theBildungsroman.billboard 1. outdoor advertisingsign; 2. poster advertising a newspaperby showing the main headline ofthe day (usually found outside newspaperstands); 3. advertising messageshown before, after, and during thebreaks of a television programbilling 1. listing of performers,with prominence given to the leadingperformers; 2. way in which aperformance, product, or spectacle ispublicizedBiltereyst, Daniel (1962–) wellknownscholar who has written onfilm censorship and reality television;his articles have been published injournals such as European Journalof Communication and Journal ofInternational Communication.binarism a structuralism theorythat we extract meaning from twoforms (words, symbols, etc.) simultaneouslyby detecting a minimaldifference between them. The wordscat and rat differ minimally in termsof the initial sounds with which theyare constructed. This binary differencekeeps the two words distinct.Binarism can be applied to a vastarray of forms; for example, in musicthe difference between a major andminor chord is signaled in a binaryfashion by a semitone difference inthe middle tone of the chord.binary feature element that is eitherpresent [+] or absent [–] in the constitutionof form, thereby keeping itdistinct. The word cat is marked as[+singular] and cats as [–singular].The [±singular] is a binary feature.binary opposition refers to the factthat many aspects of meaning areperceived in terms of opposites, suchas good vs. evil, night vs. day, etc. Anopposition often leads to a connectedset of derived oppositions. So, forexample, in a narrative the good charactersare opposed to the evil onesin terms of derived oppositions suchas us vs. them, right vs. wrong, truthvs. falsity, and so on, which manifestthemselves in actions, statements,plot twists, etc. In social theory, somebinary oppositions, such as self vs.other, us vs. them, man vs. woman,young vs. old, are seen as potentially41

iodatadangerous because of the tendency ofpeople to identify with the positiveelement in the opposition, seeing theother as negative.biodata biographical details about anindividualbiography 1. account of a person’slife in the form of a book, movie,television program, etc.; 2. literarygenre dealing with people’s lives asmetaphors of life in general. In theancient and medieval worlds, biographieswere written primarily aboutthe most prominent individuals—heroes, rulers, saints, etc. GiorgioVasari’s Vite de’ più eccellentiarchitetti, pittori e scultori italiani(1550; Lives of the Most EminentArchitects, Painters, and Sculptors)marked a humanistic interest in thelives of other types of individuals. Asa literary genre, the biography tracesits roots to The Life of Samuel Johnson,LL.D. (1791) by James Boswell.biopic [abbreviation of biographicalpicture] movie that presents the biographyof (usually) a well-known personbiotechnology 1. use of microorganismsas agents to produce useful materialsor aid in industrial processes;2. application of technological factsand principles to biological science,as in bioengineeringbit [short for binary digit] the smallestunit of information handled by acomputer; one character of a systemthat uses only two characters (0 and 1).In groups of eight, bits become thefamiliar bytes that are used to representall types of information, includingthe letters of the alphabet and thedigits 0 through 9.bit caster radio station accessibleonly on the World Wide Webbit map an image stored in the formof bits. Bit maps cannot be enlargedwithout some distortion of quality.BITNET [acronym for BecauseIt’s Time Network or Because It’sThere Network] network created in1981 connecting computers in theeducational and research domains (atuniversities, schools, institutes, etc.)to communicate news of developmentsin academic, scientific, andrelated matters.biweekly newspaper or magazinethat is published once every twoweeksblack box technologies televisionsystems (such as TiVo) that allowviewers to record and save programsby digital storage means rather thanonto videotape, as with older VCRsystemsBlack Entertainment Television[abbreviated as BET] Americancable network with programming targetedat African American audiencesin the United Statesblack-and-white movie or photographusing only black and white42

lockbuster erableed 1. to print something so thatthe colors blend into each other; 2. toprint something beyond the edge ofa pagebleep out to efface an offensiveword or phrase uttered on radio ortelevisionblind booking practice of rentingfilms to exhibitors without lettingthem view the films beforehandBlackBerryBlackBerry trade name for a handheldwireless device that providese-mail and Internet services, alongwith phone, text messaging, andsoftware applicationsblacklist 1. list of people who are notapproved or who are to be boycotted;2. list of people from whom correspondence(especially e-mail correspondence)is not welcomeblackout any interruption or exclusionof a broadcast for technical reasons,on account of a labor dispute,or due to government prohibitionblanket coverage advertising to thegeneral public (with no target groupin mind)blat slang term for tabloid newspaperblind certificate type of onlinecookie used to track which Web siteshave been visited by an individual byidentifying the computer system usedblink ad television commercial lastingjust one secondblitz intensive, short-term marketingcampaignblock-booking early movie studiotactic of getting theaters to acceptmarginal or inferior films in order toobtain access to major films with themost popular starsblock printing technique of printingfrom carved blocks of wood or othermaterialsblockbuster film or book that gainswidespread popularity and achievesenormous salesblockbuster era period from the1970s onward, when movie studiosstarted making relatively inexpensivemovies for large audiences. These43

lockbuster mentalitymovies came packaged with cabledeals, video/DVD products, etc.blockbuster mentality movie- makingphilosophy characterized by thetaking of reduced risks by producingmovies with blockbuster potentialblog [abbreviation of weblog] Website with a regularly updated list ofcommentary and links to informationon the Internet. A blog often servesas a publicly accessible journal for anindividual or community of individuals,and tends to reflect the distinctcharacter and personality of the site’susers. Blogs are set up with easy-touseauthoring tools.blogosphere parts of the World WideWeb where bloggers communicatewith each otherblogware software designed to helppeople set up blogging sitesblowup enlargement of a photograph,or part of a photograph, so that itsdetails can be seen more clearlyblue-eyed soul soul music performedby white musicians, rather than AfricanAmerican musiciansbluegrass music type of folk musicoriginating in the southern UnitedStates, typically played on banjos andguitars and characterized by rapidtempos and jazzlike improvisationsblues style of music that evolvedfrom southern African Americansecular songs in the early 1900s,distinguished by slow tempo andsorrowful melodies and lyrics andplayed on simple instruments. After1950 some blues musicians, includingB.B. King and Ray Charles, usedelectric guitars and louder electricbasses. Record companies applied theterms rhythm and blues and soul tomusic in these styles.Bluetooth trade name for a technologythat enables portable electronicdevices to connect with each otherand the InternetBlumler, Jay G. (1924–) one of thefounders of uses and gratificationstheory. Among his key worksare Television in Politics (with D.McQuail; 1968) and The Uses ofMass Communication (as editor, withE. Katz; 1974).blurb short complimentary text, oftenwritten about a book on its coveror jacketBMI [see Broadcast Music Inc.]Boas, Franz (1858–1942) GermanbornAmerican anthropologist wholaid the foundations for moderntheories about the effects of cultureon human behavior and development.Boas argued that differencesin human behavior are determinedprimarily by environment, notgenetics. He was among the first toemphasize field research—studyinga people by living among them. Hisbooks include The Mind of Primitive44

oomMan (1911) and Race, Language, andCulture (1940).body double actor whose job is tosubstitute for a starring actor forsome reason during filming (forstunts, for specific action sequences,etc.)body language set of mannerisms,gestures, postures, and facialexpressions that represent or communicatesomething. The elementsof body language are divided intowitting (gestures, expressions, etc.,used intentionally to communicatesomething) and unwitting (gestures,expressions, etc., used instinctivelyto reveal an emotional or affectivestate).Bollywood name (mimicking “Hollywood”)that refers to India’s prolificmovie industrybook collection or assemblage ofpages held together in some way andcontaining verbal text and (sometimes)figures and illustrations. Theclay tablets of ancient Mesopotamiaand the scrolls of ancient Egypt,Greece, and Rome were the earliestbooks (or proto-books). By the fourthcentury c.e., a ringed assemblage,called a codex, became popular as abook form. It was made with woodentablets covered with wax. In the earlyMiddle Ages scribes in monasteriesused quill pens to copy books. As aresult of this costly process, bookswere rare objects, read primarily byclerics and aristocrats. The Chinesehad invented printing on paper frommovable type in the eleventh century.Paper was introduced to Europein the fifteenth century by Islamicscholars. The technology for movablemetal type was perfected by theGerman printer Johannes Gutenberg,making the production of paperbasedbooks rapid and much moreaffordable. The first book printedwith such technology was the Biblein 1455. The mass-produced bookencouraged literacy among all classesof people.book club 1. organization that sellsbooks to members, generally atreduced rates, such as Book-of-the-Month Club and Literary Guild; 2.informal group formed to read anddiscuss booksbook superstores large book chains,such as Barnes & Noble and Borders,that sell not only books but also otherproducts (videos, records, etc.) andusually include a coffee shop andother amenitiesbookmark address of a Web site thatis stored in a computer’s memory sothat it can be revisited easilybooks on tape audiotape books thatgenerally feature actors or authorsas narrators of entire or abridgedversions of popular fiction and tradebooksboom long, adjustable stand or poleused to suspend a microphone orcamera45

oomerang responseboomerang response any audienceresponse to a media text that is theopposite of the one intendedboosted sample used primarily formarketing purposes; to sample froma portion of a population, rather thanthe wholebootlegging illegal pirating of CDs,DVDs, etc., that are produced andsold without permission from theoriginal copyright holderborderless world common referenceto the global economy in the age ofthe InternetBourdieu, Pierre (1930–2002)French sociologist, well-known forhis treatment of the notion of culturalcapital. Among his keyworks are Sens pratique (1980; TheLogic of Practice, 1990) and La distinction(1979).boutique agencies in advertising,small regional advertisingagencies that offer personalizedservicesbowdlerize to eliminate from a pieceof writing whatever is construed asbeing obscene or offensive. The termwas coined from the surname of Dr.Thomas Bowdler, the English editorwho, in 1818, published Shakespeare’splays in an edition, titled TheFamily Shakespeare, from which heexcised “those words and expressionswhich cannot with propriety be readaloud in a family.”box office 1. booth in a theater wheretickets can be purchased; 2. incomefrom ticket sales for a movie or entertainmenteventbrainwashing 1. severe, forcible indoctrination,usually with a politicalor religious intent, aimed at destroyingsomeone’s basic convictions andattitudes and replacing them with analternative set of fixed beliefs;2. application of a concentratedmeans of persuasion, such as anadvertising campaign, in orderto induce a specific belief ormotivationbrand 1. trademark or distinctivename identifying a product or amanufacturer; 2. product line so identified;for example, a popular brandof soapbrand awareness measure of howmany people are aware of a brandand to what degreebrand development index [abbreviatedas BDI] comparison of thepercent of a brand’s sales in a marketto the percent of the national populationin that same marketbrand image imbuing a productwith an identity or distinct“ personality” by giving it anappealing name, designing a distinctivelogo for it, devising appropriatepricing (for a specific market segment),associating it with a certainlifestyle through advertising, andso on46

cbrand loyalty the tendency of consumersto buy the same brands theyhave bought in the pastbrand magazine consumer magazinepublished by a retail company forreaders with demographic characteristicsthat are similar to thoseconsumers with whom the companynormally does businessbrand manager person who hasmarketing responsibilities for a specificbrandbrand name product name that isdesigned to convey a specific imagewith which consumers can identifyor relate to. In the last two decadesof the nineteenth century many U.S.firms began to market packagedgoods under brand names. Previously,such everyday household productsas sugar, soap, rice, and molasseshad been sold in neighborhood storesfrom large bulk containers. The firstbrand names of products date fromabout 1880, and include Ivory, Pears,Sapolio, Colgate, Kirk’s AmericanFamily, and Packer’s. Along withBon Ami, Wrigley, and Coca-Cola,such products quickly became householdnames.branding 1. practice of attachingdistinctive meanings to a product,thus identifying it to consumers in aspecific way (in terms of quality, interms of its lifestyle connotations,etc.); 2. integration of brands withmedia events, programs, etc. Today,branding is used in cultural studiesliterature to refer to the processwhereby the messages of brandadvertising and those of other culturalsectors are no longer separate.Revlon, for instance, spent millionsof dollars in the early 2000s forclose-up shots of its products duringthe broadcasting of the American TVsoap opera All My Children.Break dancing acrobatic style ofdancing to rap music, characterizedby body spins on the groundbreakfast television informal,magazine-style television programbroadcast early in the morningbreaking news unplanned newscoverage of an event that is in theprocess of unfolding or has onlyrecently happenedbricolage technique of puttingtogether different elements from amedia text to create something new.Bricolage involves the borrowingand mixture of sources to producenew forms. The notion has been usedin particular to describe subculturesthat appropriate elements of mainstreamculture in order to transformor subvert their meanings (as in punkfashion).Brin, Sergey (1973–) Russian-bornAmerican cofounder of Google,along with Larry PageBritish Broadcasting Corporation[abbreviated as BBC] one of the firstbroadcasting systems, established in47

British invasion1922 in the United Kingdom. TheBBC is noncommercial and is, therefore,funded by an annual license feepaid by television owners.British invasion a musical movementthat began in 1964 when Britishrock bands such as the Beatles andthe Rolling Stones achieved immensepopularity in the United States andelsewherebroadband high-speed connectioncapable of transmitting a largequantity of data. Cable TV usesbroadband, and so do many computerconnections.Broadcast Music Inc. [abbreviatedas BMI] agency that collects licensefees on behalf of American musiccreators. It was established in 1939by the American radio industry. website: www.bmi.combroadcast radio radio programmingreaching mass audiences.Experimental radio broadcasts beganaround 1910, when Lee De Forestproduced a radio program from theMetropolitan Opera House in NewYork City, starring the famous operasinger Enrico Caruso. Many historiansconsider radio station WWJ, inDetroit, the first commercial radiostation. It began regular broadcastson August 20, 1920. Others claimthe distinction for station KDKA inPittsburgh. KDKA grew out of an experimentalstation that began in 1916.The station’s broadcast of the 1920U.S. presidential election results onNovember 2, 1920, is generally consideredto constitute the starting pointof professional broadcasting.broadcast spectrum portion ofthe electromagnetic spectrum onwhich the Federal CommunicationsCommission allows broadcasters totransmitbroadcast television television programmingreaching mass audiences.Experimental telecasts took placein the late 1920s and the 1930s. Inthe United States, cbs and nbc wereleaders in such telecasts. In 1936 theRadio Corporation of America(later RCA Corporation), whichowned NBC, installed televisionreceivers in 150 homes in the NewYork City area. NBC’s New Yorkstation began experimental telecaststo these homes. A cartoon of Felix theCat was its first program. NBC establishedthe first regular TV broadcastsin the United States in 1939. Televisionbroadcasting was suspended in1941, when the United States enteredWorld War II, until after the war’send in 1945.broadcasting transmission of programs(radio, television, Web-based,etc.) for public purposes and utilization.Many historians identify theWestinghouse Electric Corporationas the first commercially owned radiostation to broadcast to the generalpublic, shortly after World War I.The station was called KDKA, andit broadcast mainly variety programs.The American Telephone and48

ulletin board systemTelegraph Company was probablythe first broadcaster to charge feesregularly, starting in 1922, for airingcommercials. Early radio programmingconsisted of variety shows aswell as adaptations of stage worksredesigned for radio in the form ofaction serials, situation comedies,and so-called soap operas. The PublicBroadcasting Act of 1967 led to theestablishment of noncommercialbroadcasting and the founding of thePublic Broadcasting Service (PBS)in the United States. Public stationsoperate on contributions from varioussources, including government, viewers,corporations, and benefactors.Broadcasting technologies continueto develop. Direct Broadcast Satellite(DBS) uses satellite signals fortransmission.broadsheet [also called (erroneously)broadside] 1. early colonialnewspaper imported from England,consisting of a single sheet; 2. fullsizenewspaper; 3. a newspaper thatcovers the news in a serious, informativewaybrochure booklet or pamphlet containingadvertising materialBronze Lion award for advertisinggiven at the Cannes InternationalAdvertising Festivalbrowse to look up and view Web sitesbrowser software program allowinga user to browse the Internet and todownload and view Web filesbuddy movie film genre that focuseson the relationship between friendsbuffoonery comedy characterizedby ridiculous jokes, antics, and tricksbulk mail mail (usually advertising)that is sent by regular (snail) mail atreduced ratesbulk rate reduced rate offered toadvertisers who buy large amountsof advertising spacebull’s-eye model of communicationmodel that depicts communicationas a mathematical process dependenton probability factors, that is, on thedegree to which a message is to beexpected or not in a given situation. Itis called the bull’s-eye model becauseit envisions the process as consistingof a sender aiming a message at a receiveras if in a bull’s-eye target range:Sender → Message → Receiverbullet model [alternative name forhypodermic needle model] modelpositing that media have directpowerful effects on peoplebulletin board Web site that allowsmembers of an interest group toexchange messages, chat online, andexchange softwareBulletin Board System precursor tothe Internet, using software capableof dialing up a connection and uploadingand downloading information49

Bundlingbundling any transmission systemthat allows for the delivery of television,video-on-demand, audio, highspeedInternet access, phone service,and fax via cableburden of representation 1. thedifficulties that media face when theyuse a single personage to representan entire group; 2. the fact that a fewpersonages from a previously underrepresentedgroup in the media willbear the burden of promoting a positiverole model for the entire groupburlesque variety show that includescomedy skits and sometimes a stripteaseact. The term was used originallyto characterize the plays of theGreek dramatists Aristophanes andEuripides and the Roman playwrightPlautus. The two main genres of literaryburlesque are known as the mockepic (which treats a lofty subject ina ludicrous way) and the travesty(which satirizes a serious subject in afrivolous way). In the United States,the word was applied to a form of theaterthat became the rage in the 1920sand 1930s, characterized by comedyacts, musical acts, and the striptease.burn to copy data onto a compactdisc, DVD, or other digital formatburst campaign concentrated advertisingperiod for a product, especiallybefore it is launchedbus physical signal path that allowssignals to travel between systemcomponents within a device such as acomputer or set-top box, or betweencomputers in a networkbusiness-to-business advertisingadvertising aimed at businesses andnot at consumersbutton fatigue in television audiencemeasurement research, thephenomenon of weary viewers failingto log on and report their viewinghabitsbuying motive explanation of consumers’desires to purchase particularproductsbyline identification, usually printedat the beginning of an article, of thejournalist or reporter who is responsiblefor the storybyte basic unit of electronic datastorage, equal to 8 bits. Files andcomputer memory are measuredin bytes, kilobytes, megabytes, orgigabytes.50

cabaret 1. club or restaurantthat provides entertainmentconsisting of singing,dancing, or comedy; 2. theshow that takes place at acabaretcable wire or bundle of wires thatcarry electric current, or a bundle ofglass fibers that carry pulses of light.Cables provide the most practicalmeans of transmitting communicationssignals.cable drop system system connectingindividual homes to the coaxialcable that distributes cable televisioncable modem modem connectinga computer to the Internet viaa specified Internet serviceprovidercable network television networkthat consists of channels distributedby companies to paying subscribers(usually by transmitting signals viacables, rather than through the air)Cable News Network [abbreviatedas CNN] international news broadcastingcompany, based in the UnitedStates and founded in 1980, whichwas the first to introduce 24-hournews coveragecable telephony telephone serviceoffered by a cable televisioncompanycable television television service viacable. Cable television was first usedlast itemC51in the late 1940s in order tobroadcast television signalsto places that either couldnot receive them throughthe air, or who could receivethem only with muchinterference. Some cable systems carrymore than 100 channels; this largenumber has made narrowcastingpossible. Unlike broadcasting, whichtries to appeal to the largest possibleaudience, narrowcasting offers programsthat appeal to a particular interest.Cable channels may specializein news, movies, comedy, science,music, health, religion, weather, andso on. Customers pay a monthly feefor service, plus additional fees forcertain channels. Most cable servicesalso offer one or more channels thatmake movies or special events availableon a pay-per-view basis. Thesecan be ordered either by telephone orthrough a set-top box.cablecast any broadcast that is transmittedvia a cable television networkcache area in a computer’s memorythat stores frequently used data sothat it can be retrieved more quicklythan data stored the computer’s internalhard disk. Caches allow a userfaster access to Web pages becausethe cache stores these in a temporaryfile.cacophony literary and rhetoricaltechnique aimed at creating a dissonanteffect through the use of wordswith harsh sounds: for example, yukfor disgust; blah for boring

callbackcallback 1. practice of interviewersor researchers of making a furtherattempt to contact a person or groupfor an interview; 2. a second auditionfor a role in theater, television,or filmcalligraphy art of handwriting, usuallyperceived as being beautiful orartisticcall-in phone call from a radio listeneror a television viewer to a talkshow, a current affairs program, etc.,upon invitation of the program to dosocalotype early system of photographyusing translucent paper fromwhich prints could be madecalypso 1. Caribbean ballad, especiallyTrinidadian, consisting ofsyncopated rhythms and usually dealingsatirically with public issues; 2.Caribbean dance music, often playedby a steel bandcamcorder portable video cameraand recordercameo 1. in literature, a brief depictionof someone or something; 2.brief appearance of a well-knownactor in a scene in a movie, televisionprogram, etc. (also called a cameorole or appearance)cameo appearance single briefappearance by a well-known performerin a play, movie, or televisionprogramcamera 1. device for taking photographsor motion pictures; 2. part ofa device that converts images intoelectronic impulses for televisionbroadcastingcamera angle relation between theposition of a camera to the action beingfilmed (higher, lower, closer, etc.)in order to provide a different view ofthe actioncamera control unit console in atelevision production room that controlsthe cameras on the studio floorremotelycamera lucida instrument that projectsan image onto a surface such as apiece of paper (so that the image canbe traced)camera obscura instrument that usesa dark chamber with a small aperturethat brings the image of an outsideobject into focus on a facing surface.The camera obscura is the precursorof the modern camera.cameraperson [previously cameramanor camerawoman] someonewho operates a movie or televisioncameracamera-ready material that is in itsfinished format, ready to be photographedor scanned for publicationcamera shot 1. the part of the subjectthat is recorded on film by a camera;2. a particular view of a scene, aperson, etc.52

Cannes Lions International Advertising Festivalcamera work series of camera techniquesused in shooting movies or inmaking television programscamp a style of performance that isaffectedly feminine, exaggerated,or deliberately brash in an amusingmannercampaign journalism 1. journalismthat relates to the events, issues,etc., that come up during a politicalcampaign; 2. by extension, any typeof journalism that reports a storyfrom a particular viewpoint in orderto promote a causeCampbell, Joseph (1904–1987)American scholar famous for hisideas and writings on myth, based onthe writings of Sigmund Freud andCarl Jung and the novels of JamesJoyce and Thomas Mann. Campbellanalyzed the archetypes thatsurface in all myths (the hero, themother, the father, the trickster, thejourney, etc.). His book The Herowith a Thousand Faces (1949) has influencedmany subsequent studies ofmyth. Campbell’s four-volume Masksof God (1959–1967) has also becomea classic in the field.Canadian Broadcasting Corporation[abbreviated as CBC; also calledSociété Radio-Canada] governmentownedpublic service Canadian radioand television network. The CBCoperates two television networks; onebroadcasts in English and the other inFrench. The CBC also operates twocable television news networks.Cannes Film Festival Poster,September 1939 (The actual event waspostponed to 1946, after World War II.)candid camera hidden camera usedto film people unawares, often insituations designed to elicit amusingresponsescanned laughter prerecorded laughterused for a specific broadcast event(especially for a sitcom) in place of areal audienceCannes Film Festival one of the oldestand most prestigious film festivalsin the world, held each May in thecity of Cannes in southeastern FranceCannes Lions International AdvertisingFestival annual festival heldto recognize the best advertisements,53

canonincluding television commercials,print marketing, direct marketing,and online advertising. The festivalawards the prestigious Palme d’Or tothe best production company.canon 1. in aesthetic theory, the standardby which a work is judged; 2. asanctioned or authenticated group ofliterary workscant 1. group-based language with itsown distinctive markers (tone, grammaticalfeatures), especially jargon;2. boring style of speech characterizedby clichés and worn-out phrases.Cantril Study famous media effectsstudy, conducted by HadleyCantril and his team of researchersat Princeton University followingthe famous “War of the Worlds”broadcast of 1939 by Orson Wellesas part of Mercury Theater of theAir Presents. The broadcast was aradio version of H.G. Welles’s 1898novel, but it interspersed fake “news”reports of Martian landings in NewJersey, which were so realistic thatnear panics occurred in many areas—despite periodic announcements byCBS that the program was merely adramatization. The Cantril researcherswanted to find out why somelisteners believed the fake reportsand others did not. After interviewing135 people, the team came to theconclusion that the key was criticalthinking—better-educated listenerswere more capable of recognizing thebroadcast as a fake than were lesseducatedones. The study was originallypublished in 1940 by PrincetonUniversity Press.CAP codes [full form: Committeeof Advertising Practice codes]codes of advertising standards andpractices, drawn up by the Committeeof Advertising Practice (aU.K. agency), designed to protectconsumerscapitalism political and economicsystem based on the private ownershipof the means of production anddistribution of goods. Capitalism ischaracterized by a free competitivemarket and by the “profit motive.”caption 1. tagline for an advertisement;2. verbal text accompanyingan illustration or photograph; 3. shorton-screen text that explains or relatesto the visual image (for example, thename of the person who is talking)capture theory view that regulatorsare influenced by the interests of theindustries they regulatecar card [also called bus card]poster placed on buses, subway cars,etc.card rate advertising charge withoutany discountscaret symbol written on a section oftext indicating where something (aletter or a word) is to be insertedcaricature distorted or exaggeratedvisual portrayal of someone (usually54

cartoonexhibits, games, rides, and shows; 2.feasting and merrymaking just beforeLent. The idea of carnival has beenused to explain the appeal of pop culturespectacles, which allow peopleto temporarily ignore the restrictionsby which they normally abide.carrier company that delivers telecommunicationsmessagescartel large group of businessesthat agree to operate as a monopoly,especially to regulate prices andproductionCaricature of Charles Dickens (1868)by André Gilla well-known personage) for comicaleffect. By extension the term is usedto refer to any representation of thiskind, including verbal. The use ofcaricature can be traced to the ancientEgyptians and Greeks. It was alsoused by Italian artists of the Renaissance.In the eighteenth century itemerged as a form of satire. Spanishpainter Francisco José de Goya, forinstance, used caricature to satirizepolitical and social injustices in his80 etchings called Caprichos (1799).In 1841, the English weekly magazinePunch became the first magazineto use caricature. In the UnitedStates, The New Yorker magazinecontinues the tradition.carnival 1. traditional form ofoutdoor amusement that consists ofcartoon drawing that caricatures anevent or personage. There are threemain types of cartoons: editorialcartoons, which caricature currentevents in magazines and newspapers;gag cartoons, which usually caricaturegroups rather than individuals,in magazines and on greeting cards;and illustrative cartoons, which areused to illuminate aspects of a newproduct or educational topic in ahumorous way. The term is also usedto refer to strips of drawings (comicstrips) and to animated humorousLooney Tunes characters Sylvesterand Tweety, introduced in the 1940s.55

cascading style sheetfilms intended primarily for children(also called toons).cascading style sheet technique forstoring font, spacing, and color informationin a style sheet that can beapplied to any text on a Web pagecase study analysis based on exhaustivecompilation of data regarding anindividual or groupcase-study method method of mediaresearch that makes use of a groupof case studies from which to drawgeneral conclusions and principlescassette sealed plastic device containingaudiotape or videotapecassette recorder device for recordingand playing audiotape or videotapecast actors and other performers whoplay the parts in a play, dance, movie,etc.Castells, Manuel (1942–) Marxisttheorist known for his critical studiesof media. His key works include TheUrban Question: A Marxist Approach(1977) and City, Class and Power(1978).casting agency agency that auditionsand hires actors for a particularproductionCasting Society of America [abbreviatedas CSA] American associationof film, television, and theater castingdirectors, founded in 1982castoff estimate of how much spacea piece of text will occupy when it isprintedcasualization the trend in the mediaindustry of full-time jobs becomingincreasingly reorganized into parttimeor project-based employmentcatachresis vague, improper orambiguous use of language for effect:for example, the misuse of thesuffix -ish to mean “bad qualities” asclownish, childish, etc.catalog album in record retailing,any album that is more than threeyears oldcatalyst effect the support the mediacan garner for an issue simply byshowcasing it, leading to an increasedinterest in the issue, to financialcommitment to it on the part of audiences,etc.catchline word or phrase at the topof a script that identifies an item on aprogramcatchword first word or phrase on apage of printed text, designed to drawattention to itcatharsis the “purification” or“emotional release” that the theatricalrepresentation of tragic events hason an audience (as coined by Aristotle).Through the tragic drama,the audience’s pent-up emotions aresublimated and thus cleansed. Thisterm is now used in media studies to56

censorshiprefer to the purported purging effectof some media representations.catharsis hypothesis claim thatthe representation of sexuality andviolence in media has a preventiveeffect. The claim posits that engagingin fantasy sex or violence releasespotentially negative impulses thatotherwise might be acted out in reallife.cathode-ray tube outmoded vacuumtube used on older television sets forcreating images and text on a screenCATV [see community antennatelevision]CBC [see Canadian BroadcastingCorporation]CBS [see Columbia BroadcastingSystem]CD [see compact disc]CD-ROM [see compact disc readonlymemory]CD-RW [see compact discrewritable]cease-and-desist order directiveissued by a regulatory agency, suchas the Federal Trade Commission, requiringan advertiser to stop runninga deceptive or unfair advertisement,campaign, or claimcelebrity person who is widelyknown primarily because of mediaexposure. A celebrity is usually anactor, a television personality, a popmusician, etc.cellular phone [also called cellphone] wireless telephone thattransmits and receives messages viaradio signals. It enables people tocommunicate over a wide area byusing a network of radio antennasand transmitters arranged in smallgeographical areas called cells. Thefirst commercial cellular system wentinto operation in 1983 in the UnitedStates. Cellular service is now availablethroughout most of the world.cellular radio radio that receives frequenciesthat operate in cells accordingto position. This reception allowscar radios to be swapped to the rightfrequency as the car travels from cellarea to cell area.celluloid 1. photographic film used inmaking movies; 2. by extension, thecinema as an art formcensorship the control of whatpeople may say, hear, write, or read.In most cases, this kind of controlcomes from a government agencyor from various types of privategroups. Censorship can be directedat books, newspapers, magazines,motion pictures, radio and televisionprograms, and speeches. It also mayinfluence music, painting, sculpture,and other arts. In the United States,the Bill of Rights and the SupremeCourt serve as checks on unlimitedcensorship.57

censorwarecensorware term used to describeWeb content-filtering softwarecentral processing unit [abbreviatedas CPU] microprocessor chipthat translates commands and runsprograms. The CPU coordinatescomputer functions, retrieves instructionsfrom memory, executes instructions,and stores results in memorylocations.centralized organizational structurea method of organizing internationaladvertising campaignswhereby decision making occursthrough a company’s central officeCerteau, Michel de (1925–1986)French scholar who wrote influentialbooks critiquing pop culture andmass media, including L’invention duquotidien (1980; published in Englishas The Practice of Everyday Life,1984) and Heterologies: Discourseon the Other (1986).chain break pause for station identificationand commercials during anetwork telecastchannel 1. physical system used inthe transmission of signals (such asthe air in speaking); 2. television orradio station broadcasting on a specifiedfrequency bandchannel capacity amount of informationthat a communications systemcan carrychannel of communication anysystem (antenna, cable, etc.) capableof transmitting informationchannel of distribution route usedby a company to distribute its products(through wholesalers, retailers,mail order, etc.)channel surfing [also calledchannel-hopping] going from channelto channel (with a remote control)with no particular program in mindchanson de geste one of more than80 Old French epic poems of theeleventh to the fourteenth centuriescelebrating the deeds of historicalor legendary figures, especially theexploits of Charlemagne and hissuccessors. The Chanson de Roland(circa 1100), attributed to theNorman poet Turold, is the mostpopular of the chansons. It recountsthe Battle of Roncesvalles in 778 andthe heroic feats of Roland, a knightof Charlemagne’s court. Roland’sdeath in a suicide-like defense of amountain pass renders him a Christianmartyr.character 1. role played (by anactor) on stage, in a movie, etc.; 2.personage depicted in a text (a play,a novel, a movie, etc.); 3. famousor well-known person (also called apersonage); 4. symbol used in a writingsystem or code (for example, acomputer code)character actor actor who normallyplays a particular type of role (the“bad guy,” the “sidekick,” etc.)58

chief shoppercharade game in which two competinggroups of participants choose ateam member to act out the syllablesof a hidden word or an entire phraseusing pantomime so that the groupmembers can guess the word or phrasecharge artist member of a theatertroupe who is responsible for overseeingthe physical layout and appearanceof a stagecharts list of the best-selling musicalrecordings over a given time period(week, month, etc.)chat group group of computer userssharing a common interest who communicatewith each other on-linechat room Web site where computerusers can exchange messages in realtimechauvinism excessive or biased allegianceto a particular gender, group,or causecheckbook journalism practice ofpaying money to get an exclusive storythat will purportedly sell many copiesof a newspaper or magazine and/orbring prestige upon the journalistchiaroscuro use of light and darkcolors or shades together in drawing,painting, or cinematic representationto emphasize contrast. Prominentartists who used the techniqueinclude Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael,Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,Georges de La Tour, and Rembrandt.chiasmus rhetorical technique consistingof the inversion of two parallelphrases or clauses: I went to NewYork; to Chicago went heChicago School school of philosophicalinquiry at the Universityof Chicago between 1894 and 1904.Founded by John Dewey (1859–1952), its notable members includedGeorge H. Mead, James H. Tufts,James R. Angell, Edward ScribnerAmes, and Addison W. Moore. TheChicago School sought to apply theprinciples of pragmatism to socialinquiry. As such, it rejected strictlyempirical approaches and attemptedto understand the ways in which humangroups shaped meanings collectivelyand interactively. This implieda systematic questioning of receivednotions and standard explanationsthat makes the Chicago School arepresentative of critical inquiry. Aleading contemporary exponent ofChicago School pragmatism is philosopherRichard Rorty.chick flick film that is intended orperceived to appeal primarily towomen, given its romantic or sentimentalplot, or its focus on humanrelationships or the changing role ofwomen in societychief income earner in marketing,the individual in a household earningthe highest incomechief shopper in marketing, theindividual who does the shopping forthe household59

children’s moviesChomsky, Noam (1928–) Americanlinguist and social critic, internationallyrenowned for his methods oflinguistic analysis and his work onpower structures in media and thedangers of globalization. He introducedthe phrase “manufacturingconsent” to refer to the manipulationof the media in order to gain aconsensus on political ideologiesand programs. Among his works areManufacturing Consent: The PoliticalEconomy of the Mass Media(1988) and Media Control (1997).chopsocky genre of film featuringviolent martial arts actionNoam Chomskychildren’s movies films that areintended to appeal to children. Thepioneer in this area was Walt Disney(1901–1966), who first becameknown in the late 1920s and 1930sfor creating such cartoon filmcharacters as Mickey Mouse andDonald Duck. He later producedfeature-length cartoon films as wellas movies about wild animals in theirnatural surroundings and films starringhuman actors.children’s television televisionprogramming, including televisionchannels, intended to appeal primarilyto children, consisting typicallyof cartoons, educational stories, andthe like.choreography art of planning adance and other movements or formsthat accompany musicchorus 1. group of people who singtogether; 2. type of song performedby many singers together; 3. repeatedpart of a song coming after each stanza,in which a whole group of singersoften joins the soloist; 4. in ancientGreek drama, group of singers anddancers who engage in dialogue withthe actors and comment on the actionon stagechroma key filming techniquewhereby the background of a filmedscene is altered or replaced withoutaffecting the foregroundchromaticism 1. style or compositionin music based on the chromaticscale (a scale consisting of twelvenotes whereby every note is a semitoneapart from the next one; 2. thescience of colorschronemics study of cultural historyin terms of eras, dates, and the significantevents associated with them60

circulationchronicle long historical narrative,often including legends and myths,presented in chronological orderchronology order in which eventsoccur, and its significance to a storylineor to some other aspect of amovie, program, etc.churn the turnover in cable subscribership,whereby the number of newsubscriptions offsets the number ofcancellationscine club independent rival to conventionalmovie theaters, typicallyshowing independent filmscineaste filmmaker or any filmenthusiastcinema art, industry, or businessof making movies developed originallyfrom the technology of movingpictures. According to most historians,the first true movies were theten-part version of the trial of Frencharmy officer Alfred Dreyfus (1899);Cinderella (1900); and A Trip to theMoon (1902) by French magicianGeorges Méliès. Although shownoriginally in Paris, Méliès’s filmswere an instant success and weresubsequently shown in many countries.In the United States, Edwin S.Porter’s 1903 film, The Great TrainRobbery, became a sensational hit.cinema advertising advertisingshown on cinema screens before thefeatured filmcinéma vérité 1. cinematic stylestressing the stark, realistic portrayal oflife, as seen in Carl-Theodor Dreyer’sLa passion de Jeanne d’Arc (1928)and Luis Buñuel’s and Salvador Dalí’sUn chien andalou (1929); 2. alternateterm for documentary, meaningliterally the “cinema of reality”CinemaScope brand name for anearly widescreen projection systemfor movies, developed in 1953 byTwentieth Century Fox, intended primarilyto lure the curious away fromtheir television setscinematheque small movie theaterwith an intimate atmospherecinematic relating to films, filmmaking,or to the style in which films aremadecinematographer person responsiblefor the lighting and camerawork inthe making of a moviecinematography the art or techniqueof shooting moviesCinerama trade name for a method,introduced in the 1950s, of producingearly widescreen movies withenhanced three-dimensional effects;like CinemaScope, Cinerama wasintended to attract people to themovie theaters and away from theirtelevision setscircular advertisement (or similartext) distributed to a large number ofpeoplecirculation average number of copiesdistributed of some publication61

citizen journalism(newspaper, magazine, etc.) duringa given period. In advertising, thisterm is also used to refer to the totalnumber of people who have an opportunityto observe a billboard orposter.citizen journalism [also called civicjournalism] practice centered on theparticipation of readers and journalistsin community issues, makingnewspapers a forum for discussionand engagementcity desk newspaper section devotedto financial topics and/or local newscity editor newspaper editor who isresponsible for financial news and/orlocal newscivil society a society in whichinstitutions, social relationships, andorganizations operate under the ruleof the state, but are not necessarilyaligned with itclandestine stations illegal orunlicensed broadcast stationsoperated by clandestine groups oragencies (revolutionary sub -cultures, intelligence agencies,etc.)clapper board pair of hingedboards used at the start of each takein a film, identifying the film andsceneclassic rock rock music of the 1960sand early 1970s, associated especiallywith the hippie movementclassical music music composedby musicians considered to be thefounders of high musical art (Bach,Mozart, Beethoven, Chopin, etc.).The term classical music is used tocontrast with popular music, whichincludes country music, jazz, androck music. Classical also has othermeanings. If capitalized, it refers toa style of music that developed in thelate 1700s.classical narrative structure dominantmode of storytelling found inHollywood films, consisting of threedistinct stages: a state of equilibriumor order; a period of disruption to thatstate; and a climactic resolution thatrestores the equilibriumclassicism 1. a literary and artisticstyle associated with the ancientGreeks and Romans; 2. a style,movement, or period distinguishedby qualities that suggest ancient classicalart and writing: for example,the art and music of the period thatspans the mid-1700s to around 1820is called classicalclassification system of identifyingmovies according to content: PG,PG-13, R, etc.classified ad small notice, usuallyon a special page of a newspaper ormagazine, indicating that somethingis wanted or offered (a job, an apartment,a pet, a car, etc.). Classified adsare usually grouped into categories,such as “real estate,” “help wanted,”etc.62

close-upClaymation trade name for a stopframeanimation method that usesclay figurinesclean feed 1. video recording withoutcaptions; 2. sound recording withoutcommentary; 3. earpiece used byradio or television announcers so thatthey can hear all sound apart fromtheir own statementscliché word or phrase that has lost itsoriginal effectiveness through overuse:for example, All’s well that end’swell; Father Time; Mother Nature;lips sweeter than wineclick stream the series of choices(clicks) made by a user or browser onthe Webclick through clicking on a bannerad or other onscreen ad that allowsthe user to get to the advertiser’s Websiteclick through rate fee applied toadvertisers for the display of bannerads. Each time a visitor clicksthrough the ad, the advertiser ischarged a fee.cliffhanger story, play, or motionpicture that depends on strong andsustained suspense for its dramaticinterestclimax 1. rhetorical techniqueconsisting of the progressive arrangementof ideas from the least to themost forceful: First we comment onwhat they did, then we attack them,and finally we obliterate them; 2.point at which a narrative, performance,etc., takes a decisive turnClio Award annual award for excellencein product package design andbrand advertisingclip extract from a recordingclip art commercially producedartwork, usually copyright-free, availableon-line and through many digitalproducts (such as CD-ROMs), that canbe used to enhance presentations of textclosed captioned any televisionbroadcast that has captions that canbe seen at the bottom of the televisionscreen if the television set hasthe appropriate deviceclosed-circuit television televisionsystem in which video cameras arehooked up by cable to monitors.Surveillance systems use this type oftelevision.closed text a type of text (usuallynarrative) from which only a limitedrange of meanings can be extracted(term coined by Umberto Eco). Detectiveor crime scene stories are usuallyclosed texts because the idea is tofigure out the identity of the murdereror criminal. An open text, on the otherhand, is one from which readers canextract multiple meanings.close-up filmed shot that shows aperson’s face (or other part of thebody), to the exclusion of other parts63

cluster groupcluster group group of people withsimilar traits (lifestyle, social background,etc.) for the purpose of audienceanalysisclutter the appearance of many separatecommercials during one televisioncommercial breakCNN [see Cable News Network]cobranding practice of displayingtwo or more corporate logos incertain venues (such as in bookstoreswhere coffee brands are sold), on aproduct Web site, etc., to indicatejoint business partnershipcobweb site Web site that has notbeen updated in a long timeco-culture a cultural strand that existsalongside a mainstream culture.For example, some aboriginalsocieties have preserved their originalcultures, which exist alongside mainstreamculture.coda 1. in music, a section at theend that brings the work to a formalconclusion; 2. by extension, anyconcluding addition to a text (verbal,artistic, etc.)code 1. system of signs with specificfunctions (alphabet code, decimalnumber system, etc.); 2. system ofcultural meanings implicit in a mediaproduct that is built into it. Basically,a code is a system of elements(features, traits, meanings, images,etc.) that we perceive to be a part ofsomething. For example, the codethat underlies an action adventurehero is based on the ancient viewof heroes as having superhumanstrength, as being moral and goodlooking,as having (often) sometragic flaw or weakness, and so on.This code is implicit in how fictionalheroes are portrayed. One of the firstto use code theory to study media andpop culture was Roland Barthes,who claimed that a print ad, for example,can be decoded (understood)as a text with two levels—the literallevel, consisting of the objects andstraightforward message of the ad,which is a “noncoded” level; and thesymbolic level, based on ideologicaland cultural meanings, which is the“coded” level. Stuart Hall arguesthat sometimes the audience does notactually receive the coded messageof a media text, but rather that it candecode it in oppositional ways, thatis, in ways that the maker of the textdid not anticipate or desire.codes of narrative a set of codessupposedly underlying narrative textssingularly, in part, or in combination.These include action code, enigmacode, referential code, semanticcode, symbolic codecodex 1. book formed by puttingtogether sheets of paper; 2. collectionof ancient manuscripts in book form.The codex was popularized by earlyChristians, who cut pieces of papyrusinto sheets and sewed them togetheron one side. They bound the pageswith thin pieces of wood. As a result,64

collocationa reader could open it at any page.The codex remains the major bookform today.cognition faculty of knowing basedon reasoning, intuition, or perception,or a combination of thesecognitive dissonance sense ofanxiety resulting from a discrepancybetween beliefs and actions,such as opposing air pollution whileengaging in activities, like driving,that cause pollution (term coined byAmerican psychologist Leon Festinger).To avoid this sense of anxiety,people will typically search for informationthat will confirm or reinforcetheir beliefs, rather than contradictthem.cognitive psychology theory theoryof media claiming that exposure tomedia shapes cognitioncognitive style mode or way inwhich information is processed:for example, auditory cognitive style(= processing information audioorally),visual cognitive style(= processing information visually),and so oncognitivism 1. psychology movementor school, which emerged inthe 1950s, emphasizing the study ofmental processes by seeking parallelsbetween brain function and computeroperations; 2. general approach inpsychology that focuses on howthe mind handles different kinds ofinformation and problemscold medium [also called cool medium,as opposed to hot medium]according to Marshall McLuhan,any medium that requires a greaterdegree of interaction from the user inorder to determine meaningcollage a work of art created by cutting,arranging, and adhering variousmaterials, such as cloth, paper, photos,and other objects, onto a surfacecollateral materials the print, visual,and other materials that go into amarketing or advertising campaigncollective identity identificationwith a community or the institutionsby which it is represented, based ongender, class, lifestyle, and nationcollective representation creation ofmedia texts or products by a communitythat reveal something crucialabout it (its history, beliefs, etc.)collective unconscious As definedby Carl Gu s tav Jung, an inheritedpart of the unconscious mindthat is shared by all members of aculture. It includes thought patternscalled archetypes, which havedeveloped through the centuries.According to Jung, archetypes enablepeople to react to situations inways similar to their ancestors. Forthis reason, the collective unconsciouscontains wisdom that guidesall humanity.collocation the meaning that a wordor phrase develops by virtue of its65

colonialismassociation with other words that areused commonly with it. For example,pretty is linked with girl, boy,woman, flower, garden, color, etc.(e.g., pretty girl, pretty boy); whereashandsome is associated with man,vessel, overcoat, airliner, etc. (e.g.,handsome man, handsome vessel).The collocation may overlap, butwhen it does, it involves subtle nuancesin meaning: for example, prettyboy vs. handsome boy.colonialism 1. the rule of a groupof people by a foreign power; 2. inMarxist theory, any form of economic,political, or social oppression(unjust treatment) of one group bya group of different cultural backgroundcolonization in advertising, use ofthe symbolism of a culture in order toappeal to its memberscolor field painting technique establishedby a group of artists during the1950s and 1960s that aimed to reducepainting to the purity of color on aflat planecolor grading process of preparingfilm so that color effects are uniformthroughout the movie (now donedigitally)color temperature warmth of anycolor as measured on the Kelvinscalecolorcast television program broadcastin colorColumbia Broadcasting System[abbreviated as CBS] early televisionnetwork that, along with ABCand NBC, was one of the Big Threein the golden era of television, fromthe 1950s to the 1970s. CBS is bestknown in the annals of broadcastinghistory for the work of broadcasterEdward R. Murrow (1908–1965),who become renowned during WorldWar II (1939–1945) for his on-thesceneradio broadcasts describingGerman bombing attacks on London.His listeners in America could hearthe bombs exploding in the background.Columbia Pictures early Hollywoodstudio established in 1914, producingmany popular family films, includingThe Karate Kid (1984) and theSpider-Man films (from 2002).column article in a newspaper ormagazine that appears on a regularbasis, and that is usually written bythe same person, usually on the samesubject. For example, Dear Abby,one of the most famous advice columns,was written under the name ofAbigail Van Buren starting in 1956.The column has been published inover 1,200 newspapers in the UnitedStates and other countries. It consistsof responses to reader questionsabout such subjects as family life,marriage, health, death, and socialissues.comedy form of drama or entertainmentthat deals with humorous orridiculous aspects of human behavior66

comedy-variety hour televisionentertainment program that features awide variety of actscomicscomic book magazine using cartooncharacters. Most tell stories, thoughthey have also been used for education,artistic expression, and otherpurposes. Because of their popularity,characters from comic bookshave been used in advertising. Manycharacters have also appeared onradio and television and in motionpictures, as well as in books, plays,songs, and as toys. Characters calledsuperheroes, who have extraordinarypowers, are especially popular.Among the first American comicbooks are the Famous Funnies (firstsold in 1934). In 1938 Jerry Siegeland Joe Shuster put out the firstSuperman comic, one of the mostpopular characters in the history ofcomic books. Superman inspiredthe creation of other heroes, notablyCaptain Marvel and Batman. Startingin the 1970s, many independentor “alternative” artists experimentedwith new styles, more sophisticatedformats, and stories suited to adults;this form is usually called a graphicnovel. The most celebrated examplesare Maus: A Survivor’s Tale(1986) and Maus II (1991) by ArtSpiegelman. They tell of the artist’srelationship with his father and theexperiences of his parents in theHolocaust.comic-book movie genre of filmbased on a comic book, comic bookcharacter, or comic stripFirst issue of Spider-Man (1962)comic opera opera with a humorousplot and a happy endingcomic relief interlude inserted orintroduced in a serious literary work,play, movie, etc., designed to providerelief from tension through humorcomics story consisting of cartoonsarranged in panels (horizontal linesor strips). Dialogue and thoughts areshown in balloons. Historians tracethe origin of comics to the RichardFelton Outcault’s series Hogan’s Alley,first published in 1895. Two otherearly comic strips were The KatzenjammerKids (1897) by RudolphDirks and Little Bears (1892) byJames Guilford Swinnerton. Comicsquickly became a popular featureof newspapers. The first successful67

coming-of-age moviedaily strip, by Bud Fisher, came outin 1907 with the title Mr. A. Mutt;it was later renamed Mutt and Jeffand was turned into a comic book in1911. The first mass-produced serieswas Famous Funnies, which firstappeared in 1934. The 1938 publicationof Action Comics, featuringthe Superman comic strip, inspiredcountless other comic books. Theadventure comic genre, however,actually began with the publication in1929 of Tarzan and Buck Rogers. In1934, Alex Raymond’s Flash Gordonand Al Capp’s Li’l Abner (a satiricalcomic strip) gained broad appeal.One of the most respected comicstrips of all time was Peanuts byCharles M. Schulz, which appearedin more than 2,000 newspapers andwas translated into more than 20languages.coming-of-age movie movie dealingwith young people and the problemsthey face during adolescencecomix comics and comic stripsdesigned for adults, especially thoseinvolving eroticismcommedia dell’arte comedic stylethat was extremely popular in Italyin the sixteenth and seventeenthcenturies, in which stock charactersimprovised their dialogues fromstandard plot outlines, usually wearingtraditional masks and costumes.The commedia style was eventuallyadopted by conventional theater.Arlecchino (Harlequin) was a lecherousand artful character. Pantalone(Pantaloon) was a greedy and lustfulmerchant who tried to disguise hisage by wearing tight-fitting Turkishclothes. The Doctor used senselessLatin phrases and prescribed worthlessremedies. The boastful Captainwas actually a coward and a childishlover. Pulcinella (Punch) was a potbelliedrascal who planned outrageousplots to satisfy his desires.Columbine, a female character, wasintelligent and charming, standingout noticeably in a world characterizedby masculine idiocy.commentary news or other report,broadcast live from an event (forexample, a televised baseball game)commercial radio, television, orInternet advertisement. Commercialswere first developed for radioin the 1920s. Based on narrative, thepersuasive qualities of the humanvoice, and often the allure of musicaljingles, the radio commercialbecame a highly effective vehicle forpromoting products. With the adventof television after World War II, theadvertising industry adapted the ideaof the radio commercial to the newvisual medium. And, of course, today,commercials are found throughoutcyberspace.commercial art art created forcommercial reasons, especiallyadvertisingcommercial break slot during a radio,television, or Web program duringwhich commercials are broadcast68

Communication sciencecommercial laissez-faire model ofmedia communication model claimingthat there should be “free trade”in the marketplace for media products,as there is for goodscommercial radio radio run by a privatelyowned business. In contrast topublic and nonprofit radio, commercialradio stations sell broadcastingtime to advertisers who want to reachlisteners. Sponsors pay the stationsfor time during and between the programsto advertise their products.commercial television television runby a privately owned business, whichsells broadcasting time to advertiserscommodification in Marxist theory,the idea that in capitalist societies,works of artistic or cultural valueare valued in ways that parallel howcommodities or articles of trade arevaluedcommodification of informationidea that information is a commoditythat can be bought and sold likegoods, not something that should befreely availablecommodity fetishism in Marxisttheory, view that the commoditiesproduced and sold under a capitalistsystem take on the characteristics offetishescommon carrier communicationscompany (such as a phone company)that provides telecommunicationsservices to the general publiccommon culture cultural forms,rites, beliefs, symbols, etc., that allmembers of a community share andthat define the community as suchcommunal sense idea that themeanings attached to things areshaped by the beliefs held by specificcommunitiescommunication exchange of messagesthrough some channel and insome medium. Communication theoristsusually classify communicationinto modes, that is, different ways ofexchanging messages: for example,gestural (hand-based communication);vocal (voice-based communication);visual (picture-basedcommunication); signaling (bodilybased communication); and so on.When pluralized (communications),the term refers to media systems ortechnologies of communication.communication network any system(such as the Internet) that connectspeople for communication purposescommunication science [also calledcommunication studies] disciplinethat studies communication in all itsdimensions and manifestations. Thetechnical features of communicationsystems were first studied by theAmerican electrical engineer ClaudeE. Shannon. In 1948 he developeda model of communication that hasbecome the point of reference forall subsequent models. In Shannon’smodel, communication is said tooccur between a sender (a speaker,69

complicity of userscommunisuasion communicationthat is intended to be persuasive orsuggestivecommunity antenna television [abbreviatedas CATV] outmoded termfor cable televisioncommunity publishing constructionof Web pages by local schools, clubs,and nonprofit groups, carried on-lineby newspaper Web sitescommutation test procedure forfleshing out meaningful differencesin forms and media texts, consistingof substituting (commuting) elementsin forms and texts in specific waysor locations. For example, in theword pair cat and rat, one elementof sound—the initial consonant ineach word—produces a difference inmeaning. In advertising studies, thetest consists of removing an imageor a word from an ad and replacingit with another, in order to see whatkind of subject or audience reaction itproduces.compact disc [abbreviated as CD]disc without grooves whose data isstored digitally and is readable onlyby lasercompact disc read-only memory[abbreviated as CD-ROM] compactdisc containing digital information(such as data and instructions) thatcannot be manipulated or alteredcompact disc rewritable [abbreviatedas CD-RW] compact disc thatoffers full recordability and rerecordabilitycomparative analysis 1. comparativestudy of the mass media systems indifferent areas of the world; 2. in advertising,analysis of different mediaavailable for producing an advertisingcampaigncompassion fatigue diminution orloss of sympathy on the part ofan audience for a group or causebecause of overexposure by themediacompensation payments made bynetworks to affiliates for clearingcontentcompetence in linguistics, the abilityto use language and understand itsrules, structures, etc.competitive check analysis of rivaladvertising trends conducted on thebasis of data supplied by monitoringagenciescompilation film film put togetherfrom previous footagecompiler computer program thatconverts another program from ahigh-level language to an intermediateonecomplicity of users idea that anaudience does not want the full truthin news reports about difficult situations,reinforcing a reporter’s tendencyto censor coverage71

composercomposer creator of music for a filmscore, a television program, etc.compositing merging of differentlevels of film or digital imagescomposition 1. way in which theparts of a media text are put together;2. the social characteristics of a targetaudiencecompulsory heterosexuality infeminist theory, the idea that homosexualityis repressed in mediarepresentations and heterosexualityemphasized or portrayed as the normcomputer electronic device capableof performing a vast array oftasks (calculating, word processing,etc.) on the basis of the instructions(called a program). Digital computersoperate using numerical digits torepresent something; analog computersoperate using numerical valuesto represent a continuous range;mainframe computers are computershoused in specific locations (earlymainframe computers had morememory, speed, and capabilitiesthan personal computers); personalcomputers are smaller computers designedfor individual use, which nowhave many of the same capacities asmainframe computers; supercomputersare powerful mainframe computerswith a vast computation capacity.computer animation use of computersto create film animation, ratherthan the traditional (now largelyabandoned) hand-drawing techniquescomputer art graphic elementor other artwork created on acomputer; or art generated by acomputer itself, given appropriateinstructionscomputer-assisted personal interviewface-to-face interview duringwhich the interviewer inputs theresponses directly into a computer forimmediate analysiscomputer conferencing a meetingof two or more people at distantsites, each at a computer exchangingmessagescomputer games games found onlineor available in some format suchas CD-ROMcomputer graphics pictures (charts,drawings, figures, icons, etc.) on acomputer screen, as opposed to alphabeticand numerical symbols andcharacterscomputer literacy understanding ofthe basic principles of computers andtheir uses, including computer termscomputer memory capacity of acomputer to store data, measuredin bytes. Random Access Memory(RAM) can be read or changed by theuser; Read-Only Memory (ROM) canonly be read, not altered.computer network combination ofhardware, software, and connectionsthat allows individual computers tocommunicate with each other and72

confidence limitsshare common resources such asfiles, software, hardware peripherals,and electronic mail. Networksmay also protect shared data frommistakes made by any one individualand assure that data is transmittedcorrectly. Since the first computernetworks debuted in the late 1960s,they have had an enormous impact onthe way information is stored, distributed,and processed.computer science systematic studyof all aspects of computers—design,operation, etc.computer-telephone integration integrationof computer and telephonesystems so that the same networkscan be shared by bothconative function the way in whicha message influences a receiver or theresponse of the receiver (the term isassociated with Roman Jakobson’smodel of communication)conceit amusing or imaginativeexpression that connects things thatare perceived to be dissimilar: forexample, my life is a barnyardconcentrated marketing promotionof a product in one market areaconcentration of ownership ownershipof numerous media companiesby a few individuals or companiesconcept album musical albumcentered on a story line or theme.The British rock group The Who wasamong the first rock groups to recordsuch albums, starting with The WhoSell Out (1967). Probably the mostpopular of these albums is the rockopera Tommy (1969).conceptual art art movement thatviews the representation of traditionalobjects as irrelevant and that focusesinstead on ideas and informationas the essential elements of a work.Conceptual artists use various media,such as written documents, photographs,video, film, charts, and maps,in nontraditional ways.concrete music type of electronicmusic created by combining recordingsof live sounds (natural, mechanical,etc.) with previously composedmusical tracksconcurrence-seeking tendency theinclination of people in audiences toagree with each other or to respond toa media event in similar wayscondensation in the field of psychoanalysis,one of the mechanisms bywhich dreams express subconsciousfeelings, condensing the emotionsinto symbolic formsconference 1. meeting of two ormore persons to discuss commonconcerns; 2. meeting to discuss theprevious edition of a newspaper,magazine, etc., in order to plan forthe forthcoming oneconfidence limits range within whichthe statistical findings of a survey can73

confidentialitybe said to be trustworthy or useful forinferential purposesconfidentiality the practice of mediaprofessionals to keep secret thenames of those who provide themwith informationconglomerate large business organizationconsisting of a number ofmedia companiesconglomeration process by whichone individual, group, or organizationbuys up media systems or outlets.For example, when one newspaper ornewspaper chain buys other newspapers,the press industry is said to beundergoing conglomeration. Supportersof conglomeration claim that it isa desirable business practice that protectsjobs and brings stability to themarketplace. Opponents claim that itconfers too much power on dominantowners who can shape knowledge ofevents to suit their interests.congruence theory premise that peopleprefer balance and consistencyamong their beliefs and that changesin attitude occur largely in order tocreate agreement with existing beliefsconjuncture in Marxist theory, theinterrelation of all social factors thatbring about social change. The factorsinclude political climate, technology,and economics.connectionism in computer science,the execution of multiple operationsin tandem, rather than in sequence.The power of connectionism incomputer design entered popularculture in 1996 when chess masterGarry Kasparov played against asupercomputer called Deep Blue,which operated on the basis of 256microprocessors connected to eachother. Deep Blue had the capacityto compute more than 100 millionchess positions per second. AlthoughKasparov won the match (with threewins, two draws, and one loss), DeepBlue was the first computer to win agame against a chess master.connectivity ability to communicatewith another piece of software,hardware, or entire communicationsystemconnotation added or associatedsenses of something (a word, symbol,figure, story, etc.). The word squaremeans, at a primary literal level,“plane figure with four equal sidesand four right angles.” However, itis also used with a large number ofadded meanings, all of which neverthelessimply the square figure or itsuses: he’s a square (a person who istoo conventional or old-fashioned;a square meal (an adequate meal);lay it out squarely on the table (saysomething honestly). Creative texts(poems, novels, etc.) are interpretedprimarily in connotative ways.consensus shared acceptance ofnorms, values, beliefs, worldview, etc.consistency practice of ensuring thatmedia coverage is uniform and does74

consumer sovereigntynot contradict itself, so that audienceswill be more likely to accept thecoverage as believableconsolidation reduction of mediaoutlets and concentration of ownershipin a few large companiesconspiracy of silence agreement notto broadcast a certain piece of sensitiveinformation among those whohave itconspiracy theory belief that there isa conspiracy among those in controlof the media to cover up or suppresssensitive informationconstituency specific readership of anewspaper or magazine. The implicationis that the political views of thereadership are shaped by the newspaperor magazine.construct the specific concept orhypothesis underpinning any mediaproduct (e.g., political or socialtheories)constructivism [also called constructionism]1. art movementoriginating in Moscow around 1920,emphasizing abstract geometricfigures constructed with industrialmaterials; 2. philosophical view thatreality does not exist outside theartifacts, representations, and theoriesconstructed by human beings tointerpret that reality; 3. theory thatthe language(s) spoken by someonefilters (constructs) that person’s perceptionof realityconsumer activism direct action byconsumers to protest some aspect ofadvertising, production, or sales, particularlyconcerning their influenceon social valuesconsumer advertising advertising ofproducts and services for the generalpublic (as opposed to specialized,trade, or professional advertising)consumer behavior ways in whichpeople behave when obtaining, using,and disposing of products (andservices)consumer culture 1. a lifestyle orvalue system in which worth does notreside in people themselves but in theproducts with which they surroundthemselves; 2. view of society as beingdominated by consumerismconsumer jury test method of testingadvertisements that involves askingconsumers to compare, rank, andotherwise evaluate an advertisementor an ad campaignconsumer panel group of consumerswho report on products theyhave used so that manufacturers canimprove them on the basis of whatthey reportconsumer research studies conductedby advertising and marketingfirms regarding consumers, includingdetermining their needs, lifestylechoices, etc.consumer sovereignty 1. the view75

consumer surveythat a consumer should have thepower to influence what is produced;2. the view that the consumers ofmedia products should dictate what isbroadcastconsumer survey collection ofdata regarding the lifestyle, habits,etc., of a specific group of potentialconsumersconsumerism 1. concern or preoccupationwith material goods; 2.advocating the rights of consumers,as against the efforts of advertisersconsumerization process by which asociety evolves into a predominantlyconsumerist one, as a result of forcessuch as globalizationcontact 1. Roman Jakobson’s termfor the physical context in whicha message is transmitted and theconnections that exist or are establishedbetween the participants; 2.person who provides information to ajournalistcontagion effect theory that the mediahave the emotional power to bringabout a craze. A classic example isthe “Cabbage Patch doll craze” of1983, when hordes of parents wereprepared to pay anything to get thedolls for their daughters at Christmas.Another example is the hysteria generatedby the arrival of the new videogame system by PlayStation in 2007.Such examples of mass hysteria areattributed to the contagion effect andare thus explained as having beencreated by effective media marketingcampaigns.contemporary hits radio radio stationbroadcasting the latest trends inpopular musiccontent 1. meaning of a message, aprogram, a movie, etc.; 2. in multimedia,information sources andprograms that can be digitized for acommunications network. The contentis what the work means, and theform how it has been created.content analysis 1. study of how themass media create their contentand why they do so; 2. any statisticaldescription of media content, as forexample, how many times a certaintheme, word, etc., appears in a text, aprogram, and so on; 3. technique ofcounting the number of times that anitem appears in a media textcontent management managementof the material contained on a Websitecontent providers media companiesor individuals that produce materialto be broadcast on a particularnetwork or Web sitecontext situation, background,environment (physical, social,psychological), function, utilization,etc., that determines the meaning ofsomething. A discarded cigarette buttis seen as rubbish if it is found on acity street. But if the butt is insertedin a picture frame, displayed in an art76

convergencegallery, and given a title such as AFinal Smoke, then its meaning wouldbe vastly different. The cigarettebutt’s context of occurrence and socialframe of reference will determineits meaning.contextual advertising onlineadvertising technique by which adsautomatically intrude into a Web session,whether wanted or notcontinuity scheduling advertisementsto appear at regular intervals over aperiod of timecontinuity editing editing a film tomake sure that time sequences, alongwith costumes, references in the action,etc., are consistent throughoutthe filmcontracting company independentbroadcasting company that sellsadvertising time and spacecontrast technique of opposing twoelements in some way (two words,two symbols, two forms) so as to signala difference. The words night andday contrast with each other in meaning,whereas cat and rat contrast witheach other both in meaning and inthe initial sound with which they areconstructed.contributed content Web site Website that allows visitors to add contributionsto its content. Two wellknowncontributed content Web sitesare www.wikipedia.com and www.urbandictionary.com; the former is anonline encyclopedia that encouragesusers to add to an entry or to correctit; the latter is a dictionary containingpop culture terms as contributed byusers.control group in a media-basedexperiment, the group that is notexposed to something for purposesof investigation (in contrast to anexperimental group, which is)controlled circulation circulation ofa magazine free of charge to readerswho meet a specific set of advertisingcriteriaconundrum type of riddle based onpunning: for example, When is a windownot a window? When it’s ajar.convention in media content, certainstandardized elements of style thatdistinguish specific genresconvergence 1. erosion of traditionaldistinctions among media due to concentrationof ownership, globalization,and audience fragmentation;2. process by which formerly separatetechnologies such as televisionand the telephone are broughttogether by a common technologicalbase (digitization) or a commonindustrial strategy. The Internet isa perfect example of technologicalconvergence; it can deliver digitizedprint, images, sound, voice, data, etc.,equally well. Large corporations suchas AOL are examples of industrialconvergence; they bring togethervarious media systems (television77

convergence theorybroadcasting, newspapers, etc.) undera single corporate umbrella.convergence theory view that allmedia are constantly undergoingconvergenceconversation communication bymeans of languageconversation analysis identificationand study of the patterns that undergirdconversations, from turn-takingto topic switching, and the reasonswhy these take placeconversion rate proportion of peoplecontacted through some marketingscheme who actually end up purchasinga particular productconverter [also called set-top box]device in a radio or television receiverfor changing from one rangeof frequency to another, allowingusers to get different channelscookie 1. file that a Web site createsto identify visitors and potentiallytrack their activities on the site andon the Web; 2. information profileabout a user that is automaticallyaccepted by the Web browser andstored on the user’s hard driveco-op placement placement of adson the Web pages of on-line booksellerscooperative advertising practice bywhich two companies share advertisingcostscooperative news gathering practicewhereby member newspapers sharethe expenses of acquiring news andreturning profits to the memberscooption the appropriation by advertisersof trends in youth culture,making them appear to be their own,and subsequently promoting theirproducts through the template ofthese trendscopy 1. spoken words or written textin an advertisement; 2. text designedto be read out loud on radio ortelevisioncopy editor person whose job it isto check and correct written texts forpublicationcopyright exclusive right held bythe creators of original works toreproduce, distribute copies of,perform publicly, or display theiroriginal work, or to create derivativeworks based on the original.The duration of copyright is the author’slife plus 50 years (in Canada),plus 70 years (in the EuropeanUnion), or plus 75 years (in theUnited States).copy testing technique of measuringthe effectiveness of advertising messagesby showing them to specifictypes of consumerscorantos early seventh-centuryone-page newssheets, published inHolland and imported to England byBritish booksellers78

counterculturecore audience percentage of peoplewho watch or listen to an entire programfrom beginning to endcorollary something that followslogically from something else, requiringlittle or no additional proofcorporate advertising advertising ofan entire corporation rather than ofits productscorporate media mass media controlledby large corporationscorporate portal Web site that allowsaccess and provides links to allthe information and software applicationsheld by a corporationcorporate video video produced bya company to inform or educate itsemployeesCorporation for Public BroadcastingU.S. nonprofit agency that fundslocal noncommercial broadcasters forcultural or educational programmingcorporatization process of makinga government agency behave like aprivate company under marketplacerulescorrective advertisement advertisementthat a regulatory body requiresof an advertiser that will correctmisleading information contained ina previous advertisementcorrelation analysis statistical studyof any potential relation betweenmedia and audience reactions orbehaviorscorrespondence column section of anewspaper or magazine where readers’letters are containedcorrespondent journalist or reporterwho regularly reports on a particulararea of information, usually from thesame geographical areacost-per-thousand [abbreviatedas CPM] cost of reaching 1,000consumers, calculated by the cost ofplacing an advertisement divided bythe number of thousands of consumersit reachescostume drama drama set in aparticular historical period, requiringcostumes and sets that are authenticto the periodcottage industry industry characterizedby relatively smaller operationsand closely identified with itspersonnelcouch potato person who watches alot of televisioncounteradvertising advertising thatis designed to respond to a competitor’sadvertisingcounterculture a subculture whosevalues contradict those of the dominantculture. The term crystallizedin the 1960s to refer to young peoplewho rejected the worldview and thelifestyles of the middle class. They79

counterleakused music and other forms of protestto argue against gender and racediscrimination, the Vietnam War, andother causes that were prominent duringthe era.counterleak revealing to a reporterthat somebody else has leaked information,so as to induce the reporter tobelieve that there is a conspiracycounterprogramming scheduling oftelevision programs in order to attractaudiences that have been watchingsimilar programs aired at the sametime on other channelscoupon ad print advertisement witha discount coupon attached, whichthe consumer can cut out and useat a retail store or can return to theadvertisercoups and earthquakes syndromesupposed practice of Westernsocieties to ignore news eventsrelated to other societies unless theyinvolve political turmoil or naturaldisasterscourtroom TV television channelthat presents information, stories, anddocumentaries dealing with criminalcases, as well as broadcasting actualtrialscover story most important storyin a magazine, featured on its frontcovercoverage attention the media give toa certain person, event, etc.coverlines suggestive headlines onmagazine covers designed to shockor intrigue potential consumerscowboy genre narrative that revolvesaround the time frame of the 1800s inthe American West, featuring a heroiccowboy and his horse, often fightingNative Americans or outlawsCPM [see cost-per-thousand]CPU [see central processing unit]crane shot film shot taken from acrane (a large movable arm for acamera), creating a higher angle fromwhich to view the scenecrawl scrolling text across a televisionor movie screen to convey informationsuch as programming creditsor news updatescreative director person in anadvertising agency who coordinatesthe creation of advertisements for aproduct or servicecredits the names of photographers,camerapersons, costume designers,etc., who were part of the productionteam; often broadcast at the end of afilm or programcreole language that evolves fromcontact with another language,becoming the native language of acommunity (Haitian Creole, GuyaneseCreole, etc.)crew persons who carry out technicalwork for a television program or film80

cross-media ownership(camerapersons, lighting managers,etc.)crisis definition theory that a crisisis defined as such only when it iscovered by media, forcing those inauthority to act accordinglycritic person who expresses opinionsabout a work (a book, a film, etc.)critical media theory theory that themedia operate primarily to justify andsupport the status quo at the expenseof ordinary peoplecritical news analysis news coveragethat is perceived as being neutral andhighly reliablecritical research term first used byPaul Lazarsfeld in 1941 to describeresearch that takes as its object the impactof media on people by examininghow certain media products influenceaudience behaviors, as well as the relationof media to culture and historycritical studies examination ofthe overall impact of the media onsocietycriticism examination of literary, artistic,or media texts (novels, poetry,films, television programs, etc.) interms of their aesthetic worth, theirsocial import, their style, their genrecharacteristics, and so on. Traditionally,criticism revolved aroundissues such as the author’s intent, thestructure used to make the work, etc.In the early twentieth century, theNew Criticism movement, influencedby T.S. Eliot, proposed the study ofworks aside from historical context orauthorship. By mid-century, severalother trends emerged: psychoanalyticcriticism focuses on the unconsciousaspects of the work (archetypes,dreams, myths, etc.); semiotic (orstructuralist) criticism focuses onthe meanings of texts in sign-basedterms; hermeneutic criticism looks atthe language with which, and culturalcontext in which, a work is created;Marxist criticism interprets worksin terms of ideological factors andforces at work in its production; feministcriticism investigates the role andrepresentation of women in works;and deconstructivist criticism looksat a work in terms of the meanings itcreates by itself, rather than throughsome external channel.Croce, Benedetto (1866–1952) Italianphilosopher and critic who arguedthat art allows human beings to giveexpression to their instinctive senseof beauty and uglinesscrosscutting repeated alternationbetween filmed sequences to givethe impression that the sequences aresimultaneouscross-media advertising advertisingthe same product in several mediaforms and outlets (radio, television,print, etc.)cross-media ownership ownershipof several media outlets (press, radio,television, etc.) by one company81

crossovercrossover 1. media product that wasmade for one medium, but that gainspopularity in another (for example, anovel such as The Godfather that isknown more in its movie form thanin its book form); 2. any popularwork that crosses over to anothergenre where it may become evenmore popular (for example, fromrock to country). The music of ElvisPresley was considered to be purerock music in the 1950s and 1960s.It started to cross over to the countryfield in the late 1970s and is stillclassified as both “early rock” and“country.”cross promotion technique by whichtwo or more advertisers associatewith each other to reach more peoplecross-reference reference from onepart of a book, index, or table toanothercrossword puzzle with sets ofnumbered squares to be filled in withwords, according to given clues,one letter to each square, so that thewords may be read both across anddowncryptogram something constructedin code or cipher: for example,1–14–4 = and (each number standsfor a letter in the English alphabet, inorder)cryptography making or decipheringmessages in a secret code that hasa key, or method, for identifying thehidden messageWoman in a Hat (1934) by Pablo PicassoCSA [see Casting Society ofAmerica]C-SPAN U.S. cable television channelthat covers politics and currentaffairscubism twentieth-century art movementbased on the use of cubes andother geometric forms, rather thana naturalistic representation. Themovement started in Paris around1908, becoming popular in the 1920s,marking the beginning of abstractart. Cubist painters include PabloPicasso, Georges Braque, and MarcelDuchamp. Cubist sculptors includePicasso, Raymond Duchamp-Villon,and Aleksandr Archipenko.cue 1. written text to a piece ofaudio; 2. sign given for some action,event, or broadcast to begincue card card placed near a televisioncamera that a presenter reads,while appearing to look straight atthe viewerscult film film that gathers a devotedgroup of followers82

culture jammerscultivation differential degree towhich persons have been undergoingthe cultivation effect and thedegree of influence this has had ontheir views and beliefscultivation effect process by whichaudiences are purportedly inclined toaccept values, beliefs, etc., that arepresented to them by media coverageover an extended period of timecultural capital particular knowledgeand background possessed byaudiences, which shape their interpretationof media textscultural imperialism belief that thecultural artifacts of a politically andeconomically dominant power enterinto another country and eventuallydominate it, thereby spreading thecultural, political, and specific valuesof the dominant power to the exclusionof indigenous values and voicescultural memory complex of symbols,rituals, etc., that are acquiredfrom being immersed in a culture,which, over time, becomes part ofmemorycultural proximity desire of peopleto see or hear media products fromthe comfort of their own culturalbackgroundscultural relativism view that differentcultures predispose their membersto view the world in different ways.Essentially, relativists maintain thatwhat is right or wrong depends on theparticular culture concerned. What isright in one society may be wrong inanother, and thus no basic standardsexist by which a culture may bejudged right or wrong.cultural studies tradition of researchthat contends that the examinationof cultural context is essential for anaccurate understanding of mediacultural theory the idea that culturalmeanings are negotiated by mediaand audiences as they interactculture the arts, beliefs, language(s),institutions, rituals, etc., practiced bya specific group of peopleculture industries in the FrankfurtSchool specifically, and in early culturetheory generally, profit-makingenterprises that have debased cultureby turning it into a commodity. Inthis view, the function of culture isnot to enrich or enlighten but to manipulateand indoctrinate.culture jammers a group socialactivists with a popular Web site andmagazine that are critical of the advertisingprocess itself. The Web siteand magazine offer not only seriouscritiques of advertising and consumerism,but also many clever parodiesof advertising campaigns, articles andforums on how one can recognizemedia manipulation, information onlawsuits and legislation on consumerissues, and links for sending e-mailsto big businesses to contest theirmarketing strategies. Culture jam-83

culture of deferencemers see themselves as a loose globalnetwork of media activists aiming tochange the way in which informationflows. They claim that brands,fashions, celebrities, spectacles, andentertainments are all that consumerculture has to offer. It is only by “deconstructing”the symbols of brandedculture that true culture can reassertitself.culture of deference the tendency ofnews reporters to censor themselvesso that the organization for whichthey work will not find their coverageobjectionableculture wars any clash of tastes andideologies with regard to culturalproducts. For example, in the UnitedStates there is currently a “culturewar” between right-wing ideologues,who consider pop culture productsportraying sex and violence generallyto be improper and even destructiveof “traditional values,” and civil libertarianswho see such popular expressionsas necessary to keep a politicalsystem based on freedom of speechintact and functional.cumulative audience [abbreviatedas cume] 1. number of people wholisten to a radio station for at leastfive minutes a day; 2. proportion of atarget audience who have had the opportunityto hear or see an advertisementduring some broadcastCurran, James (1973–) scholarwhose work on globalization comesup frequently in the media literature.Among his works are Mass Mediaand Society (as editor, with MichaelGurevitch, 1991) and Culture Wars:The Media and the British Left (withIvor Gaber and Julian Petley, 2005).current events news or a discussionof news of the present timecurtain raiser story that precedes themain story, so as to provide backgroundinformationcustom publishing creation of customizedversions of print newspapers,magazines, or books for particularaudiencescutaway short scene inserted betweentwo scenes in order to avoidclumsy editingcut-in scene that is inserted intoanother scene in a filmcutting room room in which filmediting is carried outcyberadvertising placement of commercialson on-line sitescybercafé café that provides computerswhere people can pay to browsethe Internetcybercommunications communicationsthat take place over theInternetcyberculture culture that is evolvingover the Internet, including chatrooms,profile sites, etc.84

cyborgcyberfeminism study of the effects ofnew technologies on women’s issuescyberjunkies persons who spend toomuch time on the Internet, becoming“addicted” to itcybermall on-line shopping site linkinga home page with a large numberof online businesses, allowingcustomers to make purchasescybermarketing any kind ofInternet-based marketing strategy orpromotion (targeted e-mails, bulletinboards, etc.)cybernetics science that studiescommunication in living organisms,computers, and organizations. Thescience was founded in 1948 byNorbert Wiener, who claimed thatthe control systems in machinesprocess information in ways that areanalogous to the ways in which thenervous system processes stimuli,that is, primarily on the basis ofthe nature of the stimuli. Known asfeedback, this concept is the foundingnotion of cybernetics.cyberporn pornographic materialavailable on the Internetcyberpunk movement associatedwith the technological breakthroughsof the early 1980s and their effect onthe popular culture of the eracybersex sexual activity involvingvirtual reality on the Internetcybershopping buying goods andservices over the Internetcybersleuthing in popular culture,crime solving that uses advancedcyber technologiescyberspace the realm in which electronicinformation exists (term coinedby American writer William Gibsonin his 1984 science fiction novelNeuromancer). The term has givenrise to a host of derived terms, suchas cybercafes, cybermalls, etc.cybersurfer person who spends a lotof time on the Internetcyberterrorism terrorism that employsthe Internet to communicatewith fellow terrorists and to enter thecommunication systems of targets inorder to destroy themcyberwar use of electronic communicationsand the Internet to damagean adversary’s computer systems andfilescyborg human body or other organismwhose functions are taken over inpart by various electronic or electromechanicaldevices85

D3 digital tape format thatis capable of recordingcomposite video signalsDAB [see digital audiobroadcasting]dactylology communication by signsmade with the fingers, especially aspracticed by people who are speechimpairedDadaism (also called Dada) art andliterary movement, starting around1916 and fading by 1922, that rejectedtraditional forms of art throughincongruity and nonsensicality.The term dada, a French baby-talkword for “hobbyhorse,” was chosenarbitrarily by Romanian-born writerTristan Tzara because it was nonsensical.Revoking all accepted values intraditional art making, Dadaists usedart techniques that were deliberatelyunintelligible and outrageous.first itemDDaily Me news Web sitethat lets users tailor contentsto their liking. Somemedia analysts argue thatthis type of site empowerscommon people tobecome more sophisticated informationconsumers, drawing those whomight otherwise be disinclined toreflect critically on information intothe world of news and public affairs.Others argue that it cuts users offfrom the full richness of news andinformation, confining them to theirpreexisting preferences. Web site:www.DailyMe.comdance music style of popularelectronic music with a disc jockeytalking or rapping as people dance(usually in a club setting)dance program reality televisionprogram featuring dancers, usually incompetitionDAGMAR [full form: definingadvertising goals for measuredadvertising results] model intendedto identify the effects that advertisinghas on consumers, measured instages, from awareness of the productto action (purchasing)daguerrotype (early forerunner ofthe photograph) process of recordingimages on polished metal platesdaily 1. newspaper published everyday; 2. in film, an unedited print ofa day’s filming, usually created forreview by the directordarkroom room isolated fromall outside light that is set up andequipped for developing photographsDARS [see digital audio radioservice]DAT [see digital audiotape]data [singular, datum] 1. informationof any type (usually in the formof facts and figures and obtainedthrough surveys, experiments, etc.);2. information available on computer(text, images, numbers, etc.) that canbe stored or processed86

Davis, Angeladata analysis compilation andinterpretation of d ata so as toascertain patterns implicit in it,often by employing a statisticalmethoddata compression [see digitalcompression]data entry putting information in acomputer by keyboarding, scanning,or some other waydata mining compiling and siftingthrough large quantities of d ata so asto extract from it any usable patterns;for example, using demographic datato analyze the shopping habits of atargeted advertising populationdata protection any strategy, such aslegislation or software applications,used to prevent d ata from being usedin an unauthorized fashiondata sheet online document thatprovides a detailed description of aproduct, service, etc.database organized compilationof d ata structured logically( alphabetically, topically, etc.) forquick access and utilization. Afew computer databases becamecommercially available in the1960s; online databases (usuallyavailable to anyone) started in the1970s.database management system computerprogram that allows a user toorganize and manipulate the informationin a databasedatabase marketing strategy wherebyadvertisers store informationabout consumers so that they can useit to personalize or target messagesaccording to consumer characteristicssuch as age, gender, social class,lifestyle, etc.database modeling technique ofusing the information in a databaseto create a Web site or to simulate orpredict something, such as trends ina marketdatacasting 1. distribution of digitaldata, usually online; 2. transmittingdata on demand (such as weatherreports)dataveillance (imitating surveillance)any massive electronic compilationand distillation of consumerd atadateline line at the beginning of aprinted news story or news releasegiving the place and date of thestory’s originDATV [see digitally assistedtelevision]Davis, Angela (1944–) prominentfeminist social critic whose analysesof the representations of race, gender,hegemony, homophobia, and sexualityin representational practicesare widely cited. Her works includeWomen, Culture, and Politics (1989)and Blues Legacies and Black Feminism(1998).87

day-after recall testday-after recall test advertising researchmethod designed to ascertainhow much someone can rememberabout an advertisement or commercialthe day after it was broadcastday player actor or technician whois hired on a daily basis for a filmproductiondaypart partition of a day into blocksfor programming and advertisingpurposes (for example, 6 a.m. to10 a.m., 10 a.m. to 3 p.m., 3 p.m.to 7 p.m., 7 p.m. to 12 midnight)d-book book that can be downloadedin electronic form from the InternetDBS [see direct broadcast bysatellite]deadline time by which copy mustbe submitted for publication orbroadcastdead spot geographic area whereradio or television reception is poor,even though it falls within the usualrange of the transmitterdead zone area where mobile phonenetworks do not operatedealer aids advertising materials anddevices used by stores to stimulatesales (posters, in-store television setsshowcasing a product, and the like)dealer tie-in advertising that publicizesthe names of local dealers whostock a productdeath metal music type of heavymetal music characterized by hardedgedloud instrumentation, brutalityin lyrical material, growling vocals,and horror symbolismDebord, Guy (1931–1994) Frenchsocial critic who described thepurportedly destructive effects ofmodern-day circus-like spectacleson human cultures. Among his bestknown works are La société duspectacle (1967; published in Englishas Society of the Spectacle, 1973)and Commentaires sur la société duspectacle (1988; published in Englishas Comments on the Society of theSpectacle, 1990).decentralized system in advertising,mode of operation in which a manager,rather than a centralized department,is responsible for marketingand advertising a productdeceptive advertising advertisingthat is purported to make misleadingor untruthful claimsdecipher in literary and media studies,to determine the meaning of acomplex or ambiguous text (to deciphera novel, to decipher a movie,etc.)deck secondary part of a newspaperheadline that summarizes a storydecode [synonym for decipher] todetermine the meaning of a complexor ambiguous text. The term impliesthat there is a hidden code in the88

definitiontext that guides its reception andunder standing at an unconsciouslevel.decoder 1. person who decodesmedia texts; 2. device designed tounscramble mixed signals or to selectsignals so that a program can bereceived on a television setdeconstruction approach to literaryand media texts instigated byJacques Derrida in the 1960sand 1970s. Because of the relativenature of language, Derrida claimed,no text can have an unchanging orcentral meaning. Deconstruction isalso called poststructuralism.It challenges traditional assumptionsabout texts as mirrors of realitybecause words, being what they are,refer to other words. Since texts arestructured on binary oppositions(e.g., man vs. woman, good vs. evil),they tend to produce biased interpretations,wherein one of the twoconcepts in the binary oppositionis given prominence, and this hasvast cultural consequences. Deconstructionistreadings of media textsthus involve an examination of theunarticulated oppositions that underpintheir seemingly straightforwardsurface meanings.decor scenery used on a stage or amovie setdedication 1. inscription in a literaryor musical work, intended as atribute to an individual or cause; 2.musical piece played or requested asa greeting or tribute, especially onthe radiodeduction [in contrast to abductionand induction] process in which aconclusion about a particular followsfrom a general premise: for example,All cats are mammals; Pumpkin isa cat; therefore we can deduce thatPumpkin is a mammal.deep focus cinematic technique ofbringing the components of a sceneinto focus by using a camera shot thatshows a large depth of fielddefamation statement about a personthat is untrue and impugns his or herreputation in some waydefault option or mode (a font style,a letter case, etc.) that will automaticallybe selected by a computerwhen the user does not specify analternativedefensive communication messagethat recipients will intentionallymisinterpret or reject because it jarswith their own values, beliefs, orworldviewdeficit financing in television parlance,strategy used by a TV productioncompany of leasing programs toa network for a fee that is less thanthe cost of production in the hopeof recovering the loss later throughrerun syndicationdefinition degree of clarity that animage or sound has (in a photo, on a89

defocusingtelevision screen, on a monitor, in arecording)defocusing filmic technique ofblurring an image deliberately for apsychological effectdelay line device that delays thetransmission of an electronic signalaccording to a pre-arranged or presetintervaldelay system mode of operationemployed to delay the transmissionof a live broadcast by a few secondsso that infelicities such as profanitiescan be removeddeleted scene any scene deleted froma film or program either for artistic,political, or legal reasonsdeliberative listening interpreting amedia text with the sole intention ofdeciphering the message built intoit (rather than simply taking it in forenjoyment or some other such reason)delivery system computer systemcombining the hardware and softwarerequired to play a certain multimediaproductdemand programming radio formatbased on requests by listenersdemo sample or entire version of arecording, produced for promotionalpurposesdemodulation process of translatingan analog signal into digital formdemographic editions nationalmagazines that tailor their advertisingaccording to the demographics oftheir subscribers (age, gender, occupation,education, income, ethnicity,education)demographic segmentationclassification of media audiencesor consumers according to demographiccharacteristics (age,gender, class, economic level,education)demographics classification ofaudiences and consumers accordingto their age, sex, income, education,and other variables. It doesnot include classification by theirsubjective attitudes or opinions.demonization undermining of aperson (or group) by the media,usually by means of an attack onpersonal characteristics of an individual(or the leader or membersof a group)demonstration effect claim thatsome people buy products toimpress or keep up with theirneighborsdenotation initial, specific, or literalmeaning of a word, text, etc., asopposed to its connotative meaning.The denotative meaning of squareis a “plane figure made up of fourequal lines meeting at right angles.”On the other hand, in the expressiona square person, it has a nondenotativemeaning (unfashionable, old-90

dmafashioned). In advertising analysisthe term is often used to refer to thesurface meaning of an ad, that is,what the ad is designed to highlightabout the product. However, theactual meaning of an ad depends onsome encoded message that is beyondits denotative meaning (usuallyinvolving lifestyle, instinctive needsand fears, etc.).denouement final part of a plot ina drama or narrative in which theoutcome is clarifieddependency theory hypothesis thatpeople who are exposed habituallyto a medium tend to become psychologicallydependent on the medium,much as a drug user becomes dependenton a drugdepth interview method of advertisingresearch, whereby a trained interviewermeets with consumers, askingeach of them a series of unpreparedquestions that aim to identify attitudesand values that might havebeen missed with other methods. Theinterviewer does not use predeterminedquestions because the purposeof the interview is to give respondentsthe opportunity to express theirpersonal views and tastes openly andspontaneously.depth of field distance in front of acamera within which actors and anentire scene can be shown in focus.This technique guides the viewer’seye to particular characters or areason the screen.deregulation loosening or eliminationby the government of ownershipand other rules for media systemsDerrida, Jacques (1930–2004)French philosopher who founded thedeconstruction movement thathas been applied broadly to mediastudies. Derrida’s main contention isthat the meaning of a text cannot bedetermined with any degree of certaintybecause it shifts according towho analyzes it, when it is analyzed,how it is analyzed, and so on.desensitization process throughwhich audiences, as a result of viewingportrayals of violence or degradationin the media, are thought tobecome insensitive to violence andsuffering in real lifedesexualize 1. to remove sexualfeatures or ideas from a media text,so as to make it acceptable to a wideraudience; 2. to deemphasize sexualityor the role of sex and gender in mediaportrayalsdesign audit process of checkingand evaluating the design of a brandproduct, an ad, a Web site, etc.design grid basic form or grid usedas a template for designing a magazine’spage layoutdesignated market area [abbreviatedas DMA] geographic designation,used by AC Nielsen, that specifieswhich population areas fall into aspecific television market segment91

deskdesk in newspaper parlance, a departmentconcerned with a certain topicor area of coverage (e.g., sports desk,city desk)desk editor in newspaper parlance,person who prepares texts in a finalversion for publicationdesktop publishing [abbreviated asDTP] publication by meansof computers equipped withspecialized software, rather than bymeans of traditional typographicalpracticesdetective story work of fictionthat centers on a crime, featuring adetective who will solve the crimeby questioning suspects, putting togetherclues, and eventually huntingdown the perpetrator. The detectivegenerally withholds the significanceof the clues until the end. EdgarAllan Poe’s C. Auguste Dupin, whoappeared in an 1841 story titled“Murders in the Rue Morgue,” isconsidered the first fictional detective.Charles Dickens followed Poe’slead with Bleak House (1852–1853)and his unfinished novel, TheMystery of Edwin Drood. Shortlythereafter, The Moonstone (1868),by Wilkie Collins, became the firstpopular detective novel. Sir ArthurConan Doyle’s A Study in Scarlet(1887) introduced Sherlock Holmes,perhaps the most famous ofall fictional detectives. Today, thedetective story has become one ofthe most popular forms of fiction inmovies and television.Cover of The Union Jack (1900)featuring Detective Sexton Blakedetermination in Marxist theory,claim that the economic system usedin a society determines its “superstructure”(culture, beliefs)determinism doctrine or view thatevery human act is caused by somethingor is subject to universal lawsof causation, thus denying any freewill (the ability to make choicesfreely)development theory idea thatmedia systems and governmentsshould work together to ensure thata country will be better served, orto promote partnerships with othercountries92

dial-up accessdeviance behavior that departs fromor challenges social norms. Devianceis a major theme in crime narratives,for example, and in moral panictheory.deviancy amplification spiralsocial phenomenon whereby mediacoverage of a deviant event makesit appear to be more common thanit is and causes people to pay moreattention to it than they otherwisewoulddiachrony [in contrast to synchrony]change in language over time; byextension, any kind of change in anyrepresentational system. Diachronyrefers to evolutionary tendencieswithin systems to produce change inthose systems.dial radio or television plate ordisk, with numbers or letters on itfor tuning into a station. Dials arenow largely obsolete, having beenreplaced by devices such as remotecontrols. The term has remained,however, in expressions such as:“Turn the dial” and “You can alwaysdial that program out.”dialect variant of a language usedby a particular group of speakers.dialects may arise from geographicor social factors. For example,American and British dialects ofEnglish differ due to geographicdistance; dialects within BritishEnglish reflect differences in the levelof education, economic status, andthe like.dialectic philosophical term describingthe process of examining ideaslogically, through discussions basedon questions and answers. Pl at o’sDialogues used the dialectic method,which he based on observations ofhis teacher Socrates, who used itto reveal truth through disputation.Plato’s student Aristotle used theterm as a synonym for logic. Hegelused the term dialectic with a differentmeaning, namely as one phase ofany historical development that tendsto be confronted and replaced by itsopposite which, in turn, tends to bereplaced by a phase that is somehowa resolution of the two opposedphases. This meaning was adopted byMarx and elaborated to encompassthe tension that exists in capitalistsocieties between the proletariat andthe ruling classesdialogics as defined by MikhailBakhtin, the construction ofverbal utterances in a dialogueon the basis of opinions andideologies, which reflects a web ofongoing power struggles betweenpeopledialogue 1. conversation of any kind;2. literary genre modeled on everydayconversation; 3. words spokenby characters in a text (book, radio,movie, program, etc.)dial-up access nonpermanent connectionto the Internet requiring amodem or other device that allowsa user to dial a telephone accessnumber in order to make such a con-93

diary columnnection. This method of connection isnow largely obsolete.diary column column written by journalistsor bloggers about their livesdiary method market research techniquewhereby respondents keep aregular written account of the advertisingmaterials (ads, commercials,posters, etc.) they have noticed, thepurchases they have made, and theproducts they have actually useddiaspora scattering of any communitythat once lived together in asingle location because of some event(war, persecution); the term has beenapplied traditionally to the Jewishdiasporadictionary reference book or listingcontaining words, phrases, andexpressions with their definitions andother informationdictum authoritative saying orpronouncement: Those who ignorehistory are condemned to repeat itdidactic containing a moral, social,or ethical message; of an instructionalnaturediegesis the fictional world createdby narrativesdiegetic elements originating in anarrative (including dialogue andsound effects) that appear to be arisingout of the plot. In film, nondiegeticelements are those that do notoriginate in the narrative, such assoundtrack music and credits.différence Ferdinand de Saussure’sterm for contrast, which claims thattwo forms are kept distinct in meaningthrough some minimal difference suchas a sound: for example, pin versusbin. By extension, the term is nowused to refer to any difference, includingsocial differences, such as youngversus old. The term is used in currentmedia analysis to support the viewthat meanings are constantly shiftingand thus reconstructing each otherthrough minimal differences.diffusion spread of media contenteither generally throughout society orspecifically within a target audiencedigerati [in imitation of literati]people with expertise in, or professionalinvolvement with, computers,the Internet, or the World Wide Webdigest compilation of articles, stories,reviews from different sources,brought together in a magazine,book, or broadcast, often in summarizedor condensed formdigicam [see digital camera]digital 1. any medium that operatesby means of a digital system; 2. anyform of transmission in which a signalis sent in small, separate packages(in contrast to analog)digital audio broadcasting [abbreviatedas DAB] audio broadcasting94

digital music distribution platformsusing digital recordings, which giveclearer sound than analog recordingsdigital audio radio service [abbreviatedas DARS] delivery of digitalaudio signals by satellite directly tohomes or automobilesdigital audiotape [abbreviated asDAT] audiotape cassette or othermagnetic tape that offers high-qualitydigital sounddigital cable television digital televisiondelivered to homes via cabledigital camera [abbreviated as digicam]camera that takes and storespictures in digital form. Like previouscameras, digital cameras havelenses, apertures, and shutters, butthey do not use film. Instead, they usedevices that transform images intodigital information. Digital photoscan then be manipulated and printedusing a computer.digital compression [also calleddata compression] 1. method ofrepresenting data in an abbreviatedform by removing redundant data,by replacing repeated data with ashortening code, or some other suchtechnique; 2. digitizing signals so thatthey can be carried over one channeldigital delivery daily online distributionof daily newspapersdigital divide view that digitaltechnology and its attendant culturecontribute to the exacerbation ofsocial inequalities, because not everyonehas equal access to such technologyand, even among those who do,not everyone is equally competent inusing it. Unequal access or unequalcompetence is thus said to createclasses of “information haves” and“information have-nots.”digital film production productionof films using primarily digitaltechnology, rather than previoustechnologiesdigital galaxy [in imitation ofGutenberg galaxy] notion thatdigital technologies have changed theways in which people communicateand interactdigital imaging any form of photographythat is based on digital technology.It has been suggested that thisterm should replace photographyaltogether.digital media media based on digitaltechnologiesdigital media players computerprograms or systems that allowindividual users to display videoor audio data on home computers.RealPlayer, Windows Media Player,and QuickTime are examples of suchsystems.digital music distributionplatforms online sites like PressPlay,Rhapsody, MusicNet, iTunes, andothers that allow for downloading ofmusic files95

digital photographydigital photography [also calleddigital imaging] photography usingdigital cameras and equipmentdigital radio radio broadcasting thatis transmitted digitally, with the capacityto provide a greater choice ofchannels and a superior sound qualitythan all previous nondigital systemsdigital recording audio recordingmade with digital equipment, producinga high-quality clear sounddigital retouching use of digitaltechnology to alter a photograph,either to remove imperfections or tochange something in the photo withoutrevealing that it was altereddigital rights management protectionof digitally distributed intellectualpropertydigital service line [abbreviated asDSL] line providing access to theInternet that is faster than the previousdial-up modem devicesdigital television [abbreviated asDTV] television set and televisionbroadcasting system using digitaltechnologydigital terrestrial broadcastingcourse of action aiming to make allforms of broadcasting digitaldigital versatile/video disc [abbreviatedas DVD] round flat platteron which motion pictures, computerprograms, and other types of informationare stored digitally. A DVD isthe same size as a standard compactdisc (about 4 3/4 inches or 12 centimeters)in diameter, but it can storemuch more information. Each side ofa DVD can contain two data layers,one beneath the other. A single DVDcurrently has the capacity to store upto 17 gigabytes (billion bytes) of information.DVD technology was oneof the first types of digital technologythat made it possible to integratecomputer, audio, and video material.digital video editing editing videomaterials using digital technologydigital video recorder [abbreviatedas DVR] video recording andplayback device attached to a televisionset that allows users significantcontrol over the content they recordor seedigitally assisted television [abbreviatedas DATV] television signalstransmitted partly through digitalmeansdigitally originated graphic [abbreviatedas DOG] small logo used toidentify a television channel, showntypically in one corner of the screendigitization [also called digitalization]conversion of any kind of data(text, images, sound, graphics) intoan electronic language that can beused by computers or other digitalsystems. Because it offers unprecedentedopportunities for manipulationof data, digitization raises96

drtvcrucial questions about authorship,intellectual property, and selectivityof information. This term is nowused to characterize the evolutionarycharacteristics of all media—whichare becoming digitized throughoutthe world.digizine [abbreviation of digitalmagazine] magazine that can be accessedby computer from a Web sitediglossia use of different forms of thesame language or, sometimes, of differentlanguages in the same speecharea, one of which is sometimes consideredmore important or functionalthan the otherDijk, Jan A.G.M. van (1952–)scholar whose work on the effects ofnew media technologies on culturesand societies is often cited in themedia literature. Among his mostinfluential works are The NetworkSociety (1999) and Digital Democracy(2000).dime novels [also called pulpfiction] inexpensive nineteenth andearly twentieth century novels thatdeal mainly with sensationalizedadventure, crime, horror, or romance.The term dime comes from the factthat they were originally sold for adime.dionysian as defined by FriedrichNietzsche, the creative and intuitiveaspects of the human psyche, as opposedto the mind’s rational mode ofthinkingdipstick survey survey intended toidentify only one aspect of some audiencebehavior, such as the numberof viewing hours independently ofthe TV programs watcheddirect action advertising advertisingintended to elicit a quick responsein consumers, appealing directly toemotional needsdirect broadcast by satellite [abbreviatedas DBS] generic term for thebroadcasting of radio and televisionsignals over a wide area by satellitetechnology. DBS began in 1994.direct cinema a type of cinémavérité developed in the 1960s in theUnited States, in which the settingis not a studio or designated area butthe real world (the ghetto of a realcity, the backstreets of a town, etc.)direct mail advertising practiceof sending people leaflets or brochuresthrough the mail. Today, suchadvertising also takes place in onlineversions, where it is called spam.direct marketing marketing practicesthat are aimed directly at (and areaccessible to) consumers, bypassingretailers (for example, through mailorder and the Internet)direct response television [abbreviatedas DRTV] advertising strategyseeking immediate response to atelevision commercial by providingan on-screen phone number, e-mailaddress, or Web site97

direct sponsorshipdirect sponsorship radio and televisionprogramming bearing the nameof the advertiser who has sponsoreda program or series (appearing in theprogram’s title)directional medium advertising mediumthat gives potential consumersinformation on where to find products;for example, a directory, a catalogdirectness of address the way inwhich television addresses people.Since television is essentially a domesticmedium, its style is typicallyconversational (rather than formal),engaging audiences directly andemotionally, rather than logically andrationally.director person who plans and controlsthe performance of a play, a motionpicture, or a show on television,radio, or the Internet. In traditionalfilm theory, the director is consideredmore important than the scriptwriter;often the two are one and the sameperson.direct-to-home multichannel broadcastservice for television and radiotransmitted via communication satellitethat subscribers receive directlyon their own receiversdirector’s cut version of a movieover which the director has completecontrol; often, this version is notreleased to theatersdisaster movie film genre in whichthe plot revolves around a naturaldisaster (such as an asteroid hittingearth) or a human-related disaster(such as a ship sinking in the ocean)disc a storage device, built into acomputer or removable as a separatedevice (such as a flat plastic object)disc jockey [abbreviated as DJ]announcer for a radio program thatconsists chiefly of recorded popularmusic; by extension, anyone whoplays recorded music for a specificfunction (such as at a wedding, adance, etc.)disclosure of information act ofpassing on information that was intendedto be kept secret. This term isused especially in journalism jargon.disco music flamboyant, danceorientedpopular music genre thatemerged in the 1970s. Disco musicwas emblemized by the 1977 movieSaturday Night Fever. The punkrock and new wave movements thatsurfaced in the mid- and late 1970sbegan partly as a backlash against theperceived superficiality and glitzinessof disco.discography list or catalog of recordings(by a performer, a group, etc.) orof writings or annotations about themdiscourse 1. use of language incommunication; 2. serious discussionabout a subject; 3. particularstyle of talking and writing (as in the“discourse of science”). This termwas used by Michel Foucault98

displacementto describe how language is usedby people and institutions to shapesocial reality. In this sense, discourseis seen as a form of power becauseit articulates and ensconces (throughlanguage) the ideas that are acceptedas truth. The term is now extended toinclude nonverbal and other kinds of“languages” (visual discourse, narrativediscourse, and other discourses).discursive contestation ability of theaudience of a news broadcast to challengeits content and slant (as opposedto passive reception of the broadcast)discursive form as defined by philosopherSusanne Langer, anythingconstructed in linguistic form andthus governed by the properties ofthat form. One of these is detachment,since one can focus on a wordin a sentence or a phrase withoutimpairing the overall understandingof the sentence or phrase. Presentationalforms, on the other hand,cannot be detached without impairingthe overall meaning; for example,one cannot focus on a note or phrasein a symphony without destroying thesense of the work.discursive gap breach in languagethat can exist between senders (suchas television newscasters) and receivers(such as audiences). The popularpress has attempted to close this gapby using primarily colloquial or slanglanguage.discussion group on the Internet, aWeb site that lets any visitor writea message on a particular subject,which is then displayed on the sitedish antenna television antenna inthe form of a dish that can receivemany channels and services from asatelliteDisneyification the spread of Americanrepresentations of childhoodculture, as symbolized by the WaltDisney Company, which are seen tobe intrusive into other cultural viewsof childhooddisparaging copy advertising copythat is critical of another company’sproducts or campaignsdispatch news item sent by a newscorrespondent or agency to a network,station, or Web sitedisplacement capacity of words (andsymbols generally) to displace referents(the things to which they refer),evoking them mentally (not physically).A word such as cat is a sequenceof sounds (or letters) that evokes aparticular mental image of an animal,even if the animal is not physicallypresent. The animal is thus said tohave been “displaced” from thephysical world to the mental world.In Marxist theories of media, theterm is sometimes used to refer tothe process by which the meaning ofsomething is transferred to somethingelse; for example, portraying punkmusicians as having the same characteristicsas criminals, thus implyingthat they are socially deviant.99

display advertisingdisplay advertising 1. advertisingthat includes product or companyfeatures and symbols (such as a logo)in addition to the ad text itself; 2. advertisingtaking up a substantial areaof a newspaper pagedissemination distribution of anidea, statement, or informationthrough a mediumdissident press press that publishesarticles, reviews, etc., that are perceivedas opposing the mainstreampress, usually challenging the socialand political status quodissonance conflict between theideas, values, or views that a personholds and those directed at him or herthrough some form of communication(especially the media)dissonance theory view that peoplewill experience a kind of discomfortwhen confronted with new informationand thus will attempt to limit thediscomfort through manipulation ofthe information (selection of someaspects and rejection of others, adaptingit to previous information, etc.)distantiation idea that mediaproducts “keep a distance” from theideological systems within whichthey were created. The term was usedin the past to refer, for example, toclassical musicians in Soviet Russia(Shostakovich, Prokofiev, etc.) whosecompositions, though created inSoviet Russia, “kept their distance”from Communist ideology.distinctive feature aspect of languageor some other code that keepsforms within the code discerniblydistinct. For example, the differencebetween the s sound in sip and thez sound in zip exists as the absenceor presence, respectively, of thevibration of the vocal cords duringpronunciation. Such vibration is adistinctive feature.distribution system electronic systemthat moves signals over a cabletelevision network from the headend,where signals are received and processed,to the geographical areas thatreceive cable servicediurnals daily accounts of local newsprinted in England in the 1600s.Diurnals are the forerunners of themodern dailies.diversification a company’s ventureinto ownership of other related orunrelated enterprises, thus “diversifying”its businessDJ [see disc jockey]docudrama dramatization of real-lifeevents (such as the sinking of the Titanic)through film, radio, or televisiondocufiction 1. any fictional narrativeusing documentary techniques; 2.work in which actual recorded eventsare combined with recreations orimaginary scenesdocumentary nonfictional movie orprogram dealing with events or issues100

doo-wopin a factual manner, including interviews,film footage, and other typesof informationdocusoap documentary that followsthe lives of real people at home,work, play, and other locales, resemblingthe style of a fictional soapoperaDOG [see digitally originatedgraphic]dog-eat-dog marketing and advertisingstrategy of attacking the competitionmercilessly through disparagingads and other promotional strategiesDolby trademarked electronic circuitthat improves the quality of recordedsound by reducing noisedolly shot filmic tracking shot usinga moving platform (dolly) rather thansome other platform (for example, aguiding rail)domain name 1. on the World WideWeb, a name that identifies theowner of a site in some way (with asequence of words, phrases, abbreviations,symbols, etc.); 2. moregenerally, the Internet address of acomputer or network (for example,.edu, .org, etc.)domestic comedy a television hybridof the sitcom in which charactersand settings are usually more importantthan the complicated situationsthat characterize sitcoms. The basicstructure of the text revolves around adomestic problem that the charactershave to solve.dominant culture culture that isaccepted as the norm, or the mainstream,by most people living in aspecific societydominant discourse form of discoursethat is given the highestsocial authority or precedence overother discourses. For example, in areligious society, the discourse ofclerics and theologians is dominant,whereas in secular societies itis not.dominant ideology system of beliefsand values that a culture accepts asthe normdominant reading one of threesupposed readings or interpretationsthat can be gleaned from a media text(the other two being subordinateand radical) whereby the audienceaccepts the meanings, values, andviewpoints built into the text by itsmakersdoorstepping practice of journaliststo pressure an individual who is anunwilling source of information bystanding outside the person’s residenceor place of work, or by askingquestions as the person walks bydoo-wop style of singing andsongwriting, starting in the 1950s,characterized by catchy melodies,simple rhythms, beautiful vocal harmonies,and often featuring a choral101

dot-comaccompaniment with the expression“doo-wop” (hence the name of thegenre)dot-com any company that conductsits business primarily through the Internet.The term refers to the fact thatthe Internet address of such companiesends in “.com.”dot-com crash the burst of the “dotcombubble” (the increase in dot-combusinesses that gained rapid successin the late 1990s) in which many dotcombusinesses went bankrupt in theearly 2000sdot-comer person who owns orworks for a dot-com enterprisedouble substitute who resembles anactor and who stands in for him orher, especially in scenes that are dangerousor that require some specialskilldouble exposure exposure of twoimages on the same piece of film,making it seem that they have beenshot at the same timedouble feature [also called twin bill]two films shown on the same bill (fora single price of admission)double opt-in method by which userswho want to receive informationfrom a Web site can register themselvesas subscribersdouble-spotting technique of runninga commercial twice in a rowdownlinking transmission of datafrom a satellite downward to receiverswithin its range (called a footprint)downloading transferring data fromthe Internet to a computer, or fromone computer to anotherdowntime period of time in whicha communication network is inoperative,because of maintenance ormechanical breakdowndrabble short fictional work, usuallyaround 100 words in lengthdrama [also called theater] 1. play(usually serious in tone) written tobe performed on a stage or platformwith appropriate props; 2. by extension,any play in any media (e.g.,radio, television). It is not knownhow or when drama began, but nearlyevery culture has had some form of it.Some archaeologists claim that it mayhave developed from religious ritualsand ceremonies in which peopleimpersonated gods or animals. Otherssuggest that drama may have originatedin rituals of praise performedfor a dead hero, when the deeds of thehero’s life were acted out. Eventually,the stories of the lives were performedapart from the rituals, leadingto the birth of drama. A third theoryclaims that drama evolved frommythic storytelling, which developedinto dramatic retellings of events.There are four main forms of Westerndrama. First, the tragedy, whichrevolves around some tragic event or102

drive-time audienceslife story, usually of a hero who diesat the end because of a flaw in his orher character or on account of a deviousact perpetrated by an evil personage.Second, the serious drama,which emerged in the 1800s andwhich shares many of the features oftragedy, but in which the hero is moreordinary than the traditional tragichero and which does not necessarilyhave to end in his or her death. Third,the melodrama, which revolvesaround the actions of a villain whothreatens the “good characters” in theplay, and which usually has a happyending. Fourth, the comedy, whichaims to evoke laughter, but which canraise serious questions.drama documentary [also calleddocudrama] television or radio programthat dramatizes real events, fictionalizingthem somewhat for effectdrama series television or radiodrama broadcast in episodesdramatic irony stage technique oftelling an audience about an incongruityon the stage, of which thecharacters in the play or movie areunawaredramatis personae list of the namesof the characters in a play or story(Latin for the “characters of thedrama”), often printed at the beginningor enddramatist someone who writes dramasfor the stage, radio, television, orsome other mediumdramatization adaptation of a workof fiction, or the presentation of areal-life event, in dramatic form (forthe stage, radio, etc.)dramaturgy art of drama, referringto both the actual dramas and howthey are staged and the analysis ofdrama in all its dimensions (from thescript to the performance)dramedy [blend of drama andcomedy] television program thatblurs serious and comic themesdress program television programin which a real person (rather thanan actor) is transformed socially bydress experts who change his or appearanceby suggesting what clothesto wear, what cosmetics are appropriate,etc.dress rehearsal final rehearsal of aplay or musical performance, usuallyin costumedrip campaign low-profile adcampaign for a product, intended tomaintain brand awareness in a subtleway, rather than through an intensivecampaigndriver brand product brand thatinfluences (that is, “drives”) apurchase decision (e.g., ClassicCoca-Cola versus a sub-brand ofsoft drink manufactured by thesame company)drive-time audiences radio audienceswho listen to the radio in their cars103

dropped callin the morning on their way to workor school (usually 6 a.m.–9 a.m.)and in the late afternoon on their wayhome (usually 4 p.m.–7 p.m.)dropped call a call on a mobilephone that is terminated because ofloss of signalDRTV [see direct responsetelevision]dry run rehearsal that does not useany recording equipmentDSL [see digital service line]DTV [see digital television]dualism philosophical view that themind and body are separate entities,and that human beings have a dualnature—the corporeal and the psychicdubbing 1. adding music, voices, orsound effects to a film, a broadcast,or a recording by making a newsound track; 2. recording a soundtrack in a different languagedumbing-down making popularmedia texts (such as news reports)less intellectually challenging so thata larger audience can be gaineddummy layout of a newspaper page,showing where advertising materialsare to be placedduopoly single ownership of a mediaoutlet by two organizations (as opposedto monopoly, in which severalmedia outlets are owned by the sameorganization). Duopoly was sanctionedby the FCC in 1992.Durkheim, Émile (1858–1917)French sociologist who saw similaritiesamong the world’s mythsas evidence for a “collective consciousness”in the human species.durkheim saw the spreadof materialism as a destructivespiritual force in modern-day societies,leading to alienation and otherpsychic disorders. One of his mostinfluential books is De la division dutravail social (1893; The Division ofLabor).DVD [see digital versatile/videodisc]DVR [see digital videorecorder]dystopia [opposite of utopia]1. place or condition that is bad orimperfect; 2. literary genre in whicheverything is flawed, condemningmodern forms of social life. Theclassic example of dystopian literatureis Brave New World (1932) byAldous Huxley. The novel reflectsHuxley’s concern over the impactof science and technology onsociety.104

ear box in the top corner ofthe front page of a newspaper,used for advertisingor weather informationearly window theory notionthat media provide children witha “window on the world” before theyhave developed the critical ability tojudge what they are exposed to, thusinfluencing their worldview as theygrow uplast itemEa meaning in the text thattranscends these factors andcannot be simply discarded(as deconstructionsistsclaim). Perhaps his mostinfluential works in the areaof text interpretation are The Role ofthe Reader (1979) and The Limits ofInterpretation (1990).e-commerce [see electroniccommerce]earned rate discounted rate for printadvertising space, reserved for frequentadvertiserseasy listening style of popular musicwith simple melodies, lyrics, andharmonies, aimed mainly at adultaudienceseBay one of the largest online commercecompaniese-book [see electronic book]e-business [see electronic business]Echelon global computer surveillancesystem that has the capacity tointercept communicationsecho plate device used in broadcastingor recording that creates reverberationsor echo effectsEco, Umberto (1932–) Italian semioticianand novelist who claims that,while the interpretation of a text mayindeed be influenced by tradition andreader whims, there is neverthelesseconomic determinism view ofsome social theorists that economicconditions, structures, or systems determinesocial and cultural conditionseconomies of scale 1. view that therelative cost of some media venturestend to decline as the size of theventures grow; 2. more generally,the savings that can be gainedby producing larger quantities ofsomethinge-consulting [see electronicconsulting]écriture in semiotic theory, writingas a critical tool or as a means ofchallenging certain values, norms,social practices, ideologies, or views(originally proposed by JacquesDerrida)e-democracy [see electronicdemocracy]Edison, Thomas Alva (1847–1931)American inventor of the phonograph(early record player), and contributor105

editingto the development of the telegraph,telephone, and motion picturesediting altering texts of any kind tomake them clearer, more appropriate,or more effectiveediting decision list in film parlance,list of all the shots, audio tracks, andimages available for editingediting system computer system(such as software) that allows usersto create, modify, add, and/or deleteany type of information found on aWeb site or fileedition 1. copies of a publicationthat have been printed on a specificdate; 2. particular version of a regularbroadcasteditor 1. person in charge of editingany text; 2. person in charge of thedirection and content of a newspaperor magazineeditorial 1. article or column in anewspaper or magazine written bythe editor or under his or her direction,giving opinions about a subjector event; 2. broadcast expressing theopinion of the announcer, program,station, or networkeditorial policy the stance orposition taken by a media outleton a specific issue or set ofissuesEDTV [see extended-definitiontelevision]educational advertising advertisingdesigned to simulate education,informing (“educating”) consumersabout a product, especially if it has recentlybeen introduced into the marketedutainment [blend of education andentertainment] any media product ortext that both educates and entertainseffective frequency exposure to anadvertisement that brings about consumerawareness with little expenditureof time, money, and efforteffective reach percentage of anaudience that has had an effectiveexposure to an ad or commercialeffects coordinator member of afilm or television production crewresponsible for planning and directingspecial effectseffects models in media studies,models that explain any effects(psychological, social, cultural) thatmedia may have on people, societies,and cultures, such as hypodermicneedle theory, moral panictheory, and uses and gratificationstheoryeffigy dummy made to representa hated person or group, used tocritique, affront, or insult the personor groupe-fraud [see electronic fraud]ego in psychoanalysis, the part ofthe psyche containing consciousness106

Electronic Frontier Foundationand personal memories. The ego isone of the three basic constituentsof human character, the others beingthe id and the superego. In classicalpsychoanalytic theory, the ego is saidto resolve conflicts among a person’sinstinctive impulses, his or her senseof guilt, and the demands of socialreality. In popular usage, the wordhas come to mean selfishness, losingits psychoanalytic sense.eighty-twenty rule in marketing,rule-of-thumb which assumes that 80percent of the products marketed willbe consumed by 20 percent of thecustomerse-journalism [see electronicjournalism]elaborated codes [in contrast torestricted codes] discourse patternsthat are thought to be characteristicof the middle classes and educatedindividuals, involving the use of alarge vocabulary, full grammar, andother formal speech devicese-learning [see electronic learning]electronic book [abbreviated ase-book] digital book having theappearance of a traditional paperbook but with its content storeddigitally. E-books can be updatedfrom a bookstore or a Web site thatsells them.electronic bookmark function on anInternet browser that allows a user toreturn to a Web page easilyelectronic bulletin board systemscomputerized systems, e-mail orWeb-based, that allow users to postand share messages, computer programs,and other digital informationelectronic business [abbreviated ase-business] 1. Internet company;2. practice of conducting businessthrough the Internetelectronic cartoon [abbreviated ase-toon] a humorous drawing that isproduced onlineelectronic church use of electronicmedia to broadcast religious subjectmatterelectronic commerce [abbreviated ase-commerce] business transactionscarried out over the Internetelectronic consulting [abbreviatedas e-consulting] consulting serviceson such matters as Web page design,offered to companies that do businesson the Internetelectronic democracy [abbreviatedas e-democracy] use of the Internetto distribute information freely onmatters of a political, social, and/orideological natureelectronic fraud [abbreviated ase-fraud] criminal fraud that takesplace on the InternetElectronic Frontier Foundationnonprofit agency that supports theprotection of individual civil liberties107

electronic gamein the world of advanced communicationstechnologyelectronic game [see computer game]electronic journalism [abbreviatedas e-journalism] publication of newsthat occurs on the Internet or in someother electronic broadcast mediumelectronic learning [abbreviatedas e-learning] learning involvingthe utilization of electronic technology,such as computer networks andInternet-based courseworkelectronic magazine [abbreviatedas e-zine] magazine that is accessedonlineelectronic mail [abbreviated ase-mail] mail sent from one computerto another. To send and receive e-mailmessages, an individual must havean e-mail address, which serves thesame function that a street addressdoes for traditional mail delivery,now called “snail mail.” Such addressesare obtained from commercialbusinesses known as Internetservice providers (ISPs) or onlineservices. These also supply the computersoftware needed to compose,send, receive, and read e-mail.electronic media media such asradio and television (in contrast toprint media)electronic money [abbreviated ase-money] currency in digital formthat can be transmitted through computernetworks and systems such asthe World Wide Webelectronic music [also called electronicaor techno] style of music thatbecame popular in the 1980s, usingequipment such as synthesizers andcomputers to produce its characteristic“electronic sound”electronic news gathering recordingof news events using small videocameras and a minimal crewelectronic news production systemsoftware that allows newsroom productionon a desktop computerElectronic Numerical Integratorand Computer [abbreviated asENIAC] world’s first all-electronicgeneral-purpose computer; designedand built in 1946 by Americanengineers John W. Mauchly and J.Presper Eckert, Jr., at the Universityof Pennsylvania. ENIAC was 1800square feet in size, weighed 30 tons,contained 17,468 vacuum tubes, andhad 6,000 manual switches.electronic program guide on-screentelevision guide providing informationabout programs and channelselectronic publishing [abbreviatedas e-publishing] publication and distributionof books online or in someelectronic format (such as CD-ROM)electronic shopping [abbreviatedas e-shopping] buying products andservices online108

emergent cultureelectronic smog electronic fieldsproduced in the atmosphere becauseof overflow radiation from radar,broadcasting transmissions, electricalappliances, or mobile phones; consideredby some to constitute a serioushealth riskelectronic town hall use of electronicmedia (television, Internet) forpolitical purposes on the part of bothpoliticians and the publicelectronica [see electronic music]electrotactile illusion semblance oftouch produced by virtual realitytechnologyelegy poem or song lamenting adeceased person. The elegy becamepopular in the ancient world throughthe writings of Callimachus (thirdcentury b.c.e.) and Catullus (firstcentury b.c.e.). Among the bestknownEnglish-language elegies areLycidas (1638) by John Milton andElegy Written in a Country Churchyard(1751) by Thomas Gray.ellipsis 1. omission of a word orwords necessary for making acomplete grammatical construction,because the construction canbe understood in the context inwhich it occurs: for example, Sarahis as smart as her brother insteadof Sarah is as smart as her brotheris smart; 2. series of dots used inwriting or printing to indicate anomission: The colors are red, blue,orange . . . and yellowEllul’s theory of technique[after philosopher JacquesElull] idea that technologicaladvances make communicationand social interaction increasinglyefficiente-mail [see electronic mail]e-mail campaign advertising campaignthat uses e-mails to deliverpitches for a product, service, orpolitical purposeembedded journalism news coveragein which correspondents actuallytake part in some aspect of a war(such as accompanying a specificbattalion) in order to report on it “asit happens”emblem visual symbol designed toennoble something or someone orto represent it as distinctive in someway: for example, the emblem usedby the Girl Scoutsemergent attribute benefit, quality,concept, or experience that is associatedwith a brand: for example, the“friendliness” of Googleemergent culture 1. idea thatradical cultural forms tend to emergespontaneously from the generalpopulation to challenge the statusquo; 2. notion developed by Britishsocial critic Raymond W illiamsthat at any point in its history, anew form of culture emerges toprominence109

Emmy AwardEmmy Award honor conferred annuallyby the American Academyof Television Arts and Sciences foroutstanding achievement in television.Emmys are given to performers,directors, writers, art directors,costume designers, editors, soundmixers, and performers. The firstemmys were awarded in 1949. Website: www.emmys.orge-money [see electronic money]emoticon string of keyboard charactersthat, when viewed sideways(or in some other orientation), canbe seen to suggest a face expressinga particular emotion. An emoticon isoften used in an e-mail message ornewsgroup posting as a comment onthe text that accompanies it. Commonemoticons include the smiley :-) or :)and the winkey ;-) and the yawn :-O,among others.emotional appeal advertisingtechnique designed to appeal to theemotions rather than to the rationalintellect of the consumeremotive function as defined byRoman Jakobson, the role playedby the addresser’s (sender’s) emotionsin the construction and deliveryof messages in communicationempathy feeling of identificationwith the experience or emotions ofanother personempirical data data that comes fromactual observationsempiricism view in philosophy andpsychology that we learn throughexperience and thus that we are bornwith an “empty slate” (tabula rasa),as opposed to innatism, which assertsthat we are born with all knowledgestructures already intact and that theenvironment simply triggers themempowerment process (political,social) that gives people the ability tomake their own choices and controltheir livesencoder person, group, or institutionthat creates a message on the basis ofa specific code or codesencoding [opposite of decoding]process of making or saying somethingwith the resources of a specificcode. The quantity ‘“four”can represented with the digit “4”or “100”—the former is encodedfrom the decimal code and the latterfrom the binary code of numbers.Analogously, a media text, such as asitcom, is put together with a specificsocial code (father as head ofthe family, mother as wise leader ofthe family, etc.), which shapes howit is perceived, which audiences it ismeant to attract, and so on.encryption electronic masking ofinformation on the Web that can bedeciphered only by a recipient whohas the unmasking code, known asthe decryption keyenculturation process wherebysomeone acquires the values, beliefs,110

enlargementand worldview of the culture inwhich he or she is reared or to whichhe or she is exposedencyclopedia reference work (paper,electronic) giving information onall or specific types of knowledge.In ancient times, scholars presentedinformation in any order they chose,and they had few ways to check itsaccuracy. They also scattered these invarious forms (in scrolls, on papyri,etc.). The word encyclopedia didnot come into common use until the1700s, when the modern concept ofthis work surfaced as a result of theideas of Enlightenment scholars whostarted listing items of knowledge inalphabetical order and according tofield (science, music, art, language,etc.). The first popular encyclopediaof this kind was constructed by DenisDiderot as a 28-volume work titledEncyclopédie ou dictionnaire raisonéedes sciences, des arts et des métiers(1751–1772)—Encyclopedia of Sciences,Arts, and Trades—that set thestandard for all subsequent encyclopedias.Until the mid-1980s, mostencyclopedias were only availablein book form. The first compact discencyclopedia was produced by Grolierin 1985. Compton’s Multimedia Encyclopediawas released in this formatin 1989, integrating various media(sound, pictures, etc.) and text in whatcame to be called a CD-ROM. Thereare now online encyclopedias, themost widely used being Wikipedia(Web site: www.wikipedia.org). Sincethese can be updated, many predict theend of the paper encyclopedia.endnote reference that appears at theend of a chapter or book, rather thanat the bottom of a pageendorsement public support given toa product for advertising purposesengraving art of carving images on ahard surfaceenhanced television services optionalor additional services, suchas subtitles and closed captioning,provided by some channels or cablecompaniesENIAC [see Electronic NumericalIntegrator and Computer]enigma baffling puzzle or riddle.The Riddle of the Sphinx, solvedby Oedipus, is probably the firstenigma ever composed: What is itthat walks on four at sunrise, on twoat noon, and on three at dusk? Theanswer is human beings who crawl(on all fours) at birth (the sunriseof life), stand up as they grow (thenoon hour of life), and need a caneto make it through old age (the duskof life).enigma code one of the five codesused in the construction of mediatexts, based on secrets and how theywork emotionally and intellectuallyin texts. The other codes are calledaction, referential, semantic,and symbolic.enlargement copy of a photographicimage that is larger than the original111

EnlightenmentEnlightenment [also called theAge of Reason] eighteenth-centuryphilosophical movement that emphasizedreason and science (ratherthan faith and religion). The Enlightenmentlasted until the late 1700s;its leaders included several Frenchphilosophers—the Marquis de Condorcet,Denis Diderot, Jean-JacquesRousseau, and Voltaire—and theEnglish philosopher John Locke.Philosophers of the Enlightenmentstarted the tradition of organizingknowledge in encyclopedias and ofcreating institutes for the preservationof knowledge and the conduct ofscientific inquiry and debate.énoncé in cultural theory, the way inwhich a content of a text is presentedsince, as its French name implies, thetext has to be enunciated or expressedin a specific wayentailment 1. process of coming to alogical conclusion on the basis of thegiven premises or facts; 2. in linguistics,any sentence that is inferredfrom another: for example, Bill is abachelor entails Bill is not married.enterprise fiction literary genre offictional works, written primarily bywomen, revolving around the themeof female triumph (enterprise) in amale-dominated world through hardwork and determinationentertainment mode of contact withan audience that aims to providean experience that is pleasurable.Entertainment is characterized by aconstant search for novelty and theavoidance of offending or alienatingimportant audience segments. InMarxist theory, entertainment is seenas part of capitalist ideology, sinceit is claimed that entertainment isused to justify discursive and socialpractices, especially discriminatoryones, such as sexism.entertainment reporter journalistor broadcast announcer who reportson entertainment news, especiallyconcerning celebritiesentertainment television televisionchannel that deals with entertainmentnews, issues, announcements, celebritiesenthusiast in advertising jargon, anyindividual who loves ads and commercialsfor their own sakeentropy measure of informationand of the efficiency of informationsystems based on probability factors.When an alarm system is “off” it hasvirtually no entropy, whereas whenit is “on” it has maximum entropy.The term is also used to indicate theamount of “disorder” that exists in asystem, as measured by randomnessfactors present in it.epic lengthy narrative poem or songtelling about the deeds of heroes andthe gods. Some epics recount how aculture or people began. The earliestepics were probably sung and hadno established text, just the outlineof a well-known tale. In Westernculture, the epic began with the Iliad112

e-publishingand the Odyssey by Homer, who mayhave lived during the eighth or ninthcentury b.c.e. Both form a cyclebased on the partly historical andpartly mythical Trojan War. Homerwas followed in Roman culture bythe poet Virgil. Epics start in mediasres (in the middle of things), that is,after a significant portion of the actionhas already taken place and with an“invocation” in which the poet asksa Muse for divine inspiration. Epicpoetry declined during the 1700s withthe rise of prose fiction. Its appealwas revived in the Romantic periodby English poet William Wordsworthwith his epic poem The Prelude(1805, published 1850) and by Americanpoet Walt Whitman with his Songof Myself (1855); and in the twentiethcentury by British poet T.S. Eliot withhis Four Quartets (1943). The popularseries of Star Wars movies (starting1977) have epic structure, starting inmedias res and having the same typeof thematic content of ancient epics,especially the Homeric epics.epigram short, usually witty poem orsaying. In ancient Greece, epigramswere inscribed often on statues,build ings, coins, and the like. Popularsayings are really epigrams: When itrains it pours; The only way to get ridof a temptation is to yield to it (OscarWilde).epilogue 1. short section added tothe end of a work, providing furtherinformation, insight, etc.; 2. speechgiven by an actor to address an audiencedirectly at the end of a playepisode 1. part of a serial (novel,movie, television, etc.) that ispublished or broadcast separately;2. incident in a plot that has significancefor the overall storyepistemic as defined by MichelFoucault, the ways of thinking andknowing that are characteristic of aspecific intellectual era: for example,“medieval thought,” “Enlightenmentphilosophy.” For Foucault, an epistemeis a form of knowledge grounded indiscourse derived from a specific eraand mode of thought. For instance, thegender of an individual (the role he orshe is expected to play according to hisor her biological sex) is an epistemethat can only be interpreted in specificdiscourse and cultural terms, not tomention historical traditions.epistemology in Western philosophy,the study of knowledge in all its dimensions,from what it is to how it isacquired and encoded by language. Italso includes the study of the relationbetween knowledge, belief systems,truth, and reality.epithet descriptive word or phrase(usually with satirical or critical intent)used in place of the actual name ofsomeone, highlighting an attribute orfeature of his or her personality: forexample, egghead for “a smart person”eponym person for whom a place orthing is namede-publishing [see electronicpublishing]113

equal timeequal time Federal CommunicationsCommission requirement that whena political candidate is allowed tobroadcast a message by commercialmedia, opposing candidates must beoffered equal timeequilibrium in a narrative, the stateof stability present at the start andthe state to which it returns after theresolution of tensions. A narrativestarts off typically with a situation inwhich things are as they are (hencein equilibrium). Then somethinghappens to upset the equilibrium(a crisis, a challenge). This state ofimbalance is eventually resolved andthe initial stable state is put back,regained, or re-evoked in some way.escapism use of media (such asgoing to the movies) to escape fromdaily routine or pressing personalproblemsescapist genre any text (novel,television program, film, piece ofmusic) that provides pure entertainment,rather than engagement, allowingpeople to “escape from reality”temporarilye-shopping [see electronicshopping]essentialism view that a text alwayscontains an “essence” that defines itas an exemplar of a genreesthetics [see aesthetics]e-system [see electronic system]etching the art of engraving a figure,symbol, or word on a hard surfaceethics rules or principles of behaviorthat are purported to guide actionsethnocentrism tendency of seeingthings in terms of the values, beliefs,and worldview associated with one’sethnic heritageethnographic research [also calledparticipant observation] anthropologicalmethod of describing peoplesor groups by becoming involved withthem in some way (such as livingamong them for a period of time).The term also refers to a written,photographic, or filmed report thatprovides such a description.e-toon [see electronic cartoon]euphemism word or phrase used inplace of another because it is consideredless offensive or discordant: forexample, pass away for die; vomit forthrow upEuro English an official language ofthe European Unioneurocentricism tendency ofeuropeans, or those of Europeanheritage, to evaluate things interms of their European culturalheritageevaluation research advertisingmethod of analyzing how well anad campaign has met its originalaims114

expressionevent television television programmingthat involves reporting an eventlive, such as a baseball game or aconcertevergreens in television syndication,popular and enduring network rerunssuch as I Love Lucy and Seinfeldexclamation abruptly uttered word orphrase expressing a strong emotion,such as fright, grief, imploration,hatred, and so on; for example, Yikes!Help!exclusive story that has only beencovered in one media outlet in advanceof other outletsexegesis critical explanation or analysisof a textexistentialism twentieth-centurymovement in philosophy, writing, andthe arts which denied that life has anyintrinsic meaning or purpose and thusthat individuals must assume responsibilityfor their actions. Existentialismcrystallized from the ideas of Danishphilosopher and theologian SørenKierkegaard and German philosopherFriedrich Nietzsche. Existentialistwriters emphasize the isolation that anindividual experiences in a cold andbarren universe. The most prominentexistentialists include writers AlbertCamus, Jean-Paul Sartre, and GabrielMarcel; and philosophers Karl Jaspersand Martin Heidegger.exnomination view claiming thatwidely held values are rarely challengedbecause they are not articulatedas such. The term was introducedby Roland Barthes to explain whythe dominance of those in powergoes unexamined—because it isnot named as such (exnominated).This ensures that people will see thevalues of dominant groups not as tiedto any special interests, but rather asimplicit human values. The term hasbeen used, by extension, to explainwhy stereotyping persists in themedia.exogenous stations clandestinebroadcasting operations situatedoutside the regions to which theytransmit programsexperiential advertising advertisingmethod based on getting the consumerto experience the product directly(for example, by trying it)experimental group group that isbeing experimented upon (as opposedto the control group, which is not) inorder to see if it reacts, behaves, ordoes something differentlyexperimental research researchusing actual subjects to discoverif a media text or an advertisingcampaign produces observable (andsometimes measurable) resultsexposé newspaper report, televisiondocumentary, or Web site designed toreveal a scandal, crime, etc.expression 1. look on someone’s facethat communicates some thought or115

expressionismexternal search method of findinginformation from external sources orfrom the World Wide Webexternal service in internationalbroadcasting, service used by a countryto counter enemy propaganda andspread information about itselfextra actor employed temporarily ina minor role in a film productionextramercial in cyberadvertising(advertising online), an ad that slidesdown a Web pageThe Scream (1893) by Edvard Munchemotion; 2. word or phrase communicatinga specific concept: in themood, night and day, etc.; 3. interpretationof a musical text that draws outits emotional qualitiesexpressionism early twentiethcenturyart movement emphasizingthe inner experiences of humans(such as fear, love, etc.). EdvardMunch’s expressionist painting TheScream, for example, conveys a feelingof anguish and inner torment in avery dramatic way.extended-definition television [abbreviatedas EDTV] enhanced televisiontransmission system that offers avery high definition and wider aspectratioeye candy nonessential features on aWeb pageeye tracking 1. advertising researchmethod whereby the eye movementof subjects is recorded in order todetermine which parts of the brainare activated while viewing an ad orcommercial; 2. technique of followingthe eye movements of Internetusers in order to determine what theylook at and for how long, so that Webpage designers can improve the effectivenessof their siteseyeballs Internet users who visit aparticular Web site frequentlyeyewitness account report of anevent by someone who was there toobserve ite-zine [see electronic magazine]116

fable story designed toimpart a moral lesson or averity about human life; thecharacters are often animalsor mythical creatures whoare given human traits, andthe moral is often stated explicitly atthe end. The animal stories of Aesop(sixth century b.c.e.) are among thebest-known and oldest fables in history.Another collection of beast fablesis the Sanskrit Panchatantra (ca. thirdcentury c.e.). A popular collection offables, entitled Le roman de Renart,emerged in France between the latetwelfth and fourteenth centuries. Thefables of Jean de la Fontaine, publishedbetween 1668 and 1694, becameinternationally renowned. Otherfabulists include the nineteenthcenturyDanish writer Hans ChristianAndersen and the twentieth-centuryItalian novelist Italo Calvino.last itemFprofiles can be posted. Itwas originally developedfor university students,faculty, and staff, but hassince expanded to includeanyone. Web site: www.facebook.comfacial expression appearance assumedby the face, unconsciously orwittingly, to communicate something(usually an emotional state). Facialexpressions include winking, smiling,grimacing, and the like. In 1963psychologist Paul Ekman establishedthe Human Interaction Laboratoryin the Department of Psychiatry atthe University of California at SanFrancisco for the purpose of studyingfacial expressions. Ekman and hisresearch team have established somefacial expressions as universal signsof particular emotions.fabliau generally satirical, oftenbawdy tale composed and recitedby wandering minstrels; the genreemerged in France in the twelfthcentury and was popular through themid-fourteenth century. Around 150fabliaux have survived. The form wasemulated by medieval writers, includingGeoffrey Chaucer, whose CanterburyTales contains six fabliaux. Thefabliau is considered a precursor tothe modern short story.fabula in narrative theory, any storywith fable-like qualities and structureFacebook online social networkingsite, founded in 2004, where personalfacsimile [see fax]fact sheet 1. information sheet orbooklet that provides details abouta subject covered by a broadcast ornews story; 2. sheet containing dataabout a product, used by advertisersto help them create ads and campaignsfactory studios the first film productionstudiosfad a craze or fashion trend that istaken up with great enthusiasm for abrief period of time: for example, thehula hoop fad, the sudoku fad, andso on117

fadeawayfadeaway filming technique ofgradually decreasing light or sounduntil it disappears completelyfade-in technique of gradually introducingimages or sounds until theybecome visible or audiblefade-out 1. technique of graduallyremoving images or sounds until theybecome invisible or inaudible; 2.gradual loss of a broadcast signalfair use legal principle stating thatunder certain limited conditions (e.g.,for educational purposes) individualsmay make copies of copyrighted materialwithout seeking the permissionof the copyright holderFairness Doctrine U.S. broadcastingregulation (abolished in1987) that required broadcasters tocover issues of public importancefairly and to provide equal air timeto representatives of opposingviewpointsfairy tale story revolving aroundfairies or other imaginary supernaturalbeings who become involved inhuman affairs using magic. Talesof Mother Goose (1697) by Frenchwriter Charles Perrault and FairyTales (2 volumes, 1812–1815) by theGrimm brothers, Jacob and WilhelmKarl, are among the best-known fairytales in Western literature.false claim untrue or exaggeratedclaim made in the advertising of aproduct or serviceStill from Snow White and the SevenDwarfs (1937)false consciousness in Marxisttheory, the claim that common peopledevelop a false sense of their socialidentity, which helps maintain thestatus quo and is thus of great advantageto the ruling class, which wantsto avoid change in social structure.Essentially, false consciousness occurswhen people are conditionednot to see any need to take politicalaction in their own best interests.family movies movies designed forviewing by families together; thestory line often revolves around relationsbetween children and parentsfamily viewing television programmingthat is deemed suitable forchildrenfamous-person testimonial in advertising,the endorsement of a productby a well-known person (a moviestar, an athlete, etc.)fan (derived from “fanatic”) a personwith a strong liking for or interest ina performer, program, event, or sport118

fast motionfan fiction fictional story written bythe fan of a celebrity, in which the celebrityis the main character (postedtypically on Web sites)fantasy literary genre that featuresimaginary or magical worlds, characters,and events, usually intended forchildren. The most famous fantasyin children’s literature is, arguably,Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures inWonderland (1865), revolving aroundthe adventures of a girl named Alice,who reaches a magic land after shefollows a white rabbit down a hole inthe ground. Perhaps the most popularfantasy novel by an Americanauthor is L. Frank Baum’s WonderfulWizard of Oz (1900), which followsthe adventures of a girl who has beencarried by a cyclone from Kansas to amagic land. E.B. White’s Charlotte’sWeb (1952), about friendship amonganimals on a farm, is another classicexample of a fantasy story.fanzine magazine produced by fansfor other fans of a celebrity or ahobby (such as a particular videogame). The early fanzines werecreated around punk bands in themid-1970s and then spread to otherdomains of popular culture, such assports (teams, for example, publishedfanzines). Today, Internet discussionsites and blogs have taken on thefunctions of fanzines, rendering themvirtually obsolete.FAQ [full form: frequently askedquestions] section on Web sites thatprovides answers to questions thatvisitors often have about the site orthe information it containsfarce comedy genre intended toevoke laughter through caricature byplacing characters in improbable orludicrous situations. In the medievalperiod, farces were often based onfolk tales. Today, farce, slapstick, andbuffoonery are used interchangeablyto designate any comedy involvingpranks (e.g., throwing a pie in someone’sface, pushing unsuspectingpeople into swimming pools, etc.).Farnsworth, Philo T. (1906–1971)American pioneer in televisiontechnology, who built an electronictelevision camera tube known as animage dissector in 1927; it producedan electronic signal that correspondedto the brightness of the objects beingtelevisedfashion shoot session for photographingmodels wearing clothingfashions, usually for publication in amagazinefashion show exhibition of clothingin the latest styles, worn and displayedby models on a runway, usually accompaniedby music. Many mediacritics now identify fashion shows as aspecific genre of variety show.fast-forward function on a taperecorder that causes the tape to windforward rapidlyfast motion film action that appearsfaster than is naturally possible119

fasttrackbecause it was shot at a slower speedthan the speed at which it is projectedFastTrack network application thatpermits users to interconnect, searchfile directories, and share music,video, and other filesfax [abbreviation of facsimile] deviceallowing the electronic transmissionof printed or pictorial documentsacross telephone lines or throughwireless technology from one locationto anotherFCC [see Federal CommunicationsCommission]fear appeal advertising message thatmakes the audience anxious or fearful,emphasizing ways in which theproduct can help people overcometheir anxiety or fearfeature 1. longer, more probing articleor story in a print medium (newspaperor magazine) covering human interesttopics as opposed to hard news; 2.item for a radio or television program,usually consisting of interviewsfeature film main film shown at amotion picture theater (or on television),usually the longest of two ormore films shown in one programfeature syndicates clearinghouses(such as United Features and KingFeatures) that provide the workof journalists, feature writers, andcartoonists to newspapers and othermedia outletsFederal Communications Act of1934 U.S. legislative act that establishedthe Federal CommunicationsCommissionFederal Communications Commission[abbreviated as FCC] federalagency, founded in 1934, responsiblefor regulating broadcast and electroniccommunications in the UnitedStates. Web site: www.fcc.govFederal Trade Commission [abbreviatedas FTC] federal agency, establishedin 1914, that is responsible forregulating national advertising andfor ensuring consumer protection.Web site: www.ftc.govfeedback 1. response pattern to agiven communication; 2. informationthat is fed directly back to the senderin a communication system, enablingthe system to adjust its operation asneeded; in linguistic communication,the process by which people adjusttheir messages as they are deliveringthem, in response to the reactions( facial expressions, bodily movements)of their interlocutors.feeder cables television cables thatrun from trunk cables to individualneighborhoodsfeeding sending a program or signalfrom one station to other stationsFellinesque a film or media text thatblends reality and fantasy, reminiscentof the methods of FedericoFellini, the renowned Italian motion120

feminist theorypicture director. Fellini often developedthe script as the film wasbeing made. Many of his films relyheavily on the use of symbolism andimagery, creating obscure dreamlikesequences.feminism movement advocatingequal rights and opportunities forwomen. Feminist beliefs have existedthroughout history, but feminismdid not become widespread in theWestern world until the mid-1800s,when women began to protest againstsocial and political injustices, suchas the barring of women from votingin elections and serving on juries,and from admission to most institutionsof higher education and mostprofessional careers. Many historiansregard the feminist movementas a turning point in the history ofmodern societies. There have beenseveral waves of feminism, startingin the 1960s, influencing theories ofculture, gender, and the like. The firstone, called strictly “feminism,” tookthe general slant on sexual culture asserving male-oriented interests and,thus, catering to male voyeurism;the second main wave, called “postfeminism,”starting in the 1980s, tookthe view that females have actuallyalways been in charge of the gazethemselves, that is, that while thevoyeurs may be men, what they lookat is under the control of women.feminist theory [also called feministcriticism] important theoryemerging in the late 1960s devotedto deconstructing gender biases inmedia and society. Early feministcriticism viewed media representationsof women as constructs thatwere subservient to the male psyche,arguing that these were degradingto women, as well as a sourceof influence in promoting violenceagainst women. Some of these critiqueswere well founded, given thespread of images of women as either“sexual cheerleaders” or “motherlyhomemakers” in many media programs(such as TV sitcoms). However,already in the 1950s, there weresitcoms such as The Honeymoonersand I Love Lucy that featured strongwilled,independent females asprotagonists. Moreover, having interpretedthe display of women’s bodiesin media and advertising as servingmale voyeurism, the early feministsare now critiqued as having ignoredthe fact that open sexuality playeda critical role in liberating women.With the entrance of Madonna ontothe pop culture stage in the mid-1980s, the tide in feminist theorychanged radically, leading to whatis now called postfeminism. Postfeministsinterpret the representationof female sexuality in public placesand in media not as exploitation,but rather as a transgressive form ofsocial discourse, even viewing stripteasingand pornography as crucialplayers in the ongoing sexual revolutionin women’s liberation. The postfeministperspective has thus comeforward to provide a vastly differentview of media representations ofwomanhood than traditional feministand religious views.121

femme fatalefemme fatale female character inmovies and other media of greatseductive charm who leads men intocompromising or dangerous situationsor who destroys those whosuccumb to her charmsFerguson, Marjorie (1929–1999)feminist scholar whose work on therepresentation of women in media iswidely respected. Among her most influentialworks are Forever Feminine:Women’s Magazines and the Cult ofFemininity (1983) and Cultural Studiesin Question (with P. Golding, 1997).fetish 1. object perceived as havingmagical powers; 2. object or bodypart that causes sexual arousal, oftenbecoming an object of fixationfeuilleton section of a Europeannewspaper containing fiction, reviews,and cultural articlesfiber-optic cable cable that carriessignals rapidly over very thin glassfibers for long-distance transmissionsfiction any work whose content isimaginary rather than purely factual.The fabliaux, romances, and novellasof the Middle Ages were the forerunnersof the novel, the first true fictiongenre.field of view extent of a scene thatcan be captured by a camerafieldwork in marketing, researchmethod consisting of gathering informationby conducting surveysfigure a representation of someone orsomething (a diagram, picture, drawing,etc.)figure of speech word, phrase, orexpression that has a nonliteral sense,adding color, evaluation, or insightto a text: He was born with a silverspoon in his mouth = He was borninto a privileged situationfile sharing activity of exchanginginformation electronically, especiallythrough the InternetFile Transfer Protocol [abbreviatedas FTP] common way of transferringfiles across the Internet, usually witha browserfilm 1. thin sheet or strip of developedphotographic negatives ortransparencies; 2. sequence of imagesprojected onto a screen with sufficientrapidity as to create the illusionof motion and continuity; 3. by extension,a work (narrative, documentary,etc.) realized in this form [seealso cinema]film music music composed to accompanya filmfilm noir moody, pessimistic filmmakingstyle that was very popularin the United States during the 1940sand 1950s (in French, the term noirmeans “black”). A typical film noirshowed a world of corruption andcrime, with cynical characters trappedin dismal situations that led invariablyto their destruction. The plot gener-122

Fiske, Johnally took place in large Americancities, generally at night and in dingysurroundings. The movie’s gloomytone was accentuated by edgy musicand shadowy backgrounds. Somefamous examples of film noir includeThe Maltese Falcon (1941), DoubleIndemnity (1944), and The Big Heat(1953). Starting in the 1970s someAmerican directors attempted torecapture the film noir style with moviessuch as Chinatown (1974), TaxiDriver (1976), The Grifters (1990),and L.A. Confidential (1997).film theory area of film studies thatdeals with film genres, rather thanany specific analysis or critique offilms. Film theorists look at moviesas texts and how they deliver meanings(aesthetic or otherwise).filmography 1. writing about movies;2. list of movies, usually of a givendirector, actor, or a specific genrefiltering software software that automaticallyblocks access to Web sitescontaining offensive materialfinal cut final edited version of a filmreleased publiclyFinancial Interest and syndicationrules [abbreviated as fin-syn] FCCrules outlining the amount of programownership that televisionnetworks are allowed. Rescinded inthe mid-1990s, the rules were intendedto prohibit the major networksfrom running their own syndicationcompanies.fine arts arts (such as sculpture,painting, and music) that are perceivedto have aesthetic qualitiesrather than simple decorative orutilitarian functions (crafts)fin-syn [see Financial Interest andSyndication Rules]fireside chat broadcast in which thepresident of the United States talksin an informal manner to the people.This type of program was initiated onradio by Franklin D. Roosevelt duringthe Great Depression as a way ofreassuring people about his policies.firewall software preventing unauthorizedaccess to a computer, Website, etc.First Amendment amendment tothe U.S. Constitution that guaranteesfreedom of speech and is thus continuallycited in media debates: “Congressshall make no law respecting an establishmentof religion, or prohibitingthe free exercise thereof; or abridgingthe freedom of speech, or of the press;or the right of the people peacefully toassemble, and to petition the Governmentfor a redress of grievances.”first edition 1. first print run of adaily newspaper; 2. first publishedversion of a bookfirst-run syndication programmingproduced specifically for the syndicatedtelevision marketFiske, John (1939–) scholar whoseinsights on the meanings built into123

fixed breakmedia products and events (intentionallyor unconsciously) have becomewidely cited. Among his most influentialworks are Television Culture(1987) and Understanding PopularCulture (1989).fixed break practice of placing commercialsin a specific place withina radio or television programmingformatfixed spot item that is broadcast at aspecific time; for example, news onthe hourflack derogatory epithet describing apublic relations professionalflaming act of sending an offensivee-mail or of posting an offensivenewsgroup itemflappers stylish and fun-lovingyoung women of the 1920s, whoshowed disdain for the previousVictorian social conventions throughchanges in clothing and lifestyleflash 1. brief news story that isbroadcast immediately, often interruptingan ongoing program; 2.device used to produce a short brightlight in photographyflash forward to jump forward to alater point in a narrative for a dramaticeffectflash prank Web site designed toshock visitors with sudden scary imagesand loud noisesflashback literary or cinematic techniqueof inserting an earlier event intothe normal chronological order of anarrative, showing what happened orproviding further informationflick colloquial term for movie or filmflier leaflet used for advertisingpurposesfloodlight lamp with a wide angle,used to provide light broadly for filmingpurposesfloor manager person who is responsiblefor the technical aspectsof filming during a film shoot or in atelevision studiofloppy disk small plastic disk coatedon both sides with magnetic materialthat can record and store computerdata. Floppy disks are being used lessand less as new technology is makingavailable more convenient andpowerful devices such as USB portsthat have rendered the floppy disk’sstorage capacity inadequate for manytypes of files.flow 1. movement of somethingsuch as information; 2. an evening’sscheduled programming; 3. view putforward by Raymond Williamsthat audiences experience televisionprograms not as autonomous entitiesbut as elements in a flow of similarentitiesflow chart diagram used in computerscience and other sciences and dis-124

footnoteciplines, which is designed to showhow the procedures used in performinga task are connected to each otherfly-on-the-wall documentary documentarystyle, similar to cinémavérité,in which small cameras areused to film subjects as they go abouttheir routine businessFM radio [full form: frequencymodulation radio] system of radiotransmission in which wave frequenciesare modulated in tandem withthe audio signal being transmitted.The first FM system was establishedin 1936, but became popular only inthe late 1960s. Frequency modulationhas several advantages over the alternateradio broadcasting system ofamplitude modulation (AM): greaterfreedom from interference and static;a higher signal-to-noise ratio; and operationin the high-frequency bands.focal points five main areas of interestin the study of media and communication:the media text, the makerof the text, the audience, Americansociety (or its equivalent in otherparts of the world), and the mediafocus group interview researchmethod that brings together audiencesor consumer groups to discuss a mediatext or an ad, under the guidance of atrained interviewer. The responses arerecorded and are later analyzed.folk music music style consistingof a people’s traditional songs andmelodiesfolk rock style of music developedby Bob Dylan (1941–) in the 1960swith poetic lyrics set to a rock beat,but evoking traditional folk musicmelodies, rhythms, and themes. Folkrock was the first major challenge torock’s domination by the British inthe 1960s.folklore set of traditional beliefs, stories,sayings, and art forms. Folkloreincludes cures, superstitions, festivalcustoms, games, dances, proverbs,nursery rhymes, charms, and riddles.folktale narrative tale, usually createdin early oral traditions; examplesinclude myths, legends, fables, andfairy talesfollow shot camera shot in which amoving subject is filmed as the camerafollows the subjectfollow-up news report that furtherinvestigates an earlier news storyfont character or set of characters of thesame style of typeface (such as Times)footage selection of film sections thathave been already shotfooter 1. text that appears at the bottomof a page; 2. section at the bottomof a Web page containing linksand information on how to contactthe owners of the Web page and onthe copyright policy in placefootnote 1. note at the bottom of apage containing information, such125

footprintas a reference citation or furtherexplanation, about the preceding text;2. something appended to a text as anexplanation, reference, or commentfootprint area supplied by a signalfrom a satelliteforced exposure advertising researchtechnique whereby consumers arebrought to a facility to view and providecommentary on a commercial orad campaignFordism view that a product shouldbe accessible and affordable to theworkers who produce it and that theyshould be paid a fair wage based onthe value of what they are producing.The term makes reference to automakerHenry Ford’s highly mechanizedand standardized mode ofautomobile production in the 1920s.This term is now used, by extension,to describe a type of situation thatstresses conformity and uniformity.The term post-Fordism has recentlyemerged to describe a world in whichnew technologies and economic marketshave made it possible to breakaway from the mechanized form ofproduction and, by extension, fromsocial conformity.forecast prediction of what theweather will be like in the nearfuture, broadcast or printed regularly(on radio, on television, in newspapers,on Web sites)foreground in painting and filmictechnique, part of a scene that isperceived by a viewer to be nearest tohim or herforeign correspondent journalistwho lives or visits another country toreport news about it for broadcast orpublicationform theory art and philosophicaltheory claiming that the physicalstructure of a work is separablefrom its content. In a work of art, thecontent is defined as the meaning ofthe work, and the form is the way inwhich the work has been put together.Recent form theories stress thatform and content are interconnected,rather than separable.formalism emphasis on form ratherthan content in a work of artformat 1. in computer science, theway data is structured so that it canbe used, stored, and retrieved; 2. presentationand style that distinguishesa radio or television program fromothers; 3. difference in size, shape,and appearance of media products(for example, tabloid vs. newspaperformat)format clock hourly radio programmingscheduleformat radio radio station that playsonly one type of music (for example,country) or broadcasts one type of programming(for example, news radio)formula technique advertisingtechnique that uses formulaic speech126

framingFourth Estate a synonym for thepressFox Broadcasting Company knownas the “fourth network” (after NBC,CBS, and ABC), launched in 1986 byRupert Murdoch. This broadcastingcompany introduced many newtypes of programs, including realitybasedshows such as Cops. Web site:www.fox.comVinyl 45 recordto describe a product, imitatingproverbs, sayings, etc.: for example,A Volkswagen is a Volkswagen! Cokeis it!forty-fives [45 rpm records] discontinuedtype of record disc that couldbe played on phonograph turntablesoperating at 45 rpm. It was developedby RCA in the late 1940s. It had highquality but had limited storage space.Foucault, Michel (1926–1984)French philosopher who becamewidely known in the 1970s forhis writings on the role of historyand culture in determining howpeople develop beliefs and howeveryday practices guide people indefining their identities. In Madnessand Civilization (1960), forinstance, he showed how definitionsand perceptions of madness havechanged over time to reflect changesin cultural worldviews. His mostquoted work is the History of Sexuality(1984).fragmentation process by which aformerly unified or mass audiencefragments into segments. For example,the availability of specialty televisionchannels has resulted in the fragmentationof the television audience. Radiounderwent a process of fragmentationin the 1950s with the introduction oftelevision. Fragmentation makes itdifficult to reach mass audiences andmay threaten the economic survival ofmedia that depend on them.frame 1. a phrase or sentence with ablank in it for assaying which kindsof words or forms are permissiblethere (structurally or semantically);2. a rectangular image on a screen;3. on a Web page, a part that allowsfor modification of other parts of thesame pageframing 1. adjusting the position ofa film in a projector so that the imagecan be seen correctly on the screen;2. the way in which a film is put togetherby specific camera techniques;3. the way in which people organizeand interpret events (such as spectaclesand programs)127

franchisefranchise 1. right to sell certainproducts or services for a particularperiod; 2. conversion of a mediaproduct (such as a film) into a seriesof sequels and spin-offs; 3. licenseto use a brand name; 4. license tobroadcast within a specific area and/or for a specific time periodfranchise films movies producedwith the intention of making sequelsFrankfurt School [full form:Frankfurt Institute for SocialResearch] school of critical inquiryfounded at the University of Frankfurtin 1923; the world’s first Marxistinstitute of social research. Itsleading members included TheodorAdorno, Max Horkheimer, HerbertMarcuse, Erich Fromm, and LeoLowenthal. Its aim was to understandthe way in which human groups createmeaning collectively under theimpact of modern technology andhow modern societies have comeunder the domain of culture industries.The Frankfurt School washighly pessimistic about the possibilityof genuine individuality undermodern capitalism and condemnedmost forms of popular or massculture as channels of consumeristpropaganda that indoctrinated themasses and disguised genuine socialinequalities. The School’s maincontention was that typical mediafare was vulgar, functioning primarilyto pacify ordinary people. Thoughnot affiliated with the School, somecontemporary critics of contemporarypop culture and media, suchas Thomas Frank, Todd Gitlin, andMark Crispin Miller, draw heavilyupon the general arguments made bythe Frankfurt School.free market model economic systemin which nongovernmental decisionmakers determine how resources willbe used, what goods and services willbe produced, and how these will bedistributed among members of society;free competition in the markethelps to guide these decisionsfreedom of expression basic rightof any free society, without which,it is claimed, journalists, academics,and others cannot perform their vitalrole of seeking and spreading newknowledgefreedom of information basicright to have access to informationof all kinds, from the type held bygovernments to that held by mediaorganizationsfreedom of speech right to speak outpublicly or privately, through any mediumof expression, including books,newspapers, magazines, radio, television,motion pictures, and electronicdocuments on computer networksfreedom of the press freedom topublish anything without censorshipbefore or after. Freedom of the presshas been debated since modern printingbegan in the 1400s. Some governmentsplace limits on this freedom,fearing the power of words to spurpeople to act against them.128

ftpfreelance writer, journalist, or artistwho works independently and is paidby assignmentfreenet online information networkrun by volunteers, charging no accessfeesfreeware software available primarilythrough electronic bulletin boardsand user groups that can be downloadedfree of chargefreeze frame single image held stillin the middle part of a motion picturesequencefrequency measurement of radiowaves, indicating where a station isfound on the radio dialfrequency modulation [see FMradio]Freud, Sigmund (1856–1939)Austrian neurologist and founderof psychoanalysis. Freud claimedthat human behavior was guidedby the unconscious—the part ofthe psyche that contains wishes,memories, fears, etc., which manifestthemselves in dreams, symbols,syndromes, and the like. Freudintroduced such terms as ego, id, superego,and Oedipus complex, amongothers, which have become widelyused in media studies.friends on social networking Websites, people who have access to otherpeople’s profiles and who post theirown profilesSigmund FreudFriendster online social networkingsite launched in 2002 where personalprofiles can be posted. Web site:www.friendster.comfringe time television time slot justbefore or after prime time, whenthere is more program availabilityFrith, Simon (1946–) musicologistbest known for his work on thesociology of popular music. In SoundEffects (1983), Frith examined howpopular music relates to audienceexpectations of a social and politicalnature.Froogle Google’s shopping engineFTC [see Federal TradeCommission]FTP [see File Transfer Protocol]129

full duplexfull duplex network connection thatmakes it possible to send signals inopposite directions at the same timefull nester in marketing jargon, anolder consumer who owns his or herhome and is interested in living the“good life”fully connected world concept inwhich most people and organizationscan be linked via the Internetfunctionalism 1. twentieth-centuryarchitectural movement stressingfunctional rather than decorativedesign; 2. twentieth-century psychologicalschool founded by WilliamJames and John Dewey; 3. in mediatheory, the claim that the consumptionof media products is due to theindividual’s active view of theseproducts as functional. In effect, mediaand psychological functionalismis based on the view that individualscan make their own choices. Mediaare not seen as manipulation systemsbut rather as tools that are used bypeople for recreation or even to gainknowledge of the world. Functionalismholds that if there were no needfor the media, the media wouldnot exist. The media, therefore, areadaptations to our needs. Functionalistsask, therefore, how the mediacontribute to social equilibrium,how the media system constitutes anintegrated whole, and what needs themedia answer or fulfill.funk music style of popular musicderived from jazz, blues, and soul,characterized by a heavy bass lineand syncopated rhythmsfunnies part of a newspaper wherecartoons and comic strips are publishedfuturism Italian art movement thatlasted from 1909 to about 1916.Futurist artists glorified the power,speed, and excitement of the machineage.130

gag joke or comic skit toldor acted out by a comedianor by comedians togethergag order restriction of thepublication, discussion, orbroadcasting of specific informationgallery television studio productionroom where the director and themembers of the production crew sitduring filming or tapingGallup Poll public opinion poll ona political or social topic or issue, asdeveloped by George H. Gallup, anAmerican statistician who specializedin public opinion surveys. The pollbecame well-known after it predictedcorrectly the outcome of the 1936presidential election. Gallup alsodeveloped a method of measuringaudience interest in news featuresand advertising. Web site: www.galluppoll.comGaltung, Johan (1930–) Norwegiananalyst of news media and a leader ofthe global peace movement. Galtunghas studied the socio-psychologicalreasons why certain items receivemedia attention, while others (just associally important) do not.Galvanometer test research methodthat measures physiological changesin consumers when they are asked aquestion or are shown some stimulusmaterial (such as a print ad)gambit speech strategy used foropening and closing conversations,last itemG131maintaining their flow, andso on: for example, uh . . .huh, yeah, well, May I . . . ?game console computerconsole for game playing,usually operated with a gamecontrolling device, such as a joystickor game padgame show television program inwhich a game is played by contestants,offering prizes to the winnergangsta rap style of rap music inwhich the lyrics deal with themesinvolving gangs, gangsters, and/orcriminal lifestylesgangster film film genre dealing withgangsters or with plots revolvingaround criminal activity with gangstersas primary role playersgarage music style of electronicdance music inspired by disco andassociated primarily with urban stylesof rap and hip-hopgatekeepers in media studies, thosewho make the decisions regardingwhat will appear in media and especiallywhich items are newsworthyand which are notgateway page opening page of a Website containing the key words that enablea search engine to locate itGauntlett, David (1971–) majorresearcher on media effects, whosework is quoted often in the relevant

gazemedia literature. Among his mostinfluential works are Moving Experiences:Understanding Television’sInfluence and Effects (1995) andMedia, Gender, and Identity (2002).gaze in feminist theory, the act oflooking at representations of women,which reveals information about thepower relations that exist betweenmen and women. In Western society,the gazers have typically been themales; the ones gazed at, the females.This pattern is apparent in theartistic and erotic portrayals that havecharacterized the history of Westernvisual representation. Followingthe rise of feminism and gendertheory, gazing patterns have startedto change radically.gazette local newspaper or one that isassociated with an organizationgender sexual identity constructedin cultural context. For example,in Western society, men are oftenportrayed as “sex-seekers,” showingan aggressive interest in sex as partof their gender identity, and womenas the targets of their interest; inother cultures, such as several NativeAmerican traditions, that interestis seen as part of female genderidentity.gender theory in feminism, theoreticalframework that evaluates representations,genres, etc., in terms ofhow they represent gender and howthey reflect ideologies (for example,patriarchy)gendered genre movie genre, televisionprogram, or television channeldirected at a specific gender byproviding themes, characters, andsituations that are purported to appealto a specific gender exclusively; forexample, WE: Women’s Entertainmentis a network designed to appealprimarily to women, while Spike TVis designed to appeal primarily tomen.genderlect [blend of gender anddialect] language choices that arecharacteristic of males or females inspeech situationsgeneral audience made up of peoplefrom all walks of life, and with “generic”or “random” properties, ratherthan segmented into demographiccategories (age, class, etc.). This categoryis used in rating systems as acomparison base to the demographicallysegmented ones.Generation X the children of“baby boomers,” born in the 1970sand purported to lead a lifestyle thatis vastly different from that oftheir parents, based on a rejectionof their parents’ values. They aremore inclined than their parentsto use new media technologiesas sources of information andentertainment.generational marketing marketingand advertising tailored to specificgenerations of consumers (babyboomers, Generation X, teenagers,older people)132

gesturegenre category or classification ofworks of art based on subject matter,themes, and/or style. Examples of literarygenres are poetry, prose, drama,fiction, science fiction, and mysterynovel. Examples of television genresare sitcom, soap opera, quiz show,and talk show.geodemographic clustering techniqueof classifying consumers on thebasis of the demographic characteristicscommon to the area in whichthey livegeographics measurement of whereaudiences and consumers liveGerbner, George (1919–2005) widelyquoted media theorist whose conceptof the cultivation effect hasbecome a target of major discussionand debate. His model of communication,developed in 1956, emphasizesthe interactive role of the sender andthe receiver, the context, and the mediumused during the different stagesof communication. His major work isThe Global Media Debate (1993).Gestalt psychology school ofpsychology, founded around 1912by Max Wertheimer, that stressesthe study of patterns, or forms, asthe important part of perception andexperience, since form in its totalityis seen as being more importantthan the sum of its parts. Gestaltistsrejected structuralism, the mostcommon psychological theory in theearly 1900s, based on studying theseparate elements of experience andperception such as feelings, images,and sensations, and behaviorism,which called for the study of observableaspects of behavior.gestural dance dance deliberatelystructured by gesture patterns, includingbody language, eye contact, and posturegesture movement of the body,especially the hands, to communicatesomething, unconsciously or wittingly.The former are called, more precisely,natural gestures and the latterconventional gestures. Several maintypes of gesture have been identified.Illustrators are gestures that literallyillustrate vocal utterances: for example,the circular hand movementstypically employed when talking of acircle; or moving the hands far apartwhen talking of something large.Emblems are gestures that directlytranslate words or phrases: for example,the “OK” sign, the “Come here”sign, the hitchhiking sign, waving,obscene gestures, etc. Affect displayscommunicate emotional meaning: forexample, the typical hand movementsthat accompany states and expressionsof happiness, surprise, fear,anger, sadness, contempt, disgust,etc. Regulators are gestures that areused to monitor, maintain, or controlthe speech of someone else. Examplesinclude the hand movements for“Keep going,” “Slow down,” “Whatelse happened?” Adaptors are thegestures used to satisfy some need:for example, scratching one’s headwhen puzzled, rubbing one’s foreheadwhen worried, and so on.133

ghetto coolcomputer memory required to store asingle charactergirl groups musical ensembles madeup exclusively of female performersand, usually, portraying a genderedview of topicsGitlin, Todd (1941–) radicalAmerican critic of the mainstreammedia and popular culture. His mostinfluential works are Inside PrimeTime (1983) and Watching Television(1986).The V-sign for peaceghetto cool the adoption of a “ghetto”lifestyle (in a real or simulativeway), generally in imitation ofgangsta rap and other hard formsof hip-hop cultureghost site Web site that is no longerbeing updated but is still available forviewingghostwriter person who writessomething for another person, usuallya celebrity, pretending to be theauthorGIF [full form: graphic interchangeformat] computer image format usedcommonly for nonphotographic imageson Web sitesgigabyte unit equivalent to 1,024megabytes, a byte being a unit ofglam rock popular rock music styleof the 1970s, characterized by performerswho wore glamorous clothingand jewelryglobal advertising advertisingdirected at global audiences and thusadapted to the global context. Forexample, the use of sexual themesin the promotion of an automobilewould be attenuated or removed ina global advertising campaign so asto avoid offending societies wheresexuality is not expressed openly.global branding inserting brandproducts into world markets, adaptingtheir promotion to the legal,social, and cultural exigencies ofeach marketglobal marketing use of a commonmarketing plan to sell a producteverywhere in the worldglobal media media systems, such asAOL or Disney, that possess com-134

Goffman, Ervingmunication and media networks (anddistribution capacities) that embracemost of the worldGlobal Positioning System [abbreviatedas GPS] system comprised of 24satellites (21 active and three spares)that allows users to precisely identifytheir location anywhere on the globeglobal village term coined by MarshallMcLuhan to characterize aworld that is united electronically,in a virtual (or cybernetic) village.McLuhan argued that the mediumin which information is recordedand transmitted is decisive in shapingtrends and in charting futureprogress. So, by simply switchingon their television sets to satellitetransmittedprograms, or visiting Websites, people tend to feel connected toothers in an abstract, rather than real,fashion.globalization process by whichformerly separate, discrete, or localcultures, businesses, or institutionsare brought into contact withone another and with new groupsof people in an interactive fashion,generally through the Internet. Thisgives the sense that the world is asingle place. Supporters of globalizationclaim that it liberates populationsfrom local and often restrictivelifestyles, generates wealth, makespossible the movement of peopleand ideas, and contributes to the developmentof human rights. Criticsclaim that it eliminates crucial socialand cultural differences.Glyph indicating “No Smoking!”glocal genre any media text producedby local groups but incorporatingglobal forms and ideasglocalization process whereby localor regional cultures are becomingincreasingly similar to each other asa result of aspects of globalization(economic, technological, etc.)gloss short definition, translation,or explanation of a technical term,usually inserted in a footnote or inparenthesesglossary alphabetical list of glosses,often placed at the end of a work ora section of the work (such as at theend of a chapter)glyph public sign that provides informationvisuallyGoffman, Erving (1922–1982) sociologistwho examined the self-imageor persona that people present insocial situations, arguing that sociallife was very much like the theater,as people perceived themselves asplaying specific roles, adapting to thesituation linguistically, behaviorally,and in other ways. His most impor-135

go-gotant work is The Presentation of Selfin Everyday Life (1959).go-go popular style of music originatingin Washington, D.C., in the 1970s,which featured a strong beat and“go-go dancers,” scantily clad womendancing alone to the music on specialraised platforms during a band performanceor during a floor danceGold Lion award given at theCannes International AdvertisingFestival for achievement in variouscategories, including print marketing,outdoor advertising, and televisioncommercialsgold record a golden replica of arecord that has achieved at least onemillion in salesgolden age of cinema period ofmovie production during the 1920sand 1930s when cinema was in itsinfancy and when Hollywood moviesenjoyed an unprecedented, and sinceunparalleled, popularitygolden age of radio period from thelate 1920s to the late 1940s whenradio was the dominant medium forhome entertainmentgolden age of television period fromthe early 1950s to the late 1980swhen television was the dominantmedium for home entertainment,before the rise of the Internetgolden oldie piece of music that waspopular in a previous eragonzo journalism style of journalismthat is more concerned with suchthings as the reporter’s relation to thestory or the emotional effects on thepeople involved in the story, ratherthan the actual facts of the storyGoogle largest Internet search engine,founded in 1998, which has anindex of over 10 billion Web pages.The name originated from a playon the word googol, which refers to10 100 (the number represented by a 1followed by one-hundred zeros). Theword has found its way into everydaylanguage as a verb, meaning, “to usethe Google search engine to obtaininformation on the Internet.” Internetaddress: www.google.comgopher computer program thatsearches file names and resourceson the Internet, organizing them intomenus that contain links to other filesor databasesgospel music evangelical musicderived from African American spiritualand blues vocal music. Gospelmusic’s first influential composersand performers included Thomas A.Dorsey, who coined the term; C.A.Tindley; Gary Davis; Sister RosettaTharpe, who first brought gospel intonightclubs and theaters in the 1930s;and Mahalia Jackson. Gospel musichas had a significant influence onrhythm and blues, soul music, andother pop music styles.gossip column regular newspaperor magazine column dealing with136

graffitiA Goth at the Wave Gothic Festival,Leipzig, Germany, May 25, 2007rumors and gossip about celebritiesand well-known public figuresgotcha journalism news reportingin which journalists nab evildoersor interview people caught in someillegal actgoth form of punk music andlifestyle, especially among youths,characterized by the wearing of darkclothes, the use of dark cosmetics,and other gothic forms of symbolism,intended to challenge mainstreamsocietyGothic 1. architectural style prevalentin Europe from the twelfththrough the fifteenth centuries,emphasizing light and verticality,typified by the Cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris; the style was revivedin the nineteenth century; 2. literarystyle generally characterized by darknessand gloom. The term was usedduring the late 1700s and early 1800sto describe a type of popular fictionthat revolved around mysteriousand supernatural events; the novelswere called Gothic because theytook place in gloomy castles built inthe Gothic style of architecture. Thefirst such novel was The Castle ofOtranto (1764) by Horace Walpole.Other early gothic novels includeThe Mysteries of Udolpho (1794) andThe Italian (1797) by Ann Radcliffe;The Monk (1796) by Matthew G.Lewis; Melmoth the Wanderer (1820)by Charles Maturin; Frankenstein(1818) by Mary Shelley; and WutheringHeights (1847) by Emily Bronte.governmentality concept developedby Michel Foucault meaning,essentially, the art of government;intended to imply that governing isnot limited to the political sphere, butreaches out to all spheres, from thecultural to the artisticGPS [see Global Positioning system]graffiti inscriptions of various kindsscratched, carved, or drawn on awall, pole, or other public surface.Graffiti have allowed linguists to reconstructearlier stages of a language,and social scientists to examine theideologies or lifestyle of certaingroups (as has been done to study thegraffiti of gangs, teen cliques, etc.).137

GrammAtologygrammatology term coined byJacques Derrida, term referringto the priority of writing over vocalspeech in the development and use oflanguage, contrary to what linguistshave traditionally maintained. Derridaclaimed that pictographic languagepreceded vocalized language and that,to this day, writing has a much morecrucial function in human affairs thando other forms of language.Grammy Awards honors given annuallyfor outstanding achievement inmusic. The first Grammies (the name isan abbreviation of gramophone) weregiven in 1958. They are now awardedin dozens of categories, from best compositionto the best musical arrangement.Web site: www.grammy.comgramophone machine used formerlyfor playing records, invented in 1887by Emile Berliner, a German immigrantto the United StatesGramsci, Antonio (1891–1937) ItalianMarxist intellectual and politicianwho is often quoted in media studiesbecause of his notion of hegemony,or domination of the media by thosein power in order to subtly influencepublic opinion in their favor.His influential Lettere dal carcere(published posthumously in 1947;published in English as Letters fromPrison in 1973) actually outlines aless dogmatic version of communismthan that of most Marxists.grandiloquence form of speech anddiscourse characterized by pompousor bombastic diction and mode ofdeliverygraph 1. in mathematics, diagramrepresenting changes in a variable;2. unit in writing representing asound, a syllable, or entire conceptgraphic art form of visual art relatingto methods of reproduction suchas printing, engraving, or etching.The term is used generally in referenceto the illustrations found in advertisements,book designs, posters,and the like.graphic design craft of combiningtext and illustrations in design (forexample, in ad texts, book covers).Writers produce words while photographersand illustrators createimages; the graphic designer incorporatesthese elements into a completelayout.graphic display computer screenwith the capacity to display graphicsgraphic equalizer device on an electronicplayback machine that allowsseparate adjustments to be made tothe sound qualitygraphic novel novel developed fromcomic books, in which cartoon imagesare interspersed in the writtentext. An example of a graphic novelis Frank Miller’s Batman: The DarkKnight Returns (1986).graphical user interface [abbreviatedas GUI] display format that allows138

gross rating pointa computer user to select commands,call up files, start programs, and doother tasks by using a mouse to pointto icons or lists of menu choices onthe screen as opposed to having totype in text commands. The first GUIto be used in a personal computerappeared in Apple Computer’s Lisa,introduced in 1983; its GUI becamethe basis of Apple’s extremely successfulMacintosh (1984).graphics 1. pictorial manipulation ofdata, used in computers, the graphicarts, and so on; 2. pictorial display ofinformation on a computerGraphics Interchange Format[see GIF]G-rating movie and television classificationindicating that the movieor program is suitable for generalaudiencesgrazing act of watching several televisionprograms simultaneouslygreen light process procedure leadingto the decision to make a moviegreen room small room near abroadcast studio in which programguests wait before they are interviewedor where actors can go to restgreenwashing public relations strategyof companies to counter the advertisingtactics of environmentalistsGreimas, Algirdas Julien (1917–1992) French semiotician who amplified the field narratology,the study of narratives of all kinds.Greimas’s most significant contributionin the field is the “semioticsquare,” which posits that oppositionshold in a square-like fashionrather than in a binary manner. Forexample, the word tall takes onmeaning in contrast to not tall, short,and not short. Thus, the meaning oftall is gleaned from a semiotic squareof oppositions.gripe site Web site providing an opportunityfor users to counter or challengeanother person or an institutiongross audience compilation of all theaudiences studied for an advertisingcampaign or media experiment. Thegross audience may actually includeduplicated audience members.gross cover number of times a radioor television commercial has beenseen or heardgross rating point method of determiningthe effectiveness of outdooradvertising, with 1 percent of asample group represented by apoint in a statistical method ofanalysis139

Grossberg, LawrenceGrossberg, Lawrence (1947–)American cultural theorist who hassought to show how audiences becomeattached to certain performers,texts, or programs. His most influentialbook is We Gotta Get Out of ThisPlace (1992), in which he contendsthat rock culture, once considereddeviant and aberrant, has becomepart of conservative culture.ground entire or connecting surfaceof a scene in a movie shootgroup in Web talk, network of onlineindividuals who share a commoninterestgroup system method of organizingan advertising agency into groups,each with its own area of specializedexpertise (marketing, ad creation)grunge style of rock music madefamous by the late musician KurtCobain, derived from punk rock, andcharacterized especially by anguishedlyrics; also used to describe the styleof clothing worn by followers ofgrunge, consisting of torn jeans andflannel shirtsguerrilla marketing marketing thatuses nontraditional media and strategiesto promote products or servicesGUI [see graphical user interface]guide publication that lists programming(radio or television) times andtypically describes the content ofeach program listedGutenberg Galaxy [after JohannesGutenberg (c. 1390–1468), a Germanprinter] term coined by MarshallMcLuhan to refer to the world thatresulted from the availability ofcheap books and the spread of literacyas a consequence of the inventionof print technology.gutter press generic term to describetabloid newspapersgynocriticism in feminist theory,study of the writings produced bywomen and how they convey the“female experience”140

Habermas, Jürgen (1929–)German philosopher whosees art as the force ofchange in cultural systems.Habermas is widely knownfor his critiques of the tendencyof Western capitalist democraciesto evaluate social progress interms of economic efficiency. Hismajor works include Theorie undPraxis (1963; Theory and Practice,1973), Erkenntis und Interesse (1968;Knowledge and Human Interests,1971), Theorie des kommunikativenHandelns (1981; A Theory of CommunicativeAction, 1984), and Derphilosophische Diskurs der Moderne(1985; The Philosophical Discourseof Modernity, 1987).habitus [term coined by MarcelMauss and later used by PierreBourdieu] the ways in which society’sdominant classes talk, act, andbehave. Noting that success in societydepends largely on the individual’sability to absorb the habitus of thedominant class, Bourdieu suggestedthat it is similar to, but more fundamentalthan, knowing a language.hacker 1. individual who uses hisor her computer expertise to gainunauthorized access to a computersystem or a site either to learn aboutthe system or to examine and/ormanipulate its data; 2. more generally,an aficionado of informationtechnologylast itemH141hacker ethic view that users shouldhave absolute free access to informationposted on the WorldWide Webhacktivism the use of hackingfor political or socialpurposes [blend of hackingand activism]halftone image produced by breakingdown photographs into a series ofdots that appear as shades of gray ona pageHall, Stuart (1932–) influentialmedia scholar who has becomewell-known as a major proponent ofreception theory, or the view thataudiences are not passive consumersof media texts but, rather, selectorsof them according to their particularpreferences. Among his best-knownworks are Encoding and Decodingin Television Discourse (1973) andRepresentation: Cultural Representationsand Signifying Practices (aseditor, 1997).halo brand product brand that lendsvalue to a company’s subbrands byassociation. The halo brand is alsocalled the master brand.halo effect theory that the way someonelooks and acts can lead observersto make unwarranted assumptionsabout the person. For example, someonewho is unkempt and appearsscruffily dressed might be judged(perhaps mistakenly) to be someonewho would not be suitable for awhite-collar job. In media studies, itis used to refer to the phenomenon of

hammockingviewers reporting not what they actuallywatched but what they believethey should have watched.hammocking technique of insertinga television program between twohighly popular programs to boost itsratingshang time amount of time someonespends visiting a Web siteHaraway, Donna (1944–) importantfeminist critic whose analyses of thecyborg have ignited a wide-rangingdebate on the amalgamation of humanswith technology and especiallyof the effects of this amalgamationon women. Her most cited book isSimians, Cyborgs, and Women:The Reinvention of Nature (1991).hard copy printed copy of a text, asopposed to electronic copy (containedin a computer file or document)hard disc permanent storage disc ina computer. The term is also used torefer to the entire hard drive.hard news news stories that aredesigned to help audiences makeintelligent decisions about an issueor event, with little accompanyingcommentaryhard rock type of rock music that ischaracterized by loud guitar accompanimentand a strong insistent beat,with singing that often simulates aform of shoutinghard sell aggressive methods ofadvertisinghardback book published with arigid cover, usually more expensiveand in a larger format than paperbackhardcore 1. extreme form of a popmusic style such as punk or hip-hop;2. sexual portrayal in movies that iscompletely explicithardware [in contrast to software]the computer’s actual machineryand equipment, including memory,cabling, power supply, peripheraldevices, and circuit boards. Hardwarespecifies a computer’s capability;software instructs the computer whatto do.Harlequin traditional commediadell’arte character; a wily, unscrupulouscomic servant. By the earlyseventeenth century Harlequin hadbeen transformed into a faithful valetinvolved in amorous exploits. Hewore tight-fitting peasant clothes withcolored patches decorated with brighttriangles and diamond shapes. Hecarried a slapstick and wore a blackhalf-mask.harmony 1. in music, two or moretones used together and perceived aspleasant-sounding; 2. chord structureand movement in a piece of music(as distinguished from melody andrhythm)Hartley, John (1948–) influentialculture theorist, whose analyses142

heavy viewerof television have become widelyquoted, particularly Reading Television(written with John Fiske, 1978)Hawthorne effect tendency ofresearch subjects to give the typeof information that they believe isrequired by the researchers. Moregenerally, it refers to how peoplereact to different situations and areinfluenced by factors in those situations(such as the type of interviewused by researchers, the personalityof the researchers, etc.). The termcomes from the name of a factorycalled the Hawthorne Works, wherea series of experiments were carriedout between 1924 and 1932.Hays Code set of censorship guidelinesfor movies in the United Statesissued in 1934. Under severe criticism,the Code was abandoned in1967 and replaced by a rating system.HDTV [see high definitiontelevision]headend equipment that allows cablesubscribers to receive transmissionsignals. The headend receives signalsfrom an antenna or antennas, processesthe signals, sending them throughthe distribution system to customers.headline 1. short title printed inheavier type at the top of a newspaperarticle telling what it is about; 2. lineprinted at the top of a page givingthe running title, page number, andpossibly other information related tocontentheadline news newscast or channelthat deals only with topical news and/or events that are currently takingplaceheadphones pair of earphones joinedacross the top of a listener’s headheadset headphones that have a smallmicrophone for two-way communication,used by television producers,camerapersons, and others duringfilming, taping, or broadcastingHearst, Randolph (1863–1951)one of the most prominent figures inthe history of newspaper publishingin the United States. Hearst helpedbring about the era of yellowjournalism, employing circulationboostingtactics. In 1935 he owned28 major newspapers, 18 magazines,radio stations, movie companies, andnews services.heavy metal rock music stylemarked by amplified and sometimesdistorted guitar “power chords,” ahard beat, a thumping bass, and anaggressive style of singing. Heavymetal emerged in the late 1960s fromthe heavy, blues-oriented music ofSteppenwolf and Jimi Hendrix. In the1970s and 1980s bands such as LedZeppelin, Black Sabbath, Kiss,AC/DC, Aerosmith, Def Leppard,Iron Maiden, Mötley Crüe, and VanHalen developed the style further.heavy viewer person who watchestelevision frequently and, for thatreason, is often included in targetstudy audiences143

Hebdige, DickHebdige, Dick (1951–) media analystrenowned for his studies of youth subcultures.His best-known book is Subculture:The Meaning of Style (1979).hedge redundant phrase used inconversation, such as “I mean” and“you know,” which nevertheless hasa communicative function, such asmaking a statement less blunt orconveying personal assurancehedonism ancient Greek philosophythat pleasure is the only true goalof life and that its pursuit is whatmotivates humans. British philosophersJeremy Bentham and JamesMill and his son, John Stuart Mill,renamed the philosophy utilitarianism,expanding it to encompass thewell-being of the greatest number ofpeople, not just individuals.Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich(1770–1831) German philosopherwho defined a process of humanprogress (which became known asthe Hegelian dialectic) that involvedthe generation and interaction of opposingconcepts. To understand anyaspect of culture or the human condition,one must retrace its origin anddevelopment through this process.His works include Phänomenologiedes Geistes (1807; The Phenomenologyof Mind), Wissenschaft der Logik(1812–1816; Science of Logic), andGrundlinien der Philosophie desRechts (1821; Philosophy of Right).hegemony [as defined by ItalianMarxist Antonio Gramsci] the effortson the part of the dominant class ina society to gain the consent of thosewho are dominated. The instrumentsof hegemony range from outrightcoercion (incarceration, secret police,threats, physical elimination) togentler and more “managerial” tactics(education, religion, control of themass media). The concept of hegemonyhas found widespread use in mediastudies, where it is used to refer moreto the cultural production of consent,rather than overt forms of coercion.Heidegger, Martin (1889–1976)German philosopher who posited thatthe individual living in a consumeristmass culture is always in danger ofbeing deprived of a sense of selfworth.He called the resulting mentalstate nihilism. His most influentialwork, Sein und Zeit (1927; Being andTime), dealt with the fundamentalphilosophical question of “being-inthe-world,”or “What is the meaningof being?” His work had a significantinfluence on French philosophersMichel Foucault and JacquesDerrida.Helmholtz, Hermann von (1821–1894) German physicist whoseresearch on the physics of soundranked as the outstanding work of histime in acousticsherd journalism practice of reportersstaking out a house or following astory in large groupsHerder, Johann Gottfried von(1744–1803) German philosopher144

hidden-fear appealwho claimed that national characteris encoded in a people’s languageand literature. His Ideen zur Philosophieder Geschichte der Menschheit(1784–1791; Outlines of a Philosophyof the History of Mankind)opened the way to the modern-daysystematic comparative study ofcivilizations.Herman and Chomsky’s propagandamodel [as articulated byEdward Herman and Noam Chomskyin Manufacturing Consent: ThePolitical Economy of the Mass Media(1988)] a model of news reportingthat claims that the overriding considerationof news agencies is supportingthe views of those in power,thus essentially producing a formof propaganda rather than impartialnews commentaryhermeneutics 1. systematic study oftexts on the basis of their languageand their history; 2. study of howpeople interpret texts. The essenceof hermeneutic method is to locatea text in the context of the times inwhich it was produced, not in termsof current ideas and theories.hero/heroine 1. personage, often supernaturalor mythical, endowed withbravery and strength (in myth, thehero is remarkable for his or her boldexploits and is favored by the gods);2. principal character in a work offictionherstory 1. the biography or study of aparticular woman or group of women;2. a view of history from the femaleperspective, as opposed to history =his story, or the conventional view ofhistory from the standpoint of menheterogeneous audience audienceconsisting of demographically diversemembers, that is, members whodiffer in age, gender, education, class,ethnicity, religion, or another variableheteroglossia exposure to, or constructionof, an unfamiliar languageor languages, implying new perspectivesor new meaningsheterophily differences of opinion,values, or viewpoints that arisebetween two people conversing witheach otherheterotopia the different “socialspaces” (features of language, delivery,turn-taking sequences, etc.) thatarise surreptitiously and unconsciouslybetween two people conversingwith each otherheuristic 1. designed to facilitatelearning (for example, a pedagogicalmethod); 2. in computer science,a program that can adapt to userinstructions, activities, or responses(for example, checking spelling andgrammar)hidden-fear appeal [also calledscare copy] advertising techniquedesigned to promote such goods andservices as insurance, fire alarms,cosmetics, and vitamin capsules byevoking the fear of poverty, sick-145

hierarchy of effectsness, loss of social standing, and/orimpending disasterhierarchy of effects series of stepsby which consumers receive and useinformation in reaching decisionsabout whether or not to buy a product.The steps include: awareness ofthe product, knowledge about it (andthe company that makes it), tastesconnected with it, preference, conviction,and purchase.hieratic flowing script (executed withreed pens on papyrus) developed bythe Egyptians around 2700 b.c.e. inplace of hieroglyphic writinghieroglyphic ancient Egyptian writingsystem, originating around 3000b.c.e., based on stylized pictorialsymbols. These represented not onlypeople, things, and ideas, but alsoa few consonant sounds. The latesthieroglyphic writing dates from 394c.e. Hieroglyphic writing was decipheredafter the discovery in 1799 ofthe Rosetta Stone, a slab that had thesame text in Greek and hieroglyphicwriting. Jean François Champollioncompared the two, thus decipheringthe hieroglyphs.high-concept movie movie producedwith a large budget on the belief thatit can be easily marketed and turnedinto a commercial successhigh culture vs. low culture distinctionmade between forms of cultureconsidered to be of greater or lesserworth. High culture is often associatedwith fine arts such as classicalmusic, the ballet, opera, and painting,and low culture with popular spectaclessuch as wrestling and eroticmovies. This distinction raises thequestion of what cultural content isbetter or worse and, more importantly,who has the right (if any) of decidingso. In actual fact, most peoplecan easily distinguish between thetwo levels of culture. Great works ofart foster engagement; many popularmedia artifacts, on the other hand, aredesigned solely to provide distractionand entertainment, even though thedividing line between the two is oftenblurry indeed. Many of the formsintended originally for entertainmenthave themselves evolved into worksof art. Some pieces of jazz and rockmusic, for example, are now listedalongside the works of the greatclassical composers. Some types ofadvertising, too, may be consideredartistically interesting.high definition television [abbreviatedas HDTV] television systemthat presents a picture that is widerthan conventional television screensand has twice as many lines of scanningfor increased clarity and detail.HDTV uses digital technology toprocess the original signal, transmitit, and reproduce it in the televisionset. In addition to providing digitalhigh-resolution video, HDTV transmitsa digital audio signal that resultsin CD-quality sound. Essentially,the technology used to create HDTVproduces picture and sound that rivalthose found in movie theaters.146

history technique in advertisinghi-fi [abbreviation of high fidelity]reproduction of sound by a radio, CDplayer, or other device with as little distortionof the original sound as possiblehigh-speed photography filmictechnique in which consecutivemultiple shots are taken quickly tocapture an action that is too fast to beseen with the naked eyehip-hop youth-based music and lifestylethat emerged in African Americanneighborhoods of New York inthe 1970s, characterized originallyby rap music and breakdancing. Rapcame to national prominence withSugar Hill Gang’s Rapper’s Delight(1979). In its original form, hip-hopcombined spoken street languagewith cuts, called samples, from olderrecords. The themes of hip-hop lyricsoriginally revolved around politicalissues, racial discrimination, masculinity,and an implicit mockery ofthe existing social order. Over time,hip-hop has become more melodicand eclectic, incorporating elementsfrom the blues, rhythm and blues,jazz, and soul.hippies counterculture youth ofthe 1960s and 1970s. The hippiesrejected the traditions and lifestylesof bourgeois (capitalist) society. Theyproclaimed a world based on loveand peace, strongly opposing theVietnam War. Many lived together oncommunes, refusing to be tied downto a fixed job. They were sometimescalled “flower children” because theygave people flowers to symbolizeHippies (also called “freaks”) in LosAngeles in the summer of 1967their worldview. They let their hairgrow long and walked barefoot orwore sandals. Many used marijuana,LSD, and other drugs. The Beatleshelped spread the hippie movementwith their songs, as did the GratefulDead, Jefferson Airplane, Joan Baez,and Bob Dylan, among other suchmusicians of the era.historicism 1. theory that forcesbeyond human control influence thecourse of human history; 2. theorythat each historical era develops itsown unique forms of culture that canonly be understood in contexthistoriography study of history ingeneral, or of the history of a movement,era, trend, etc.history technique in advertisingtechnique whereby a significanthistorical event is incorporated intothe ad, either by allusion or by directreference147

hithit a record, play, movie, or othercreative product that has becomea success with both audiences andcriticshit rate number of occasions that aWeb site has been viewed by InternetusersHoggart, Richard (1918–) Marxistcultural theorist and founder of theCentre for Contemporary CulturalStudies at the University of Birmingham.In The Uses of Literacy (1957),Hoggart laments the passing of trueculture under the forces of capitalistbasedconsumerist economics.Hollywood city originally foundedby Horace Wilcox in 1887, a prohibitionistwho envisioned a communitybased on religious principles. Itwas consolidated with Los Angelesin 1910 and became the center ofthe movie industry by 1915. By the1960s, it also was the source of muchAmerican network television programming.Web site: www.hollywoodchamber.netholography photography withoutlenses, whereby a three-dimensionalimage is recorded on a plate or filmby laser, which splits into two beams,forming a pattern reflecting the shapeof the photographed object. When thepattern is exposed to light, a threedimensionalimage (a hologram) isformed.home page 1. the page that is loadedwhen someone opens up their browserto use the Internet; 2. the first pageof a Web site that welcomes a userhome video theater system composedof audio and video equipmentthat recreates the movie theaterexperience in the home. The systemincludes a large-screen television anda multi-speaker sound system.homology in Marxist theory, viewthat a media text is designed to delivermeaning in politically controlledways (either explicitly or implicitly)homophily situation in whichinterlocutors share the same values,ideas, beliefs, and worldview duringdialogue, conversation, or other formof verbal communicationhooks, bell (1952–) [written inlower-case style] prominent AfricanAmerican feminist critic (born GloriaWatkins) whose work on race andgender representations in the mediahave become topical and widelyquoted. Among her works are BlackLooks (1992) and Reel to Real: Race,Sex, and Class at the Movies (1996).horizontal integration acquisitionof a smaller company by a largerone, such as, for example, a largenewspaper taking over a smaller rivalnewspaperHorkheimer, Max (1895–1973) afounding member of the FrankfurtSchool. His Dialektik derAufklärung (1947; Dialectic of Enlightenment),written with Theodor148

human interestAdorno, is a widely quoted workthat traces the origins of modern-daytotalitarianism to the Enlightenmentconcept of instrumental reason.horror genre literary genre intendedto provoke feelings of fear or shock.Horror stories are of ancient originand form a substantial part of folkliterature. They may feature supernaturalbeings such as ghosts, witches,or vampires, or may address more realisticpsychological fears. In Westernliterature, the horror genre emergedin the eighteenth century with thegothic novel. The horror genre wasalso one of the first to become popularin movies, remaining so to this day.host 1. person who welcomes andspeaks to invited guests on radio andtelevision programs; 2. in a computernetwork, the main computer controllingfunctions and files; 3. computerlinking individual personal computersto the Internethosting business of putting Web sitesonto the Internethot in reference to a microphone, hotmeans that the microphone is “on”hot medium [in contrast to coldmedium] Marshall McLuhan’sterm referring to any medium, suchas film and radio, that requires littleinteraction and interpretation on thepart of an audiencehot spot building or area wherewireless Internet users can access anInternet connectionhouse music style of dance music,derived from disco music, using electronicor synthesized sound effectshouse organ magazine publishedby a company for its employees andclients, containing information aboutthe company, its products, and itsemployeeshouses using television [abbreviatedas HUTs] percentage of homes watchingtelevision during a specific timeperiod and within a specific regionhtml [abbreviation of hypertextmarkup language] computer languagethat is used to prepare hypertextdocuments on the World WideWeb. The text coding consists ofcommands in angle brackets < > thataffect the display of elements such astitles, headings, text, font style, color,and references to other documents.http [abbreviation of hypertexttransfer protocol] protocol used forexchanging files on the World WideWeb. Web browsers are http clientsthat send file requests to Web servers,which in turn handle the requests viaan http service.huckster a publicity agent or writerof advertising copy (usually used as apejorative)human interest reporting style that isdesigned to touch audiences emotionallyon issues that are important tomost people. Often a human-intereststory focuses on the trials and tribula-149

humanismtions of ordinary humans caught inextraordinary predicamentshumanism a cultural movement inRenaissance Europe, characterizedby a revival of classical letters, anindividualistic and critical spirit, anda shift of emphasis from religious tosecular concernshumor state of producing or perceivingsomething as funny, generally accompaniedby laughter. Humor takesmany literary and media forms: witis humor based on cleverness; satiredeals with human weaknesses, makingfun of them; sarcasm is more nasty, oftentaking the form of indirect stingingcommentary (That’s a lovely suit—toobad they didn’t have your size); ironyimplies the opposite of what is beingsaid or done through understatement;farce, slapstick, and buffoonery involvepranks and practical jokes; parody andburlesque alter a story comically; andmimicry involves imitating someoneelse for comic effect.humor in advertising use of humorto make a product appealing, whichallows a brand to keep in step withchanging times and with changinghumor trendsHUTs [see houses using television]hybrid combination of art forms,styles, or genres resulting in a newform, style, or genrehybridity in cultural theory, thecrossbreeding and intertwining ofdifferent identities (in contrast to theconstruction of self on the basis of asingle cultural model)hype exaggerated publicity strategyfor a movie, a program, a product,or a spectacle, designed to createexcitementhyperbole exaggerated statementused for effect and not meant to betaken literally: for example, Waves ashigh as mountains hit the beachhypercard software designed byApple that provides users with aprocessing tool consisting of “cards”collected together in a “stack,” witheach card containing text, graphics,and sound.hypercommercialism increasing theamount of advertising and blending itinto actual media contenthyperlink word, symbol, image, orother form in a hypertext documentthat “links,” or directly transfers theuser, to another element in the documentor to another site. The hyperlinkis activated with a mouse click.hypermedia information retrievalsystem used for accessing texts,audio, video, etc., on the World WideWeb. A hypermedia navigation mightinclude links to music, opera, harmony,composers, and musicology.hyperreality the simulation of realityin media, perceived by some commentatorsas more authentic than ac-150

hypothesistual reality. The term is used often insemiotics and psychology to portraythe inability of people to distinguishreality from fantasy, especially intechnologically advanced societies.Some well-known theorists of hyperrealityinclude semioticians Jean Baudrillardand Umberto Eco. The mainthrust of hyperreality theory is thatthe real world has been replaced by acopy world, where we seek simulationfor its own sake. For example,life within a theme park such as Disneylandallows people to engage inthe fantasy worlds such a park createsand live through them temporarily.The problem, argue Baudrillard andEco, is that such hyperreal experiencesstart to dominate consciousness,making it difficult for many humansto distinguish between the simulationand its object of representation. Thistheme is, incidentally, intrinsic in the1999 movie The Matrix.hypertext system of storing text, images,and other files that allows forlinks to related text, images, etc. Theterm surfaced in 1965. Hypertextmakes it easy for users to browsethrough related topics, regardlessof their presented order. In Internetbrowsers, hypertext links (hotlinks,or hyperlinks) are usually indicatedby a word or phrase with adifferent font or color. These createa branching structure that permitsdirect, unmediated jumps to relatedinformation.hypertext markup language[see html]hypertext transfer protocol [see http]hypodermic needle theory in mediastudies, a theory that the mass mediacan directly influence behavior. Thetheory claims that media are capableof directly swaying minds with thesame kind of impact that a hypodermicneedle has on the body. Thistheory is now largely discredited. Ithas been found, for example, that mediaimpacts are indirect and are oftenmediated by group leaders. People ofdifferent social classes come up withdifferent interpretations of mediaproducts, tending to perceive them asinterpretive communities. However,this theory is still used by some toclaim that people are influenced bywhat they watch on TV, to variabledegrees.hypothesis an assertion that is assumedto be valid or true because itseems likely to be so; a hypothesisis usually set forth as an assumptionthat must be tested and proved.The term is used in social scientificresearch on media primarily in theexpression hypothesis testing, amethod of assuming an hypothesis(for example, television induces violence)and then conducting a study orexperiment to ascertain if the hypothesisis true or false (and to whatdegree it is so).151

IBM [see InternationalBusiness Machines]IBOC [see in-band-onchannel]iceberg principle in advertising, aprinciple claiming that advertisingshould aim its messages at the strongneeds and desires that lie hiddendeep within the psyche, in analogyto an iceberg that is only 10 percentvisible, with the remainder hiddenbelow the watericon 1. sign or symbol resemblingits referent (e.g., a star figure standingfor a star); 2. a visual image; 3.picture of a sacred personage; 4. aperson in pop culture who is revered(e.g., a celebrity); 5. picture on acomputer screen standing for a specificcommand, function, etc. (e.g.,icon of a file folder)iconography 1. the imagery used ina work of art or a body of works; 2.study of art that focuses on icons orsymbols in painting and sculpture.Icons of pagan gods have been foundas far back as 3000 b.c.e. in theMiddle East. Iconography became amain aspect of the Eastern OrthodoxChurches, where icons are paintedaccording to rules established byecclesiastical authorities.iconoscope tube first television cameratube, developed in 1923id in psychoanalytic theory, the instincts,in contrast to the ego and thefirst itemI152superego. The id is definedas part of the unconscious,where instinctual drivesand accumulated memoriesexist, influencing behaviorreflexively.idealism philosophical theory thatphysical reality does not exist independentlyof human minds, whichfilter it accordingly. Idealism is theopposite of both materialism, whichclaims that mental consciousness isa purely physical phenomenon, andrealism, which claims that physicalreality is independent of humanminds and can be understood objectivelythrough the senses. Idealismstarts with Plato, who maintainedthat the ideas produced by the mindimperfectly mirror physical reality.In the eighteenth century Irish philosopherGeorge Berkeley extendedPlato’s concept by claiming, essentially,that nothing exists outsidethe mind, since it is the mind thatclassifies matter and not matter itself.German philosopher Immanuel Kantalso claimed that the properties ofhuman perception shape how realityis understood. In contrast, G.W.F.Hegel believed that the human mindwas capable of truly understandingreality as it is, not as it is perceived.ideational function of language useof language to express or constructideasident visual image identifyinga channel that is inserted brieflybetween television programs

illuminated manuscriptsidentification 1. form of unconsciousimitation on the part of people of whatthey have seen or heard in the media;2. ability of audiences to identify emotionallywith fictional charactersideogram 1. picture sign representingan object or idea, rather than aword: $ = dollars; & = andideological criticism critical readingof a text from a specific ideologicalperspective, that is, from the standpointof a specific set of assumptions,beliefs, or viewpointsideological state apparatus in Marxisttheory, ways in which a societyimposes an ideology on its members,either by coercion or persuasionideology system of thought basedon a specific set of assumptions,beliefs, or viewpoints that appearsto be a product of common sense,but which is actually socially constructed.Those strongly committedto a particular ideology have difficultyunderstanding and communicatingwith supporters of a conflictingideology. For Karl Marx, ideologyreferred to the ideas and values of theruling classes, which are reproducedby the dominant social institutions(the law, family, religion, education).The term was coined in 1796 by theFrench writer Antoine-Louis-Claude,Comte Destutt de Tracy to describehis “science of ideas.”idiolect an individual’s manner ofspeaking, including pronunciationIlluminated manuscriptpatterns, tone of voice, and typicalchoice of wordsidiom expression that cannot be understoodfrom the individual meaningsof its words, but in its totality:to be born with a silver spoon inone’s mouth; to go on a wild goosechaseidol 1. image or statue of a deity usedas an object of worship; 2. by extension,any celebrity who is worshippedby certain types of fans: a teen idol, amatinee idol, etc.illuminated manuscripts bookswritten and illustrated by hand, withbright colors and precious metals.153

illusionimage advertising advertising aimingto make a brand or companyname easily remembered, that is, totransform it into an imageAn illusion formIlluminated manuscripts were createdas objects of luxury during the medievaland Renaissance eras.illusion form (drawing, figure, photo)that produces an erroneous perception.People are typically fooled intoseeing AB as longer than CD, eventhough it is not. Called the Müller-Lyer illusion, it is caused in alllikelihood by the fact that people areaccustomed to interpreting outwardextendingarrowheads as increasingthe length of lines and, vice versa,to interpreting inward-extending arrowheadsas decreasing the length oflines. In cultures where such drawingtechniques do not exist, it has beenfound that the illusion does not occur.illusionism 1. techniques designedto make representations resemblereality; 2. techniques that produceillusions; 3. stage magicillustration picture, figure, ordiagram used to explain or decoratesomething, especially written textIM [see instant messaging]image 1. mental picture; 2. publicview of something or someone, oftenintentionally instigated by advertisingor propagandaimage map graphic image on a Website that has hyperlinks in it thatlink to another Web pageimage processing computer analysis ofan image, identifying its componentsimage schema [introduced byAmerican linguist George Lakoff andAmerican philosopher Mark Johnson]in linguistics and media studies, recurringabstract images that guide languageand perception. These functionto compress sensory information intogeneral patterns. For example, imageschemas derived from the experienceof orientation—up vs. down, back vs.front, near vs. far—can be detectedin such expressions as: I’m feeling uptoday; We are getting closer to eachother every day; He’s at the top of hisclass; and She’s near her goal.imagery 1. picture formed in themind; 2. comparisons, descriptions,and figures of speech that help themind form images; 3. expressive imagesused in art and mediaimagined community idea thatmedia audiences form abstractcommunities in the “mediasphere”according to shared beliefs andideas that influence how theyinterpret the media. The term wascoined by the American scholarBenedict Anderson.154

impressionismImpression, Sunrise (1872) by Claude Monetimaging system software capable ofdigitizing imagesIMAX trade name for a large-formatmovie projection system with threedimensionaltechnologyIMC [see integrated marketingcommunications]immediacy view that a news storywill have greater impact if it refers toa recent or ongoing eventimpact scheduling practice of runningadvertisements for a product closetogether (on radio or television) so as tomake a strong impact on audiencesimpartiality being completely objectiveand uninvolved in reporting the newsimperative form in advertisingtechnique consisting in the use of theimperative form of verbs, creatingthe sense that an authoritative sourceis giving advice: for example, Just doit! (Nike); Have a Bud! (Budweiser)imperialism 1. extending powerand dominion, either by invasion orby gaining political and economiccontrol; 2. by extension, the spread ofa particular type of media fare (suchas American media) to other areas ofthe worldimpressionism art style emerging inFrance in the 1870s, characterizedby rich hues that allow the painter toconvey an “impression,” rather thana realistic or exact representation, oflight and form. The subject matter155

impulse pay-per-viewof impressionists consisted of theobjects of everyday life (landscapes,street scenes, etc.). The principalartists of the movement were ClaudeMonet, Pierre Auguste Renoir, AlfredSisley, Berthe Morisot, ÉdouardManet, and Camille Pissarro.impulse pay-per-view pay-per-viewtelevision service that makes it possibleto order programs on the spot,without advance reservationin-band-on-channel [abbreviated asIBOC] digital radio technology thatallows for the integrated use of digitaland analog signal transmissionsincentive marketing strategy, suchas the giving away of free gifts, designedto provide a favorable imageof the product or companyincidental music music composed tobe played at the same time as someaction in a film, play, or televisionprogramindecency in broadcasting, anymaterial that depicts sexual or otherbiological activities in ways deemedunacceptable by community standardsindependent film [abbreviated asindie] any film that is not producedby a major studio, but by an “independent”producer, company, etc.independent media media outletsnot tied to a major network or largemedia systemindependent phone companies localservice telephone companies thatare not affiliated with a major phonecompanyin-depth reporting news reportingthat goes into detail and is wellresearchedindex 1. list of the contents of a printpublication; 2. in semiotics, signwhose function is pointing out somethingreal or imaginary in temporal,spatial, or relational terms; for example,the index finger; words suchas this or that and here or there.indicator any nonverbal cue usedduring conversation, such as a frown,scratching the head, folding the arms,nodding, etc.indie [abbreviation of independent]any production or broadcast company,group, or individual not tied to amainstream studio, network, or mediaorganizationindividualism belief or social theorymaintaining that a single individual’sfreedom is as important as the welfareof entire groups, communities,societies, and the likeindoctrination any forcible imposition(overt or covert) of a particularsystem of values and beliefsinduction [in contrast to abductionand deduction] logical processof reaching a general conclusionon the basis of particular facts; for156

information processing modelexample, if one measures the numberof degrees in a large number oftriangles (in the plane), one comes tothe induction that there must be 180°in all triangles—a conclusion thatremains valid unless or until proveddifferentlyindustrial advertising advertising tobusinesses, rather than to individualsinfoholic individual who has becomeobsessed with information, seekingit out constantly, especially on theInternetinfomediary Web site where specializedinformation is availableinfomercial [blend of informationand commercial] extended televisioncommercial that mimics a televisionprogram. Often infomercials featurecelebrities who advertise a product intalk show style.infonesia [blend of information andamnesia] inability to remember apiece of information or its locationon the Internetinformation 1. anything that canbe perceived, accessed, stored, andretrieved; 2. measure of the probabilitythat a message will occur. If amessage is expected with 100 percentcertainty, its information value is0. For example, in a house alarmsystem, the “no ringing” state is theexpected one and, thus, the one thatcarries this value; the “ringing” state,on the other hand, carries the highestamount of information because ithas a lower probability of (expected)occurrence.information architecture methodsused in designing a Web siteinformation blizzards informationoverload to which people are exposedby media, which is difficult to digestand reflect uponinformation gap disparity in accessto information among individuals andgroupsinformation highway 1. computernetwork, such as the Internet, linkingmany users, making it possibleto transfer information quicklyand broadly; 2. circulation of bothpersonal communication and massmedia through new technologiesinformation line line of text runningacross a computer screen providinginformation about the program beingexecuted or the file being usedinformation management task ofcontrolling information and its flowwithin an organization or systeminformation overload according toone view, the excess information thatinformation technology has produced,which is too much for peopleto use intelligently or even practically,and which may have deleteriouseffects on social systemsinformation processing model advertisingmodel evaluating the effects157

information retrievalof an advertising strategy directed ataudiences who are identified as beingeffective in processing informationinformation retrieval process ofusing or manipulating a database inorder to extract some specific informationfrom itinformation science science thatconcerns the production, compilation,structuring, storage, retrieval,and propagation of information.The field is interdisciplinary, utilizingideas and techniques from othercognate disciplines (computer science,linguistics, etc.). Today, most ofthe research within the field revolvesaround how to use computer-basedmethods in the organization of information.It also includes the studyof bibliometrics, the discipline thatmeasures such things as the growthor decline in the number of books ona specific topic.information society world order inwhich the exchange of information(more than goods) shapes social andeconomic systemsinformation superhighway [variantof information highway]information technology range ofcomputer-based media systems andtelecommunication, including radio,television, print, and the Internetinformation theory any theoryattempting to explain what informationis, how it is processed, what itsuses are, etc. Perhaps the first truetheory of information was the one putforward by Claude Shannon in thelate 1940s, known as the bull’s-eyemodel, because it depicts informationtransfer as a closed systembetween a sender directing a messageat a receiver as if he or she werea bull’s-eye target. Although manyhave since been critical of the usesof this model to explain how humancommunication works, its generaloutline and corollary notions, especiallythat of feedback, have provedto be useful in all areas of communicationscience.information worker individual whoworks with information in some way,such as creating Web pages or constructingcomputer databasesinformational appeal advertisingtechnique describing the demonstrablecharacteristics of a product (howit works, how it is made, and so on)infotainment [blend of informationand entertainment] television orother media form of entertainmentbased on presenting factual informationin an engaging wayinherent drama advertising utilizinga mini-drama style that emphasizesthe benefits that accrue from purchasinga product, such as the nutritionalvalue of a food or the gas-savingquality of a carinheritance factor tendency forratings of a program to rise if it is158

imaired after a popular program; therise is said to be “inherited” from thepreceding programin-house agency advertising agencythat is owned and operated by acompany to manage its advertisingprogramin-line graphic image that is part of aWeb pageInnis, Harold (1894–1952) Canadianhistorian famous for his studies of theinterrelation between culture, media,and technology. Innis divided mediainto time-biased and space-biasedmedia. The former include handwrittenand oral media that are intendedto last for many generations, but areused in relatively small communities;the latter include most of the modernelectronic and print media, which aredesigned to reach as many peopleas possible, but will typically notlast long in time. While time-biasedmedia favor a sense of community,space-biased media favor commercialismand imperialism. Among hismost important works are Empire andCommunications (1950); The Biasof Communication (1951); and TheStrategy of Culture (1952).inoculation effect ability of audiencesto resist being persuaded by a commercial,a news program, etc., if theyare warned beforehand that an attemptto persuade them is about to occurinput information introduced into acomputer system that allows a user toachieve an output, that is, a desiredresultinput hardware computer devicesor systems that allow for informationto be introduced into a computer,including a mouse, a keyboard, anoptical scanner, a voice recognitionmodule, and the like.inquiry test in advertising, a testmeasuring the effectiveness of an ador ad campaign based on responsesto itinsert shot close-up shot of aheadline or some other item that isinserted into a filmed scene in orderto show the viewer what a characterin the scene can seeinside back cover page on the insideof the back cover of a publication thatcan be used for advertising and variousinformation-providing purposesinside story reportage based on thefirsthand experiences of those whoare inside a company or organizationin the newsinstant book in the book industry,strategy of publishing a topical bookas quickly as possible after a majornews storyinstant messaging [abbreviated asIM] real-time communication betweentwo or more people based ontyped text, which is transmitted viathe Internet. An early form of IM wasused on private computer networks159

instant replaysuch as the Plato system of the early1970s. IM systems were used byengineers and academics in the 1980sand 1990s to communicate across theInternet. IM became a popular formof communication after mobile IMdevices, such as palm pilots, cameonto the market en masse.instant replay playback of a video,often in slow motion, to show a particularmoment in a sports event ontelevisioninstitution in media studies, thesocial, cultural, and political systemswithin which a media systemoperatesinstitutional advertising the promotionof an organization rather than aproductintegrated information responsemodel claim that product acceptanceis not necessarily a result of advertising’seffect on the way the productis perceived, but rather that productacceptance will tend to increase afterthe product has been triedintegrated marketing communications[abbreviated as IMC] marketingcampaign that integrates publicrelations strategies, advertising, andother aspects together for greater effectivenessin product promotionintellectual property original workthat was created, and thus belongs to,an individual, institution, or company.The main methods used to protectintellectual property are trademarks,patents, and copyright.Intelsat [see InternationalTelecommunications Satelliteorganization]interactive any piece of software orcomputer system that allows easycommunication between the user andcomputerinteractive advertising advertisingthat is sensitive and thus adaptive toinput from the audience through theInternetinteractive media media that allowfor two-way communication betweenthe media and users (such asviewers), enabling users to obtainresponses in real timeinteractive multimedia multimediasystem that allows users to control aprogram, or else to control the way aprogram worksinteractive television [abbreviated asITV] system integrating television,telephone, and Internet systems todeliver a wide range of choices to aviewing audienceinteractivity ability to participatein, or control, media products, ratherthan passively receive themintercultural communication communicationbetween people from differentsocial, linguistic, and culturalbackgrounds160

internetintercutting going back and forthbetween filmed scenes or shots ofactions occurring at different timeperiods to give the impression thatthey are simultaneousinterdiction technology technologythat descrambles pay channel cabletelevision signalsinterface software that allows communicationbetween a computerand a user, including commands,prompts, and other such devices. Theterm is also used to refer to hardware(cards, plugs, and other devices)that allows the computer to moveinformation.interference unwanted signals fromother sources, disrupting radio ortelevision receptioninterjection sound or expressionconveying a strong emotion: Yikes!Wow!intermercials commercials that runwhile users are waiting for a Webpage to downloadInternational Business Machines[abbreviated as IBM] computer manufacturer,headquartered in Armonk,New York, incorporated in 1911 asthe Computing-Tabulating-RecordingCo. It chose its present name in 1924.Web site: www.ibm.comInternational Phonetic Alphabet[abbreviated as IPA] list of more than80 phonetic symbols, first devisedin the late nineteenth century by theInternational Phonetic Association, tomake it possible to represent soundsas accurately and consistently as possible.For example, [k] stands for thesame sound represented alternativelyby the alphabet characters k, ch, andq in English: keen, school, quiet.International TelecommunicationsSatellite Organization [abbreviatedas Intelsat] world’s first commercialsatellite operator, established in 1965.Web site: www.intelsat.cominternaut an Internet user, especiallya regular oneInternet the “network of networks”that connects millions (perhaps billions)of computers around the world.Networks connected to the Internetuse a common protocol, TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol/InternetProtocol), which allows them tohave unique addresses and to communicateeasily with one another.The Internet grew out of a DefenseDepartment program called ARPA-NET (Advanced Research ProjectsAgency Network), established in1969 with connections betweencomputers at the University ofCalifornia at Los Angeles, StanfordResearch Institute, the University ofCalifornia–Santa Barbara, and theUniversity of Utah. ARPANET wasused by researchers and especiallyto provide a secure communicationssystem in case of war. As the networkexpanded, academics and researchersin other fields began to use it as well.161

Internet protocolIn 1971 the first program for sendinge-mail over a distributed networkwas developed. By 1973, the yearinternational connections to ARPA-NET were made, e-mail representedmost of the traffic on ARPANET.The 1970s also saw the developmentof the TCP/IP communicationsprotocols, which were adopted asstandard protocols, leading to thewidespread use of the term Internet.In 1984 the domain name addressingsystem (.com, .net, and the like) wasintroduced. In 1988 real-time communicationover the Internet becamepossible with the development of InternetRelay Chat protocols. In 1989the World Wide Web was created,leading to the proliferation of Websites and users by the mid-1990s. By1997 there were more than 10 millionhosts on the Internet and more thanone million registered domain names.Internet access can now be gained viaradio signals, cable-television lines,satellites, and fiber-optic connections,in addition to the public telecommunicationsnetwork.Internet protocol standard thatallows digital computers to communicateover long distances. On theInternet, information is broken downinto small packets, sent individuallyover different routes at the same time,and then reassembled at the receivingend. Protocols collect and reassemblethe packets and then send them to thedesired destination.Internet radio online radio stationthat either simulcasts versions of onairradio broadcasts over the WorldWide Web, or else creates its ownprogrammingInternet relay chat software thatallows Internet users to join conversationsor chats organized in an informalway around particular subjects atspecific Web sitesInternet service provider [abbreviatedas ISP] company that providesInternet connections and services.ISPs provide computer users with aconnection to their site, as well asa log-in name and password. Theymay also provide software packages,e-mail accounts, and a personal Website. ISPs are all connected to eachother through network access points(public network facilities on theInternet backbone).Internet telephony system that allowsusers to make phone calls usingthe Internet. To make calls, usersneed to install a sound card, microphone,and loudspeaker in their computers,along with special softwarethat manages the systemInternet television online televisionstation that either simulcasts versionsof on-air television broadcasts overthe World Wide Web, or else createsits own programminginterpellation [term coined byLouis a lthusser] in Marxist theory,style or register in which people areaddressed in conversation, whichrelates to their position in society.162

intranetinterpersonal communicationexchange of information betweenindividuals, using not only language,but also other modes, such as gesture,body posture, and so oninterpersonal framing signals thatinform people who are talking to eachother whether or not the conversationis serious and what purpose it hasinterpersonal function of languageuse of language to bond with others,as opposed to its use for exchanginginformationinterpretant [term coined byCharles Peirce] the meaning thatsomeone perceives from a signinterpretation 1. deciphering whatsomething means; 2. an individual’sunderstanding and/or execution ofa work (of art, music, or theater)through acting, performing, etc. (forexample, a pianist’s interpretation ofBach’s preludes and fugues)interpretive community group ofpeople who interpret a text or mediaproduct homogeneouslyinterpretive journalism news reportingthat explains events in the light ofbroader social or philosophical issuesinterstitial advertisement in cyberadvertising(advertising online),use of images that seem to appearand disappear mysteriously on thescreen as users click from one Webpage to the nextintertextuality interrelation of a text(such as a novel) with other textsexternal to it (such as a religious text,a scientific text, etc.). An externaltext can be cited directly (as in abibliographic reference in a scholarlypaper) or indirectly, as for example,Homer’s Odyssey in James Joyce’sUlysses. In advertising, intertextualityinvolves allusions to pop culture,other ads, and the like.intervention video fictional ordocumentary video produced to raiseawareness about a specific social orpolitical issueinterview encounter during whicha journalist or a radio or televisionannouncer asks someone relevantquestions about a topicintimization technique of making anews story more appealing by adaptingit to reflect widely held views orbeliefs on the part of audiencesintonation melodic patterns builtinto utterances for specific effects orcommunicative purposes (to expresssurprise, doubtfulness, etc.). In manylanguages, intonation also serves agrammatical function, distinguishingone type of phrase or sentencefrom another. Thus, You like it is anassertion when spoken with a drop inpitch at the end, but a question whenspoken with a rise in pitch at the end.intranet private computer network,providing members with Internet andWorld Wide Web features, such as163

intransient advertisemente-mail and Web pages. By sealing theintranet off from the larger Internet,people can protect information fromunwanted and possibly criminalsources. As security issues havearisen around the Internet, intranetshave gained in popularity, particularlyamong businesses.intransient advertisement advertisementthat the target audience cankeep; for example, the ads in newspapersand magazinesintrapersonal communicationinternal dialogue (talking tooneself)inverted-pyramid style reportingstyle in which news stories are structuredand presented, starting withthe most important items and endingwith a short background pieceinvestigative reporting type ofreporting in which a journalist doesresearch to expose someone orsomething for engaging in incorrectbehavior and to reveal who is tryingto cover it upinvisibility underrepresentationof certain minority groups by themainstream media, thus makingthem “invisible” to the majority ofaudiencesIP terminal special unit that allowsusers to create and edit video beforetransmitting it to the main pageIPA [see International PhoneticAlphabet]iPod trade name for a portable devicedesigned and marketed by AppleComputer onto which users candownload music or programs;by extension, any such deviceirony amusing or subtly mockingphrase or statement in which theliteral meaning stands in oppositionto the intended meaning. Forexample, if an opera singer goesoff key a few times, someone in theaudience might shout out ironically“You sure know the song well!” Byextension, the term is used to referto any mocking or incongruous textor performance. For example, whena character knows something thatthe other characters do not know, asense of irony is evoked. In OedipusRex by Sophocles, Oedipus kills aman, not knowing that the man is hisfather Laius. Oedipus puts a curse onLaius’s killer. The irony is that he hasunsuspectingly cursed himself.ISP [see Internet service provider]ITV [see interactive television]164

Jakobson, Roman (1896–1982) Moscow-born Americanlinguist well-known forhis work on communicationtheory, often quoted in mediastudies. Jakobson sawlanguage as an adaptive communicativeinstrument serving human needsand whims, and influenced by thestructure of cultural codes. A comprehensivecollection of his writingscan be found in Selected Writings(1971–1982).Jameson, Frederic (1934–) prominentMarxist theorist well-knownfor his works on postmodernism.Among his most influential books areMarxism and Form: Twentieth CenturyDialectical Theories of Literature(1971) and Postmodernism, orthe Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism(1991).jargon specialized vocabulary usedtypically by members of a professionor line of work (doctors, musicians,psychologists, etc.): for example,perorbital hematoma = black eye, inmedicine; licorice stick = clarinet,among jazz musicians. By extension,any form of pretentious or hollowlanguage.Java programming language used tocreate tiny programs that give additionalversatility to Web page designjung, carl gustavJjazz musical form, often improvisational,developed by African Americans.The specific origins of jazz arenot known. It emerged as an amalgamof several styles inNew Orleans at the start ofthe 1900s, including WestAfrican music, black folkmusic, and light classicalmusic popular in the latenineteenth century. Most early jazzwas played by small marching bandsor by solo pianists. In 1917 a groupof white New Orleans musicianscalled the Original Dixieland JazzBand recorded a jazz phonographrecord, creating a sensation; the term“Dixieland jazz” was immediately attachedto it. In 1922 the New OrleansRhythm Kings, and in 1923 the CreoleJazz Band, led by cornetist KingOliver, became popular throughoutthe United States. The term “cooljazz” surfaced 1948, when tenorsaxophonist Stan Getz recorded aslow, romantic solo of Ralph Burns’scomposition Early Autumn with theWoody Herman band. This style wasadopted by a group of young musiciansthat included Miles Davis, LeeKonitz, Gerry Mulligan, and arrangerGil Evans. Their recordings emphasizeda lagging beat, soft instrumentalsounds, and unusual orchestrationsthat included the French horn and thetuba. The recordings, with Davis asleader, were later released as Birth ofthe Cool.jazz journalism lively form of populartabloid journalism of the 1920sJensen, Klaus Bruhn (1956–)expert on the research methodologiesused in communication theory,often quoted on matters regarding165

jinglethe use of such methodologies in thefield. His most cited book is Handbookof Qualitative Methodologiesfor Mass Communication Research(1991; coauthored with Nicholas W.Jankowski).jingle brief and catchy piece of music,composed to advertise a productor to identify a station or a presenterjive jazz-based swing dance popularin the 1930s and 1940sJOA [see joint operatingagreement]joint operating agreement [abbreviatedas JOA] agreement that allows afailing newspaper to merge aspects ofits operations with a successful competitor,as long as its editorial andjournalistic operations and perspectivesremain unalteredJoint Photographic Experts Group[abbreviated as jpeg] computerformat for images that allows users tocompress data, albeit with some lossof qualityjournal magazine or periodicalthat deals with an area of special orspecialized interest, generally publishedby a professional body for itsmembersjournalese type of communicationstyle characteristic of journalistsjournalism writing, collection,preparation, and distribution of newsand related commentary through media.The term was originally appliedto the reportage of current events inprinted form, specifically newspapers,but it now includes electronicforms as well (radio journalism, televisionjournalism, online journalism).journalist person whose job it is towrite for a newspaper or magazine, orto prepare news for radio, television,or Web broadcastingjoystick handheld control lever havingan upright stick on a pivot, usedto play computer gamesjpeg [see Joint Photographic ExpertsGroup]jukebox machine that plays recordswhen a coin is inserted, invented in1906. The term jukebox referred tothe original kinds of places that maintainedsuch machines, called “jukejoints.” By 1941 there were nearly400,000 jukeboxes in the UnitedStates. The jukebox became an iconof the early rock culture of the 1950s,soon after the Seeburg Companyproduced the first jukeboxes in 1950to play 45 rpm singles.jump cut cut from one shot in a filmto another similar shot within thesame footage, giving the impressionthat something has jumped, thus forcingthe audience to reflect on whathad occurred just before.jumpstation Web site that provideslinks to other Web sites166

junk mailJung, Carl Gustav (1875–1961)Swiss psychiatrist whose concept ofthe archetype has become widelyused in media and advertising studies.Jung saw archetypes as unconsciousthought patterns shared byall humanity, which gain expressionin the various symbols and forms(myths, tales, fantasies, rituals, etc.)that embody them across cultures:for instance, the phallus figureis an archetype found in rituals,sculptures, and other representationalforms throughout timeand across cultures, normally asa symbol of reproduction or ofmasculinity.junk mail unsolicited advertisingand promotional material that arrivesthrough the mail and through theInternet167

Kant, Immanuel(1724–1804) Germanphilosopher, famous for histheory of knowledge. In hisKritik der reinen Vernunft(1781; Critique of PureReason), for example, Kant discussesthe nature of knowledge in mathematicsand physics, arguing that thepropositions of mathematics encodereal experience, reflecting the mind’sunique ability to grasp reality and thenformalize this grasp through formalcategories (such as propositions).karaoke form of entertainment inwhich people sing popular songsaccompanied by pre-recorded music,played by a machine that may alsodisplay the words on a screenKatz, Elihu (1926–) eminent mediascholar who co-created the twostepflow theory model of mediaprocessing. Among his most influentialworks are The Export of Meaning(1990) and Media Events: The LiveBroadcasting of History (1992).Kennedy-Nixon TV debate famoustelevision debate between RichardM. Nixon and John F. Kennedy thatturned the 1960 U.S. presidentialelection in favor of Kennedy. Peoplewho heard the debate on radio maintainedthat Nixon had won it, comingacross as the better candidate; thosewho saw it on television claimed theopposite. Nixon looked disheveledand worried; Kennedy looked confidentand came across as a young andhandsome “president of the future.”first itemK168Kennedy went on to win theelection; a debate emergedin media studies shortlythereafter on the effects oftelevision on viewers.keyboarder person whose job it is toinput data in a computerkeyed advertisement advertisementthat asks its viewers to write down aspecially coded address that will indicatewhere they saw it, thus helpingadvertisers glean the effectiveness ofadvertising in a particular newspaperor magazinekidvid video aimed at childrenkilobyte unit of computer memoryequivalent to 1,024 byteskinescope early television picturetube developed by VladimirZworkyn for RCAkinesics study of body language,that is, postures, gestures, touchpatterns, and the like and the messagesthat they convey during humaninteraction. Kinesic communicationis partly based on innate signalingsystems, but in larger part on culturaltraditions (handshaking, touching,etc.).kinetoscope parlors early movieparlors that used a motion picturedevice called a kinetoscope, whichwas encased in a wooden cabinetand which could be viewed througha slit

Kuleshov effectKISS [full form: keep it short andsimple] advertising philosophy thatthe best type of advertising messageis one that is concise and clearkitsch a form of entertainment or artthat is considered to be in poor tasteor lacking aesthetic qualityknowledge gap view that those whoalready are knowledgeable (educated,well-informed) receive more benefitfrom the media and new informationtechnologies than those whoare not—hence the formation of a“knowledge gap” between the twoKristeva, Julia (1941–) BulgarianbornFrench feminist scholar whosework on intertextuality is widelyquoted. Using psychoanalytic theory,Kristeva has also been concernedwith the representation of otherness,especially in horror films. One of hermost quoted books is Language:The Unknown (1989).Kuleshov effect theory, proposedby Russian film theorist Lev Kuleshov,that a single shot or piece offilm can be given a different interpretationwhen shown next to anotherone169

label 1. the identifying elementof a product, package,or other item; 2. trademarkused by a record company:for example, the RCA label,the Naxos labelLacan, Jacques (1901–1981) Frenchpsychoanalyst who claimed that theunconscious part of an individual’smind reflects the structure of the languagehe or she speaks. Lacan alsodivided the psyche into three levels—the imaginary, the symbolic, and thereal. His ideas have recently beenapplied to the study of pop culture,which is portrayed as a symbolicbridge between the imaginary and thereal world. His major concepts arefound in Écrits: The First CompleteEdition in English (2006).lampoon satirical work designed toridicule something or someone. Oneof the best-known U.S. publicationswritten in the style of a lampoon isMad Magazine.LAN [see local area network]landing page Web page where a userarrives, normally via a hyperlinkLanger, Susanne (1895–1985)American philosopher often quotedin media studies because of theimportant distinction she madebetween the discursive symbols usedin language and the nondiscursive orpresentational ones used in variousforms of art. The former possess theproperty of detachment, allowingfirst itemL170communicators or readersto focus on specific items inutterances without impairingoverall understanding;the latter, on the other hand,cannot be broken downand detached without impairing themeaning—one cannot focus on a notein a piece of music without destroyingits sense.language [from Latin lingua, meaning“tongue”] as its etymologysuggests, language can be definedas the “use of the tongue” to createmeaning-bearing forms called words,phrases, and sentences. Whereverthere are humans, there is language.And all languages serve humans insimilar ways, such as naming (andthus classifying) the things of realitythat are relevant and meaningful tothem. There are about 6,000 languagesspoken in the world today,not including dialects (local formsof a language); of these, only around200 languages have a million or morespeakers. All languages share fivebasic characteristics: (1) distinctivesounds, known as phonemes, whichare used to signal differences inmeaning; (2) meaning-bearing unitsknown as morphemes; (3) grammaticalstructure (rules for combiningmorphemes into larger forms calledsentences and utterances); (4) strategiesfor using language in variouspersonal and social ways; and (5)resources for making new words and,thus, new meanings. Most languagesuse from 20 to 60 vocal sounds tomake their words, indicating that

late nightvocal sounds are not meaningfulelements in themselves, but ratherthat they are building blocks in theconstitution of larger structures (suchas words). Words are units of soundsthat have meaning, standing forobjects, actions, or ideas. Grammaticalstructure is the manner in whichwords are related to each other toform larger units of meaning such assentences. The strategies for using alanguage for various purposes, suchas communication and representation,are the result of traditions that aredeemed important by a speech community.Finally, language providesthe means through which people canadapt creatively to new situations andexperiences. Every time we come upwith a new word, we are acknowledgingthat a small part of the worldhas changed.language pollution use of languageto confuse or misleadlangue [term coined by Ferdinandde Saussure] native speakers’ unconsciousknowledge of the structureof the language they speak. Saussurecompared langue to the rules ofchess. No matter how well or poorlysomeone plays, his or her ability toplay chess in the first place is dependenton an unconscious knowledgeof the chess game itself. Now, theactual moves he or she makes duringa specific chess game dependon factors that are external to thisknowledge, involving how best torespond to an opponent’s moves, relyingon past experience to come upwith an appropriate move, and so on.Analogously, the ability to speak andunderstand a language is dependentupon knowing the language gameitself (langue); whereas the actual useof langue in specific social situationsdepends upon psychological, social,and communicative factors. He calledthe latter parole.LAPS test [full form: literary,artistic, political, scientific valuetest] a standard of obscenity establishedin Miller v. California (1973),whereby a work is considered to beobscene if it lacks serious literary,artistic, political, or scientific value.In the late 1960s a California courtfound Marvin Miller guilty of sendingobscene unsolicited advertisingmaterial through the mail. In 1973the case reached the Supreme Court;the Court ruled that states may censormaterial if they apply the LAPS test.As a result, standards for obscenitydiffer widely in different parts of thecountry.Lasswell’s model of communicationa model of communicationtheory formulated in 1948 by HaroldLasswell, which stipulates that theroles played by the communicants,the nature of the channels they areusing, what they are saying, to whomthey are saying it, and the effect it issupposed to make are pivotal factorsin shaping the message that is communicatedlate night time period in radio andtelevision scheduling after prime171

latencytime, and thus late at night, characterizedby programming with controversialand/or bawdy contentlatency period of dormancy in whicha complex of thoughts, feelings, ormental images remain undevelopedor unexpressed; 2. amount of time ittakes data to move across an InternetconnectionLatin American music popular musicgenres created by Latin Americanartists, such as the tango, the rumba,the samba, the salsa, and others. LatinAmerican music has always hadan important influence on the popularmusic of the United States. Since the1950s, a number of Latin Americanrock music performers have injecteda Latin American style into rockmusic generally, gaining widespreadpopularity. These include Ritchie Valens,Carlos Santana, Gloria Estefan,and the group Los Lobos.laugh track pre-recorded laughterthat is added to a sitcom or comedyprogram in appropriate spotslaw of primacy theory that the initialargument that is presented to audienceswill stand a better chance ofconvincing them than will subsequentoneslayout design of a printed page or aWeb page, showing the position oftext and graphicsLazarsfeld, Paul (1901–1976)widely quoted media scholar whopioneered the study of the effectsof media on audiences. With ElihuKat z, he created the two-step flowmodel. His most important work isThe People’s Choice: How the VoterMakes Up His Mind in a PresidentialCampaign (1944).lead 1. main story on the front pageof a newspaper; 2. main role in aplay, movie, or programlead-in introductory piece beforea program or segment on radio ortelevisionleak disclosure of confidential informationto the medialeased channels in cable television,channels that allow customers to buytime for producing their own programsor for presenting their viewpointsleased line line hired from a telecommunicationscompany providing apermanent link to an Internet serviceproviderlegend [see also urban legend] 1.story (often about a heroic figure)popularly believed to have a historicalbasis, but which is not alwaysverifiable (for example, the legend ofKing Arthur and the Knights of theRound Table); 2. by extension, anypersonage or celebrity whose famehas become enduring through mediaexposurelegitimation process by which certainvalues, ideas, beliefs, or opinions172

lexiconpass into the mainstream of publicopinionleitmotif 1. melody associatedwith a character, situation, or elementin a musical drama or opera;2. any recurring theme in a poem,a novel, a TV sitcom, a movie, etc.Even though the German composerRichard wagner did not use this term,it is often applied to the study of hisoperas, in which specific melodicphrases are used to identify charactersor themes.lemma heading or entry that indicatesthe topic of a work or passage(for example, a heading title on abook page indicating the title of thebook)letterhead 1. stationery with aprinted heading that a company, individual,or institution uses for officialletters and documents; 2. the printedheading that appears at the top of aletterheadLévi-Strauss, Claude (1908–)Belgian-born French anthropologistwhose notion of mythic opposition isoften quoted in the media literature.Lévi-Strauss saw innate oppositionsin human consciousness—such asgood vs. evil, mother vs. father—asthe motivating forces in the creationof early myths and thus of thefoundations of early cultures andlanguages. Such oppositions continueto surface in modern-day representational,linguistic, symbolic, andritualistic activities. Among his mostinfluential works are Anthropologiestructurale (1958; Structural Anthropology,1963) and Le cru et le cuit(1964; The Raw and the Cooked,1969).lexicography study and craft ofdictionaries and dictionary making.Dictionaries are generally subdividedinto general, specialized, andthesauruses. A general dictionarycontains definitions and informationon everyday language and selectedtechnical terms; a specialized dictionaryprovides technical information onterms used in a particular field (mathematics,physics, medicine, law, etc.);a thesaurus contains, essentially, listsof synonyms and antonyms. Theinformation provided by a dictionarymay include the history of words(known as etymologies), associatedidioms and expressions, dialectalvariants, slang, and the like. Bilingualdictionaries translate the words,expressions, and phrases of onelanguage into another. Today, thereare various online dictionaries thathave the advantage (over print ones)of providing updated informationdaily. For this reason, many lexicographersare predicting the demise ofboth the print dictionary and the printencylopedia, which can only beupdated by revisions and subsequentrepublication.lexicon 1. list of special terms usedin a particular field (lexicon of mathematics,lexicon of literary terms,etc.); 2. total stock of words, phrases,and expressions in a language173

libellibel 1. false and malicious statementthat damages a person’s reputation;2. published or broadcast statementthat unjustifiably exposes someone toridicule or derisionlibertarianism philosophy assertingthat good and rational people can tellright from wrong if presented with allthe facts. For this reason any form ofcensorship is seen to be unnecessary.Libertarians maintain that controlof the media does not belong to thegovernment but to the people whomthe media serve.libido in psychoanalysis, the energyassociated with the instincts thatmotivate a large part of behavior.The term was coined by SigmundFreud, who posited that the libidodevelops in stages: in the oral stage,the infant gets pleasure from activitiessuch as breast suckling; in theanal phase, the child gets pleasurefrom being able to control bowelmovements; in the genital phase,which starts at around puberty,sexual urges dominate the libido.This notion has been used occasionallyin advertising studies to explainhow some kinds of ads are designedto stimulate the libido.library music music for films ortelevision shows that is available fora fee from a specialized librarylicense 1. permission to engage in abusiness or other regulated activity;2. permission to operate a specificradio frequencyLiebes, Tamar (1943–) often- quotedscholar on the effects of media onaudiences and on the processesinvolved in the decoding of mediatexts. Among her most influentialworks are Media, Ritual, and Identity(as editor, with James Curran, 1998)and The Export of Meaning (withElihu Katz, 1990).lifestyle segmentation way of groupingaudiences according to their habits,the kinds of music they like, etc.light viewer in media researchparlance, a person who watches verylittle televisionlighting equipment and techniquesused for lighting a play, a movie set,or a television set. As such, it is partof the overall film text, being used tobring out various meanings, emphases,nuances, etc., that the text isdesigned to produce.limited effects theory view that theeffects of media on people are limitedby variables such as class, education,cultural background, and age. Essentially,the theory argues that the massmedia have relatively few effects onpeople.line producer member of a filmproduction team responsible for thedaily operations, such as procuringtechnical help and ensuring thatmaintenance is carried outlinear perspective art technique bywhich the perception of depth and174

linguistic relativity hypothesisBox in linear perspectivedistance on a surface is produced byparallel lines that converge on the horizon.The technique simulates visualperception by showing images in thesame perspective as we see them inthe real world—in visual perception,distant objects appear smaller andless distinct than near objects.lines speech or dialogue that an actorhas to deliverlinguistic competence abstractknowledge of language. This termwas coined by the American linguistNoam Chomsky, who defined it asthe innate knowledge that peopleemploy unconsciously to generateand comprehend sentences, most ofwhich they have never heard previously.Chomsky proposed a systemof analysis, which he called transformational-generativegrammar, thatwould allow the linguist to identifyand describe the general properties oflinguistic competence, sifting themout from those that apply only to particularlanguages. The former, calleduniversal principles, are purported tobe part of a species-specific languagefaculty that has genetic informationbuilt into it about what languagesin general must be like; the latter,known as parameters, are said toconstrain the universal principles toproduce the specific language grammarto which the child is exposed.Although Chomsky assigns some roleto cultural and experiential factors,he maintains that the primary role oflinguistics must be to understand theuniversal principles that make up thespeech faculty.linguistic relativity hypothesis aclaim that language shapes worldview.The hypothesis has a longhistory, going back to the ancientworld. It was in the eighteenthcentury, however, that it came tobe discussed and debated formallyby language scientists and philosophers,such as Johann von Herder,who claimed that there was anintrinsic link between languageand ethnic character, and Wilhelmvon Humboldt, who argued thatthe grammar and vocabulary of aspecific language shaped the thoughtand behavior of the people born intoit. In the first part of the twentiethcentury, anthropologist EdwardSapir and his student Benjamin LeeWhorf researched native Americanlanguages to test the validity of thehypothesis, coming to the conclusionthat languages do indeed seemto guide how people think and act.Given the importance of their work,the hypothesis is now also known asSapir-Whorf hypothesis. The Sapir-Whorf version of linguistic relativ-175

linguisticsity claims that the grammar andvocabulary of a particular languageprovide the cognitive strategiesfor interpreting reality, since theymake available words and structuresfor certain specific events, whileignoring others. This does not blockunderstanding among speakers ofdifferent languages, as translationand paraphrases demonstrate. But itdoes show that there is diversity inhuman language that reflects diversityin cultural and psychologicalexperiences.linguistics the science of language.Linguists study the formal aspects oflanguage (sound systems, grammar,vocabulary, and so on), its uses incommunication, its relation to cognition,and its interrelation with cultureand society.links speech excerpts that introducethe next item in radio and televisionprogramminglinotype older technology that wasused to carry out the mechanicalsetting of print type (rather thanmanual)lip-sync [full form: lip synchronization]technique of mouthing arecorded statement or a song withoutactually speaking or singing, givingthe illusion that one is performing itlivelistenership number and type ofpeople who listen to a radio broadcastor stationlistening share share of total radioaudience that is faithful to a specificradio stationlistings information on what a spectacleor event will contain (venue ofperformance, times, admission prices,contact details)listserv Internet discussion groupwhose members use e-mail or instantmessaging to exchange messagesamong themselves and/or with othergroupsliteracy 1. ability to read and writea language proficiently; 2. by extension,any ability to decipher texts(media literacy, visual literacy).Those who cannot read and write arecalled illiterate. It is believed broadlythat without literacy, people’s abilityto function in society diminishesconsiderably. The worldwide literacyrate has risen since 1900. By themid-1990s, 73 percent of the world’spopulation was thought to be literate.With the advent of the Internet, moreand more people are becoming literatethan ever before in the history ofhumanity. Models and perception ofliteracy are shaped by the medium inwhich the written word is expressed.The Internet and the many devicesthat it has permitted for recording andsending messages is reshaping howthe written word is being used andthus how literacy will eventually beredefined in the near future. In effect,the World Wide Web is fast becomingthe new platform upon which linguisticand stylistic trends will emerge.176

lobbyingliteral 1. following the exact wordsof the original (for example, a literaltranslation); 2. interpreting wordsconcretely, without exaggeration orimagination. A word such as squarehas the literal meaning “plane figureconstructed with four equal linesmeeting at right angles.” But it canalso be used with other meanings, asin He’s a real square and We finallysquared our differences.literary criticism discipline concernedwith the study of literature.Western literary criticism began withPl at o. Subsequently, Aristotledeveloped a set of principles of literaryanalysis that is still used today,including the distinction between theliteral and the metaphorical. Sincethe Renaissance, literary criticismhas primarily focused on the valueof literature as an imaginary framefor viewing reality. In the twentiethcentury, a radical reappraisal oftraditional critical techniques crystallized,leading to the development ofdeconstruction and poststructuralism,among other approaches.literary journalism style of journalismthat presents stories by adaptingfictional storytelling techniques tononfictional materialsliterature 1. in its broadest sense,everything that has ever been written,including comic books andpamphlets, as well as the novels ofFyodor Dostoyevsky and the plays ofWilliam Shakespeare; 2. in a narrowersense, writing considered to haveworth and aesthetic qualities. Literaturehas two main forms: fiction andnonfiction. The former is imaginarywriting, even though authors mayinclude facts about real persons orevents; the latter is factual writingabout real-life situations, includingsuch genres as history, biography,autobiography, and the diary.litotes rhetorical technique of understatement,especially by employing anegation of the contrary: for example,I received not a few e-mails on thatissue; This is no insignificant problemLittle Three studios [in contrastto the Big Five] Columbia, UnitedArtists, and Universal motion pictureproduction studios, which hadsmaller production operations thanthe Big Fivelive broadcasting of an event as itunfoldslive shot filmed event that is broadcastlive without a presenter at the scenelive voiceover commentary for a prerecordedvideo, often used in newsreportingLiveJournal Web site that allows usersto create and modify their socialnetwork sites and Web pageslobbying action taken by a group ofsupporters and representatives of aparticular cause or organization togain the support of a political party, amedia organization, or an individual177

local access programminglocal access programming televisionprogramming selected and/orproduced within communities andaired on channels provided to thecommunity by the cable televisionoperatorlocal area network [abbreviated asLAN] network connecting two ormore computers, usually within thesame building. Local area networksnow exist for the home, monitoringcontrol of heat, water, and variousappliances, as well as securitysystems.local media media outlets and organizationsserving a small area of acountry (for example, neighborhoodnewspapers, local radio stations)localization method of making nationalor international media productsmore suitable or appropriate for asmaller local media marketlocalized advertising strategy adcampaign aimed specifically at aparticular region (country, state,province, or city)location filming filming that takesplace in specific real-life locations,away from the studio or setlog file record of how many usershave visited a Web site and how theynavigated through itlogging (on and off) to register orterminate an action or activity with acomputer as an authorized operatorMcDonald’s Golden Arches logologo [abbreviation of logotype]distinctive design or trademarkused by an organization or a companyfor itself or for its products sothat they can be easily recognized.Logos are the pictorial counterpartsof brand names. Well-known logosin the United States include RalphLauren’s polo horseman, Lacoste’salligator, the “good hands” of theAllstate Insurance Company, the“rock” of the Prudential InsuranceCompany, the McDonald’s “goldenarches,” the Macintosh “apple,” andthe “stagecoach” of the Wells FargoCompany. Logos are often designedto evoke historical or culturalthemes or symbolism. For instance,the logo of the apple suggests thebiblical story of Adam and Eve,even though the original fruit wasnamed simply a “forbidden fruit”—it was depicted as an apple by theearly religious painters. Its biblicalsymbolism is encoded into theMacintosh logo.logocentrism belief that languageshapes worldview178

Lumière brotherslogograph symbol for a word withoutany cues as to its pronunciation:1 = one in English, uno in Italian; &= and in English, e in Italian.lógos [in contrast to mythos] 1. inphilosophy, reasoning about realityor the power of reasoning itself; 2. inChristianity, the word of God, madeincarnate in Jesus Christlongitudinal studies in marketingresearch, studies that are conductedover long periods of timelong-playing record record formatintroduced by Columbia Records in1948 that could reproduce over 20minutes of high-fidelity sound oneach of two sides of the recordlook and feel the appeal of a Web site’sdesign, layout, and user-friendlinesslookism the claim that good-lookingpeople achieve greater success in lifebecause others are influenced positivelyby their looksLotman, Jurij M. (1922–1993)Estonian semiotician well-known forhis study of the relation between biologyand culture. His major contributionto culture study is the idea thatculture is a system of signs, calledthe semiosphere, that provides the resourcesfor cognitive survival, in thesame way that the biosphere providesthe resources for physical survival.His most important work in Englishis Universe of the Mind: A SemioticTheory of Culture (1990).loudspeaker device for makingsounds louder, especially in a radio,record player, or public-addresssystemlow culture [see high culture vs.low culture]low-budget films films that areproduced very cheaply, with minoractors and simple production techniques,usually dealing with horror,crime, or prurient themeslow-involvement hierarchy the ideathat indifferent customers respond toan ad’s appeal only through repeatedexposureLull, James (1950–) Americancommunications scholar whose workon audiences is widely quoted (hiswork is found mainly in journals andperiodicals). His method of audienceanalysis stresses ethnographic analysis,rather than statistical analysis ofaudience behaviors and reactions tomedia stimuli.Lumière brothers two French brothers,Auguste (1862–1954) and LouisJean (1864–1948), who are identifiedas having invented the technologybehind motion pictures. The brothersheld a public screening of projectedmotion pictures on December 28,1895, in a Paris café. Thomas Edison,adapting a projector developed previously,presented the first public exhibitionof projected motion pictures inthe United States on April 23, 1896,in a New York City music hall.179

lurkinglurking act of reading newsgrouppostings or chatroom conversationswithout participatingLyotard, Jean-François (1924–1998)well-known and often-cited theorist ofpostmodernism. His most importantwork is La condition postmoderne:Rapport sur le savoir (1979; ThePostmodern Condition: A Report onKnowledge, 1984).lyric 1. type of song-like poetry thatcommunicates subjective feelings;2. [plural, lyrics] the verbal text of apopular song180

macaronic any statementor text characterized by amixture of Latin words orwords from another language,usually for comiceffectMacBride Commission commissionset up by UNESCO in 1978 to assessthe impact of Western technology andmedia on developing countriesMacGuffin in a book, play, or movie,an event that seemingly drives theplot but which later turns out to beunimportant. The term was popularizedby director Alfred Hitchcock,who explained it in a 1939 lectureat Columbia University: “In crookstories it is most always the necklaceand in spy stories it is most alwaysthe papers.”machinery of representation claimthat the mass media is a “machine”that produces representations of realitythat audiences perceive as authenticmacro-level effects purported largescaleeffects of the media on culturesand societiesmacrophotography close-up photographyproducing images that arelife-size or larger than lifemagalogue a designer cataloguemade up to look like a magazinemagazine newspaper-like publication,but smaller in size, issued atregular intervals, and containing alast itemM181collection of articles or stories(or both). Most popularmagazines also include illustrationsand photographs.The magazine concepttraces its roots to earlyprinted pamphlets and almanacs. Oneof the first was the German ErbaulicheMonaths-Unterredungen (EdifyingMonthly Discussions), publishedfrom 1663 to 1668. Pamphlets appearedin England and America in the1700s, primarily as literary publications.One of the first true magazines,called The Gentleman’s Magazine,published from 1731 to 1914, startedout as a collection of excerpts fromvarious books and pamphlets. Thefirst magazine published in America,called the American Magazine,came out in 1741 in Philadelphiaand lasted only three months. (BenjaminFranklin’s Poor Richard’sAlmanack—though not considered atrue magazine—was first publishedin 1732.) Two other magazines, TheColumbian (1786) and The AmericanMuseum (1787) quickly followed.In 1830, Godey’s Lady’s Book, thefirst American magazine for women,started publication. During theAmerican Civil War (1861–1865),Harper’s Weekly became popular forits drawings of the battlefront. Thelate 1800s and early 1900s saw aboom in the magazine industry, withLife, Time, Sports Illustrated, VanityFair, and The New Yorker comingonto the scene. Magazines have hadconsiderable impact on modern society.During the 1960s, for example,magazines such as Cosmopolitan and

magazine programmagic bullet theory view that themedia are powerful shapers of individuals.Like a “magic bullet,” mediaproducts are said to be a “killingforce” to people’s minds.magic realism style in art, literature,or media that presents magical, occult,or mythic themes in a realisticmannermagnetic tape thin plastic stripcoated with iron oxide on whichsounds, video, or other kinds of datacan be recordedTime magazineMs. conveyed new visions of womenoutside their traditional portrayals ashomemakers. Today, many magazinescater primarily to specialized interests.Called niche publications, theyare designed to attract target audiencesand advertisers who want to reachthem. In the late 1980s, British-borneditor Tina Brown brought back themore general magazine by revivingVanity Fair. With the computer age,magazines called electronic magazines(e-zines) are now availableover the Internet.magazine program televisionprogram organized in a “magazinestyle” with features such as reportsor close-up interviews of celebrities.An example of such a program isEntertainment Tonight on Americantelevision.magnification process of enlarging aphotograph or other imagemail form Web page designed to beused as an online order pagemail server computer whose onlyfunction is to distribute e-mailsthrough the Internetmainframe computer large centralcomputer to which users are connectedby terminalsmainstream media [synonym ofmass media] dominant, powerfulmedia organizations, such as themajor newspapers and televisionnetworksmainstreaming 1. in cultivationtheory, the ability of television tomove people toward a common viewof how things are by the way theyrepresent or depict them; 2. effortsby media outlets to include nonwhite182

manufacturing consentand nonmale personnel among theiremployeesmakeup cosmetics, preparations,and the like applied to the face orbody to modify one’s looks, and usedfor particular effects in theater, themovies, and television. Makeup isespecially important in establishingcharacter onstage, and is thus used tosuggest age, occupation, personality,and so on.makeup artist member of a film,television, or theater production teamwho is responsible for makeup andhairstylingmale gaze in feminist theory,the idea that men have traditionallyexercised psychological power overwomen by being the lookers, withwomen functioning as those whowere looked at. Although thispower relation has been changingradically, its remnants are stillfound somewhat in media andadvertisingmale-as-norm in feminist theory,idea that language referring tofemales, such as the suffix -ess (asin actress), the use of man to mean“human,” and other such devices,strengthens the perception that themale category is the norm and thatthe corresponding female category isa derivation and thus less important.Sexist terms such as chairman, anchorman,etc., are cited as examplesof how the English language mirrorssocial gender biases.Maletzke’s model of communicationoften-cited model created bytheorist Gerhard Maletzke in 1963of the contextual and psychosocialfactors that influence communicationactivities and patterns, such asthe self-image of the interlocutorsand the type of social environment inwhich the communication takes placeMalvern screen thin, flexible LCDtelevision screen that can be rolled upmanaging editor editor of booksor newspapers who is responsiblefor the overall editorial process,including budgeting and schedulingmattersmanga [also called anime] Japanesecomic-book drawing techniquedistinguished by characters drawnwith very large eyes and (sometimes)a layout in which the panels run fromright to leftmanifest meaning the meaning in amedia text that is obvious, as opposedto a latent or subtextual meaning.For example, the manifest meaningof some television sitcoms (such asMarried with Children, which waspopular in the 1980s and 1990s) maybe entertainment, but its latent meaningmight be a critique of the traditionalfamily.manufacturing consent [termcoined by Noam Chomsky] thecamouflaged practice by governmentsor institutions of gainingthe consent of common people by183

manuscriptcontrolling or manipulating what themedia show and how they do somanuscript any document writtenby an author before it is edited andpublished. Before the computer age,the term referred to any handwrittendocument. Now, it refers to anycomputer-generated document (ina specific kind of file). In antiquity,people living around the MediterraneanSea wrote manuscripts onpapyrus, leather, and wax tablets.During the Middle Ages, manuscriptswere written on parchment and onvellum (a refined form of parchment).Since the 1400s, paper has been usedto prepare manuscripts. Scholarsknown as philologists study ancient(and medieval) manuscripts in orderto reconstruct the cultures and socialsystems of the era from which theyemanate.Marconi, Guglielmo (1874–1937)Italian inventor who popularizedwireless telegraphy, known shortlythereafter as radio. Marconi sharedthe 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics withKarl Ferdinand Braun of Germany,who had developed ways of increasingthe range of radio transmissions.In 1900 Marconi established theAmerican Marconi Company, whichmade it easy and practical to sendsignals across the Atlantic for the firsttime.Marcuse, Herbert (1898–1979)Frankfurt School philosopherand a leading figure in the New Leftmovement that emerged in the 1960s.Guglielmo MarconiMarcuse argued that the media helpindoctrinate and manipulate commonpeople, promoting a false consciousnessthat plays into the hands of thesystem of power that oversees thesocial order. His most quoted book isAn Essay on Liberation (1969).marginality pushing minority groupsto the periphery in media coveragemarkedness way of classifyingwords or grammatical categoriesas being general, or unmarked, orspecific and thus marked. In English,the word man is unmarked for genderbecause it is the general form standingfor males and females together:Man does not live by bread alone. Onthe other hand, woman is the markedform because it is constrained tosignifying females alone. This creates184

marketingthe impression, by extension, thatmasculinity is the norm, and thatfemininity is a special case in point.market area geographical area thatrepresents a particular market of buyersfor a specific productmarket forces mathematical relationshipthat exists between thesupply and demand for a product orservice, which ultimately dictateswhat it will costmarket liberalism ideology claimingthat market forces should beallowed to develop on their ownmomentum without any outsideinterferences or impositions (bygovernments, controlling agencies,interest groups, etc.)market power influence that resultswhen a large share of sales is controlledby a major company. Marketpower enables large companies tolimit competition and to raise pricesabove competitive levels. Such companiesoften put up obstacles calledentry barriers that are designed tothwart new firms from getting startedin an industry. The most extremeform of market power is called amonopoly. In a monopoly, a singlefirm or a group of firms controls thesupply of a product or service forwhich no substitute exists.market research 1. informationgatheringactivities carried out inorder to improve marketing andadvertising strategies for a product;2. study of the probable users of aproduct. Many marketing firms usesurveys to determine what kinds ofpeople make up a market; othersobserve what customers actually buyto learn about their habits; othersanalyze the effect that the public imageof a company or its products hason consumers.market segmentation process of dividinga market strategically, so as tobe able to develop advertising materialsfor the segment or segments thatare believed to be favorably responsiveto themmarket share that part of an audiencethat can be linked to a particularmedium or programmarket test any technique evaluatingreactions to promotional and advertisingcampaigns. Marketing agenciesdetermine potential markets for aproduct or service before it is advertised.A research team then tests draftadvertisements in the potential markets.On the basis of this market test,the manufacturer will decide whetheran ad campaign is worthwhile.marketing process of promotingproducts and services through techniquessuch as segmentation, testing,etc. Since the early 1990s, businesseshave used the Internet to carry outmany of their marketing activities.Marketing over the Internet generatesmore detailed information about customerinterests and buying behaviorthan was ever possible before.185

marketing communicationsmarketing communications skillfuldeployment of media outlets (radio,television, online communications,print advertising) to promote a productor servicemarketing firm business that providesadvice on the distribution andsales of goods and services, includingrecommendations on pricing, packaging,advertising, merchandising, anddistributionmarketing intelligence informationcollected about a market that can beused to shape a marketing or advertisingcampaignmarketing model model of themarketing process, usually generatedby specially designed computersoftware, that allows marketers toassess how to best utilize advertisingresourcesmarquee 1. sign over the entrance ofa theater or other venue that displaysthe name of the featured event and/or performers; 2. piece of text thatscrolls across a screen in a highlightedbandmartial arts movie film genre inwhich the martial arts play a dominantrole, especially in the actionsequencesMarx, Karl (1818–1883) Germansocial theorist who predicted thatcapitalism would eventually collapseunder pressure from working people.For Marx, the prevailing economicsystem determines the intellectualand cultural history of a society.He proposed a system, called communism,in which all citizens giveaccording to their means and takeaccording to their needs. His theorieshave influenced the policies ofgovernments in many countries, aswell as numerous academics, even incapitalist nations.Marxism socioeconomic theorydeveloped by Karl Marx andFriedrich Engels. It constitutes theblueprint behind communism, holdingthat all people are entitled toenjoy the fruits of their labor, but areprevented from doing so in capitalistsystems, which divide society intotwo classes—nonowning workersand nonworking owners. Marx calledthe resulting situation “alienation,”and he theorized that when the workersrepossessed the fruits of theirlabor, alienation would be overcomeand class divisions would cease toexist. The collapse of the SovietUnion and China’s adoption of elementsof a free-market economy inthe 1990s marked the end of Marxismas a practicable theory of society,though it retains interest as a critiqueof market capitalism and a theory ofmedia effects.Marxist theories of the mediatheories that espouse Marxist philosophyin explaining the modernmass media. Essentially, Marxistcritics maintain that the media reinforcethe values of those in power byrepresenting them as the norm. The186

mass culturebest-known Marxist theories of themedia come under the rubric of theFrankfurt School.masala style of Hindi filmmakingthat combines various genres (action,romance, comedy, adventure)mask 1. covering of the eyes, themouth, or the entire face, sometimesused by fictional heroes (for example,Zorro and the Lone Ranger woreeye masks, while early Hollywoodbandits wore a mouth mask to covertheir identities); 2. covering of theentire face worn by a Greek or Romanactor in ancient drama to portraya character and magnify the voice; 3.any ritualistic covering over the face.Masks are divided into four types.First, ceremonial masks were used inmany tribal societies to influence orappeal to the gods. These masks representedthe gods and were worn duringceremonies, suggesting that thegods were present in spirit. Second,theatrical masks, such as those usedby the ancient Greeks in their dramas,allowed the audience to followthe play and to grasp the charactersportrayed by the actors. The Chineseand Japanese also used masks inthis manner. Third, burial and deathmasks have been used since antiquityin ceremonies relating to death.Typically, in many tribes the masksrepresent dead persons, and it isthought that their spirits return duringthe ceremony. In Western countries,death masks are sometimes used topreserve the memory of an importantpersonage. Famous death masks includethose of Ludwig van Beethovenand Napoleon. Finally, festival masksare used in such festivals as Carnivaland Mardi Gras.mass a large group, the collectiveaggregate (one of the most frequentlyused words in media and communications).Its meaning is most often pejorative.It is claimed that the peopleliving in a mass culture, for instance,tend to lose their individual identityand assume a group or collectiveidentity. As such, they are likely todo things as a group that they wouldnever do alone (for example, engagein riots or illegal activity).mass communication 1. communicationsystem that reaches massivenumbers of people; 2. actual processof designing and delivering mediatexts to mass audiencesmass communication theory anytheory that aims to explain or predictcultural and social phenomena as interrelatedwith mass communicationand mass media systemsmass culture type of culture foundin urban societies, where variouscultures, subcultures, countercultures,and parallel cultures existin constant competition with eachother. The mass culture dominatesthe other cultures at the same timethat it is composed of them. So, forinstance, American pop culture isa mass culture. But within it thereare subcultures and parallel cultures(goth culture, Hispanic culture, etc.)187

mass manipulation model of media communicationpopular in Europe and the UnitedStates in the 1800s. Many werecheaply made, inexpensive editionsof novels.mass marketing marketing that isdirected at large numbers of peopleEnglish mass market paperback novel(1952)that nevertheless are part of its socialfabric.mass manipulation model of mediacommunication model claiming thatconsumers and audiences take in mediatexts and advertising campaignspassively and that they are beingconstantly influenced surreptitiouslyby themmass market paperback paperbackbook intended for a massmarket, typically found on racksin drugstores, in supermarkets, atairports, and in bookstores. Massmarket paperbacks first becamemass media media (radio, television,newspapers, periodicals, Websites) that reach large audiences.Attached to the meaning of this term,however, is the erroneous view thatlarge agglomerations of people areone-dimensional or homogeneous.As research on media audienceshas shown, this is hardly the case.Denis McQuail’s characterizationof the mass media, in his 1969 bookTowards a Sociology of Mass Communications,is used commonly todayas a general framework for the studyof mass media. He identifies themain features of the mass media asfollows:• They usually require complex formalorganization.• They are directed toward largeaudiences.• They are public and their content isopen to everyone.• Audiences are heterogeneous.• The mass media establish simultaneouscontact with a large numberof people who live at a distancefrom each other.• The relationship between mediapersonalities and audience membersis mediated (nondirect).• The audience is part of a massculture.188

McDonaldizationmass society in culture theory, asociety consisting of very large numbersof people, who (it is believed)are easily manipulated by the massmedia and government bureaucracies.One of the most frightening andevocative images of mass society canbe found in George Orwell’s novel1984 (1949).master antenna television[ abbreviated as MATV] televisiontransmission whereby a single(master) antenna delivers televisionsignals to hotels, apartment buildings,mobile home parks, and otherlocations where it is impractical forindividual viewers to have a separateantennamaster brand [also called parentbrand] dominant brand in a business,such as Sony audio video equipment,to which subbrands can be added(Sony movies)master shot wide camera shot thatallows viewers to see all the ongoingaction in a scenematerialism 1. philosophical theoryclaiming that consciousness is apurely physical phenomenon; 2. inculture theory, idea that culture isexpressed through material productsand that this is ultimately destructiveof true culturematinée theater performance ormovie showing that is held in the afternoon,often with cheaper seats thanevening performances or showingsMATV [see master antennatelevision]maxim concise statement or saying,perceived as expressing some inherenttruth: for example, Look beforeyou leap; Two heads are better thanonemaximal awareness point at whichan advertising campaign convincesconsumers to buy an advertisedproductMcCombs and Shaw’s agendasettingmodel of media effects modelcreated by Maxwell E. McCombsand Donald L. Shaw in 1976, whichclaims that the way in which themedia present events determines howthey will be perceived and thus howimportant they will become in publicawarenessMcDonaldization [term coined byGeorge Ritzer in The McDonaldizationof Society (1993) and laterexpanded upon by the Americansociologist Alan Bryman in TheDisneyization of Society (2004)]. AsBryman states, McDonaldization asthe process “by which the principlesof the fast-food restaurant are comingto dominate more and more sectorsof American society as well as therest of the world.” Bryman comparesthis process to “Disneyization,”which he defines as the correlativeprocess “by which the principles ofthe Disney theme parks are coming todominate more and more sectors ofAmerican society as well as the rest189

McLuhan, Marshallof the world.” The term is now usedto characterize the process by whichlarge corporations are taking overmore and more sections of society.McLuhan, Marshall (1911–1980)Canadian communications theoristwhose ideas on technology, culture,and the media have been thesource of considerable debates inmedia studies. McLuhan argued thattechnological changes in the ways inwhich we encode information leadto radical changes in society. Thus,each major historical epoch is shapedby the communication medium thatit uses most widely. For example, hecalled the epoch spanning the early1700s to the mid-1900s the age ofprint, because print was the chiefmedium by which people gainedand exchanged knowledge. Theage of print encouraged the growthof individualism, democracy, andthe separation of work and leisure,among many other things. The electronicage replaced the age of print inthe early twentieth century. Becauseit can reach so many people in manyparts of the world, electronic mediahave since “shrunk” the world into a“global village” where everyone (nomatter where they live in the world)can become involved in the lives ofeveryone else, leading to the growthof international virtual communities.McLuhan’s fascinating worksinclude The Mechanical Bride:Folklore of Industrial Man (1951),The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Makingof Typographic Man (1962), UnderstandingMedia: The Extensions ofMarshall McLuhanMan (1964), The Medium Is the Massage:An Inventory of Effects (1967),and War and Peace in the GlobalVillage (1968).McLurg’s Law claim that newsabout events farther away have lessvalue than news about similar eventsfrom the place where they are beingreported. For example, the lawpredicts that news about a singlecasualty in one’s local area will havemuch higher newsworthiness thannews about hundreds or thousandsof similar casualties in some remotearea of the world (with respect towhere one lives). The term refers tothe name of a British news editorwho claimed that news events diminishin importance relative to theirdistance from London. Today, it has amore generic meaning.190

meaning theoriesMcNelly’s model of news flow modeldefined by J.T. NcNelly in 1959,showing how the stages throughwhich a news event passes, beforeit is published or broadcast, influencethe way in which it is ultimatelyperceivedMcQuail, Denis (1938–) well-knownmedia analyst who has written extensivelyon theories of mass mediaand on Uses and Gratificationsmodels. Among his books are CommunicationModels for the Study ofMass Communications (1981) andMass Communication Theory (1983).He proposed several theoretical models,including the accountability ofmedia model (concerning the responsibilitiesof the media) and the modelof audience fragmentation (whichresults from wider choice amongtelevision audiences).Mead, George Herbert (1863–1931)American philosopher often cited inmedia studies because of his analysisof how social structures influence individualexperiences. He is probablythe source of the concept of “constructionof the Self,” which claimsthat selfhood is not inherited, butconstructed by the individual throughcontact with others.Mead, Margaret (1901–1978)American anthropologist, knownespecially for her studies of adolescenceas a construction of modernsocieties. Mead maintained that thechild-rearing practices of a cultureinfluence how someone matures.Among her best-known works areComing of Age in Samoa (1928),Growing Up in New Guinea (1930),Sex and Temperament in ThreePrimitive Societies (1935), Maleand Female (1949), and Culture andCommitment (1970).mean world syndrome view holdingthat audiences get the impressionfrom the media that violent crimesoccur more frequently than theyactually do. From this impression,audiences develop the view that it is a“mean world” out there.meaning what is understood whensomething is presented or communicated.The technique of oppositionis often used in media studies to fleshout what something means. Thisapproach assumes that the meaningis something that cannot be determinedin the absolute, but only inrelation to other forms and meanings;for example, good vs. evil, hero vs.villain, etc. In media representationsthe poles of an opposition take onspecific form. Thus, for example, theevil villain in a movie might wearblack and the hero a lighter color ofclothing, or vice versa (as was thecase with Zorro).meaning theories theories aboutmeaning and how it unfolds. Themainstream view of meaning is thatthere are two levels, a literal anda figurative level, with the formerconsisting of the basic meaning ofsomething and the other a derivativeform of meaning. The terms refer-191

mediaence, sense, and definition are oftenused in discussions of meaning.Reference is the process of identifyingsomething; sense is what theidentification elicits psychologically,historically, and socially; and definitionis a statement about what thatidentification means by convention.The terms denotation and connotationare preferred to reference andsense in contemporary theories ofmeaning. Consider the word cat.The word identifies a “creature withfour legs, whiskers, retractile claws.”This is its denotative meaning, whichallows us to determine if somethingreal or imaginary is a “cat.” All othersenses of the word are connotative;for example, He let the cat out ofthe bag; My friend is a real cool cat.Such senses are historically acquiredmeanings and can only be understoodin reference to particular cultural usesof that word.media [plural of medium] 1. anymeans of transmitting information;2. the various forms, devices, andsystems that make up mass communicationsconsidered as a whole,including newspapers, magazines,radio stations, television channels,and Web sites. Before alphabeticwriting, the media for communicatinginformation were oral-auditoryand pictographic. Writing facilitatedthe creation and storage of printedtexts. Later print technology madesuch texts available to masses ofpeople. Marshall McLuhan calledthe social world in which the useof printed texts became widespreadthe Gutenberg Galaxy, after theGerman printer Johannes Gutenberg,who is traditionally considered theinventor of movable type in the West.media analysis analysis of allaspects of the media; for example,how they evolved and how they affectindividuals and societymedia broker business that offersorganizations media-buying, mediaplanning,and other such servicesmedia buyer individual working foran ad agency who has the responsibilityof buying space or time in amedia outlet (a slot in a magazine,radio time) for an advertisement or adcampaignmedia center 1. department of anorganization responsible for releasinginformation to the media; 2. acomputer that, in addition to its usualcomputing functions, also providesaccess to digital media such as digitalradio and digital televisionmedia circus profuse media coveragethat a particular event attracts,distorting the significance of theevent in the processmedia concentration 1. process ofbuying space in only one mediumfor advertising or publicity, ratherthan in various media, thus developingstrength through concentration;2. domination of media markets by asmall number (or even just one) largemedia corporations192

media planmedia control any mechanism set upby governments to regulate the mediamedia convergence [also calledconvergence] process whereby oldand new media technologies areavailable either separately or togetherthrough digitizationmedia councils groups of peoplefrom the media and the public whoinvestigate complaints against themediamedia dependency theory [seealso dependency theory] claim thatpeople can easily become dependentupon mass media in ways that parallelsubstance dependency. Supportersof this theory claim that people caneasily become habituated to televisionor online navigation, but mightbe unaware of their dependency, ormay not care that they have becomedependent.media dominance technique of buyinga large amount of space or time inone medium for an advertisement orprogram, and then shifting to anothermedium after achieving optimumcoverage and frequency. The strategyis to “dominate” media space andtime as much as possible.media effects model any model thatsees media as influencing individualsand/or societies in a negativeway. The best-known models of thistype are the magic bullet theoryand the hypodermic needletheory.media event an event that attractsa great deal of attention from themedia, often organized or manufactureddeliberately to gain suchattentionmedia images impressions and viewsof people or events generated by themediamedia institution organizationinvolved in producing media forms(cinema, television)media literacy [also called mediacy]in-depth knowledge of how themedia work and how they mightinfluence audiences—similar to literacyand the ways in which literacypermits people to better understandwritten texts in all their dimensions(psychological, social, etc.)media messaging sending text, images,and sound from one mobilephone or device to anothermedia objectives overall aims thata company has in placing advertisementsor ad campaigns in specificmedia outletsmedia organizations organizationsproviding information to their customers,either directly with their ownmedia communications or else byoffering marketers a way of reachingaudiences through advertisingmedia plan plan designed to placestrategically an ad campaign in variousmedia outlets so as to reach as193

media receptionmany potential customers as possiblewith the least amount of expendituremedia reception [also called reception]act of reading, interpreting, etc.,media texts within specific locationsand cultural contexts. Receptiontheory generally claims that interpretationis not homogeneous or passive,but involves background assumptions,audience dynamics, and otherfactors.media research studies thatinvestigate the media, includinghow they influence people, how theyshape social processes, how theypresent news, and how they structureeventsmedia selection process of choosingthe appropriate media for an advertisingcampaign so as to make it aseffective as possiblemedia strategy plan of action by anadvertiser for bringing advertisingmessages to the attention of consumersthrough the use of appropriatemediamedia text any media product or creation,such as a television program, aradio show, a newspaper column, oran advertisement. Like any writtentext (a novel, a poem), a media texthas the property of cohesion andpredictability that allows interpretersto identify it as such and experienceit as a whole.mediacy [see media literacy]mediasphere [term coined in analogywith biosphere and semiosphere]world in which the media interrelatewith social processes, influencingthese processes directly, includingdialogue, rituals, and the likemediation view that media literallymediate reality, rather than presentit in a straightforward manner. Forexample, the 1950s American TV sitcomcalled I Love Lucy portrayed thefemale gender through the characterof Lucy as a strong-willed, independentfemale, in charge of her ownlife. On the other hand, the 1980s–1990s sitcom Married with Childrendepicted the same gender mockinglythrough the character of Betty asa boorish, sex-starved female wholived out her existence mindlesslyday after dreary day. The two programsthus mediated the meaning of“female gender” through differencesin character portrayal.medium [see media]medium is the message MarshallMcLuhan’s famous maxim referringto his belief that each mediumshapes the nature of the messageit is designed to deliver. In UnderstandingMedia (1964), McLuhanstated: “The medium is the message.This is merely to say that the personaland social consequences of anymedium—that is, of any extension ofourselves—result from the new scalethat is introduced into our affairs byeach extension of ourselves, or byany new technology.”194

messagemega-agencies in the advertisingbusiness, large ad companies that areformed through the merger of smallerad agenciesmegabyte unit of computer memoryequal to one million bytesmegaplex large movie theatercomplex, often with the same movieplaying on several screens in thecomplexMéliès, Georges (1861–1938) one ofthe first filmmakers who introducedthe basic camera techniques of slowmotion, dissolve, and fade-out. Hewas also the first to create film fictionnarratives, from 1899 to 1912, producingmore than 400 films, whichcombined pantomime and fantasy,including Le voyage dans la lune(1902; A Trip to the Moon).melodrama narrative work (oftenin serial form) characterizedby emotional conflicts among thecharacters. The melodrama tracesits origins to Greek theater, becomingpopular in the West only in theeighteenth century. Also known as“tearjerkers,” melodramas today includeromantic comedies and televisionsoap operas.meme [term coined by RichardDawkins (1941–)] any idea, fashion,musical tune, etc., that spreadsthrough society, which inherits itunwittingly in the same way thatindividuals get their personality automaticallythrough genetic inheritancememoir biographical genre composedfrom personal observation andexperience. A memoir differs fromautobiography chiefly in the degreeof interpretation of the events inone’s life. Memoirs tend to be moreinterpretive than factual. A diary is anexample of a memoir.memory stick small flash drivedevice that can store data for usein electronic devices such ascomputers, digital cameras, andmobile phonesmerchandising creation of brandnonmedia products, such as foodand toys, which are designed to takeadvantage of the success of a mediaevent or product, such as a blockbustermoviemesmerism [term coined after FranzMesmer (1734–1815), Austrianphysician] power to captivate andenthrall someone. Mesmer thoughtthat he could cure patients by havingthem put their feet in magnetizedwater while holding cables. Mesmerbelieved that people possessed amysterious quality that allowed themto have a powerful, “magnetic” influenceover others. Mesmer created asensation in his day, but the medicalprofession saw him as a fraud. Theterm mesmerism is sometimes used inreference to the ways in which mediainfluence people.message 1. any form of communication(information, feelings, ideas)passed on or transmitted in some195

messageboardway; 2. meaning or lesson built into atext, spectacle, or performancemessageboard Web page or group ofWeb pages on the Internet that allowsvisitors to read and respond to messagesposted theremessaging sending short instantmessages by mobile phone or someinstant messaging devicemetacommunication 1. abstractprinciples of communication in all itsforms; 2. level of analysis designed toexamine the nature of communicationmetadata information contained ona Web page (publication date, author,keywords, title) that can be used bysearch engines to find relevant Websites through hyperlinksmetafiction fiction that explores thenature of fiction itself, especially itstraditional forms, genres, and stylesmetal music [synonym for heavymetal] type of rock music characterizedby highly amplified electricguitars, a hard beat, a thumping bass,and often dark lyrics. It came ontothe scene in the late 1960s and 1970swith bands such as Steppenwolf, LedZeppelin, Black Sabbath, Kiss,AC/DC, and Aerosmith. In the 1980s,metal was revived by bands such asDef Leppard, Iron Maiden, MötleyCrüe, Black Sabbath, and Van Halen.metalanguage theory or statementabout language, concerning thenature of language itself or of someaspect of language; grammaticalstatements and categories (nouns,verbs, etc.) are part of the grammarian’smetalanguagemetalingual function in RomanJakobson’s communication model,any language about language: forexample, A verb is a word expressingsome action; Is green a descriptive ordemonstrative adjective?metamessage the “real” messageimplicit (or hidden) in a communication,often delivered through the toneof voice or something similar, thatmight be different from the apparentcontent of the messagemetanarrative [often used as a synonymfor metafiction] narrative thatexamines or explores the narrativeform itself, or else includes other narrativeswithin itmetaphor word or phrase used todesignate something by associationor implication. In the professor is asnake, the word snake is used metaphoricallyto imply, not the reptileknown as a snake, but the qualities of“danger,” “slipperiness,” etc., that itrepresents. These qualities are thenprojected onto the professor by association.Metaphor was first identifiedby Aristotle, who saw it as a wayfor people to understand abstract concepts(such as human personality).However, Aristotle later claimed thatthe primary function of metaphor wasfigurative or symbolic, rather than196

micropaymentcognitive. Today, Aristotle’s originalconception of metaphor as a cognitivestrategy is the definition acceptedby most linguists.metatext theory or statement abouttexts, whose purpose it is to examinethe nature, function, and overallstructure of texts themselvesmetatheory theory or statementabout theories, whose purpose it is toexamine the nature, form, and functionof theories themselvesmethodology system of proceduresused in any field, such as mediaanalysis, for conducting research, orfor gathering datametonymy figure of speech standingfor something of which it is a part:for example, the press for journalistsand newspapers; wheels for automobile.In the world of shopping andcommerce, certain brands becomemetonyms: for example, the Scotchbrand of adhesive tape is used commonlyto name all brands of adhesivetape; the Kleenex brand of facialtissue is commonly used to refer toall brands of facial tissue; and so on.Generally, this happens when a brandname is either the first to reach themarketplace or else is a dominantbrand within it.Metro-Goldwyn-Meyer [abbreviatedas MGM] major Hollywood studiofounded in 1924, which becamea leading film production enterprisein the 1930s and 1940s and thus asymbol of Hollywood’s golden age.Web site: www.mgm.comMetz, Christian (1931–1993)French cinema analyst who arguedessentially that a movie can be studiedin the ways that a linguist studieslanguage, hence introducing theconcept of “film language” into thefield. His best-known work is Essaissur la signification au cinema (1968;Film Language: A Semiotics of theCinema, 1974).microcassette small audiotapecassette that fits into a pocketsizedtape recorder or dictationmachinemicrocomputer [also called personalcomputer] small computerthat uses a microprocessor toprocess informationmicrofiche tiny sheet of microfilm,on which images are arranged in agrid pattern. A single microfiche maycontain images of up to 400 regularpaper pages.microfilm photographic film onwhich reduced images are recorded.Microfilm can store large amounts ofinformation in a small space. Peopleread microfilm with a reader that enlargesthe images and projects themonto a built-in screen.micropayment small charge to Internetusers for downloading something,usually on Web sites that have nosponsors197

microphonemicrophone device that changessound into electrical current, whichinstantly travels over wires or throughthe air to a loudspeaker or someother device that changes it backinto sound. The first microphone wasthe telephone transmitter, inventedby Alexander Graham Bell in1876. Today, microphones are used inpublic-address systems and in radioand television broadcasting. They arealso used in recording the sound formotion pictures, in making compactdiscs, and in webcasting.microphotography process of makingmicrofilmmicroprocessor device that does theactual work in a computer. A microprocessorconsists of transistors andother parts built into a chip (usuallymade of silicon).Microsoft large software corporation,based in Washington State, foundedin 1975 by Bill Gates and Paul G.Allen, by simply adapting BASIC foruse on personal computers. Microsoftbecame a publicly owned corporationin 1986, after having issued the firstversion of Microsoft Word, a popularword-processing program, in 1983,and Microsoft Windows, a graphicaluser interface, in 1985.Mill’s principle of utility often-citedprinciple enunciated by nineteenthcenturyBritish philosopher and economistJohn Stuart Mill, who claimedthat there exists a universal tendencyin human beings to assess everything,including pleasure and gratification,in terms of their utility valueMilton’s paradox often-cited paradox,which states that theory andpractice may not correspond, as exemplifiedby seventeenth-century Englishpoet John Milton’s own work as a censorduring Oliver Cromwell’s reign,despite the fact that he paradoxicallysupported freedom of the pressmime 1. play (usually comical in nature)in which people are impersonatedand events mimicked (originatingin Greek and Roman comedy); 2.acronym for multipurpose Internetmail extension, a system used tohandle attachments in e-mails andnewsgroup postingsmimesis imitation or simulation ofsensible reality in art and literaturemimetic theory of art theory elaboratedby Aristotle, which claimsthat art is basically an imitation of thereal worldmimicry art of imitating otherpeople’s voices, gestures, and appearance,often for comical effectminimal effects model any modelclaiming that the media have limitedeffects on audiences, reinforcingexisting attitudes, values, andworldview rather than influencing orchanging themminimalism arts movement originatingin the 1960s, in which only the198

mixingsimplest forms are used, often overand over again. The musical worksof American composer Philip Glassare examples of minimalist style,emphasizing simple classic melodicand harmonic forms that are repeatedover and over in a specific piece:for example, Einstein on the Beach(1976), Satyagraha (1980), Akhnaten(1984), The Voyage (1992), and LaBelle et la Bête (1994). The termalso applies to the field of art. Forexample, American painter EllsworthKelly typically uses a single colorand very linear drawing techniques toemphasize simplicity and its beauty.miniseries serialized televisiondrama, usually broadcast on consecutivenights or weeks. One of the mostpopular miniseries in the history ofAmerican television was Roots, aneight-part 1970s drama tracing thehistory of an African American familyfrom slavery to freedom in earlyAmerica.Miramax major Hollywood studiofounded by brothers Bob and HarveyWeinstein in 1979, producing suchhighly touted and popular films asPulp Fiction (1994), The Talented Mr.Ripley (1999), and Sin City (2005).Web site: www.miramax.commirror site copy of a Web site maintainedon a different file server inorder to spread the distribution loador to provide data backupmisappropriation invasion of privacyby appropriating someone’s nameor image for commercial purposes,without the person’s permissionmise-en-abyme technique consistingof bottomless reduplication, as whenan image contains a smaller versionof itself, which in turn contains aneven smaller version within itself,and so on ad infinitummise-en-scène 1. actual positioningof scenery, actors, etc., on a stage ormovie set for a particular scene orsequence; 2. overall look of a filmedscenemisinformed society view thatsociety is not better informed,despite globally accessible systemsof information, because these oftendisseminate false or inaccurateinformationmisprint error in the printed or publishedversion of a textmixdown process of putting togethervarious audio feeds that have been recordedpreviously to create a finishedrecordingmixed media 1. use of differentartistic media to create a single compositionor work; 2. in advertising,use of different media (print, radio,television, Internet) in tandem for anad campaignmixing putting together differentexcerpts of audio, such as vocal commentaryand music, to create a finalpiece for broadcasting199

mmsMMS [see multimedia messagingservice]mobile phone portable phone thatoperates by means of a series of locallybased cellular radio networksmobilization ability of the media tostir up people to take actionmoblogging use of a mobile phone,or other handheld device, to post textin a weblogmode of address way that a mediatext “speaks” to its audience and, inso doing, helps to shape how it willbe interpretedmodem [abbreviation of modulatordemodulator]device that enablescomputers to transmit and receive informationover a telephone network.Modems can send and receive notonly text information, but also sound,video, and other types of data.modernism 1. early twentiethcenturyarchitectural style, alsoknown as the Bauhaus School, emphasizingsimplicity and conformityin design (as used in the building ofearly skyscrapers); 2. artistic trendsthat ran roughly from the 1920s tothe 1970s and that generally emphasizedformal elements rather than thenaturalistic depiction of subjectsmodernity type of society in whichindividuals are deemed to be fundamentallyrational and thereforecapable of determining their ownforms of social organization, withoutguidance from religious or politicalleaders. Societies that are modern,therefore, also tend to value freedomof speech and of association, democraticforms of government, knowledge,and diversity.modulation system designed to increasethe frequency of signals.The two main types of modulationare called amplitude modulation(AM) and frequency modulation(FM).mogul an important or powerfulowner of mediamonochrome painting, drawing, orprint in a single color or shades of asingle colormonologue 1. dramatic speech madeby a single speaker, such as a stageactor; 2. jokes or funny stories deliveredby a comedian on stagemonopoly exclusive control of acommodity or servicemonster movie movie in which themain character is a monster or inwhich monsters play a primary role.Many early monster movies werebased on the “Frankenstein myth.”Frankenstein was originally a horrornovel written by the English authorMary Shelley in 1818, which tells thestory of Victor Frankenstein, a scientistwho tries to create a living beingfor the good of humanity but insteadproduces a monster.200

motion picturemontage 1. composite visual imagemade by bringing together differentpictures or parts of pictures andsuperimposing them on each other,so that they form a blended wholewhile remaining distinct; 2. incinema, rapid succession of scenesor images to create some effect(such as a dream sequence or aflashback)moral panic 1. media-induced fearthat an aspect of modern culture isleading people—especially childrenand youth—astray, into deviance,delinquency, or criminality; 2. suddenincrease in public anxiety over a mediaproduct or event that is perceivedas encouraging violence, sexism, orracism. The term was introduced byStanley Cohen in his book Folk Devilsand Moral Panics (1972).mores traditional rules and customsof a group of people or a societyabout what is acceptable socialbehaviorMorley, David (1949–) well-knownanalyst of media audiences and criticof cultural imperialism. His bestknownwork is Home Territories:Media, Mobility and Identity (2000).morpheme minimal form in languagethat has meaning. The wordimpossible, for instance, contains twomorphemes: the prefix im-, whichconveys the meaning “opposite of,”and possible, also called the lexicalmorpheme (or morpheme with lexicalmeaning).morphing in filmic language,changing something or someoneinto something or someone else inone continuous movement, achievedmainly by computer software. One ofthe first uses of morphing can be seenin the shape-changing Terminatorcharacter in Terminator 2 (1991).Morse code system for representingletters, numerals, and punctuationmarks by a sequence of dots, dashes,and spaces transmitted as electricalpulses. The original system was inventedby Samuel F.B. Morse in 1838for his telegraph. The InternationalMorse Code, a simpler version, wasdevised in 1851. The Morse code hasbeen rendered obsolete by moderntechnologies.motion picture [synonym for movieor film] a series of still photographson film, projected in rapid successiononto a screen, giving the impressionof continuous motion. The principalinventors of motion picture machineswere Thomas Alva Edison in theUnited States and the Lumièrebrothers in France. Motion pictureproduction was centered in France inthe first two decades of the twentiethcentury. By 1920, movie studiosexpanded in the United States,reaching their pinnacle in the 1930sand 1940s, making the United Statesthe center of filmmaking worldwide.The 1950s and 1960s brought anew internationalism to filmmaking.The same period also saw therise of the independent filmmaker(the indie). Today, movies remain201

mpaahighly popular as forms of art andentertainment, and the American filmindustry (based in Hollywood), withits immense resources, continues todominate the world film market.Motion Picture Association ofAmerica [abbreviated as MPAA]American trade association foundedin 1922, responsible for protectingthe interests of the major Hollywoodstudios. It is also responsible forthe movie rating system in usein the United States. Web site:www.mpaa.orgMotion Picture Experts GroupAudio Layer 3 [abbreviated as MP3]format for compressing music (andother) files into very small computerfiles, while losing virtually no qualityin the process. For example, sounddata from a compact disc can becompressed to one-twelfth the originalsize without sacrificing soundquality. The MP3 format is verypopular for transmitting music filesover the Internet.motivated shot camera shot that followsa particular action or sequenceof actions that is prompted by anevent in the action or sequencemotivational research investigationof the psychological reasons whyindividuals buy specific types of merchandise,why they respond to certainadvertising appeals, why they watchparticular kinds of television programs,or why they listen to certainradio stationsMotown [contraction of MotorTown, in reference to Detroit’s automotiveindustry] recording companyfounded in Detroit in 1957 by songwriterBerry Gordy, Jr., becomingknown nationwide shortly thereafterwith the two hits Shop Around (1960)by the Miracles and Please Mr.Postman (1961) by the Marvelettes.The “Motown sound,” which featuredlyrical ballads sung to a catchyrhythmic accompaniment, was madefamous by the Temptations, the FourTops, the Supremes, Marvin Gaye,the Isley Brothers, Gladys Knight andthe Pips, the Jackson 5, and StevieWonder. Gordy moved the companyheadquarters to Los Angeles in 1971,eventually selling the label to MCAin 1988. Motown is considered to beone of the most successful blackownedbusinesses and one of themost influential independent recordcompanies in American pop musichistory.mouse hand-controlled device forinteracting with a digital computerthat has a graphical user interface. Itis called mouse because its shape issimilar to that of the common rodentwith the same name. The mouse canbe moved to control the movementof a cursor on the computer screen.It can also be used to select text, activateprograms, or move items aroundthe screen.mouseover feature on a Web page,such as a pop-up menu, that is activatedwhen a user moves the cursorover a contact point on the page. This202

multimediafeature is designed to get the user toselect it.movie ratings system of classifyingmovies indicating for whom themovie is suitable, according to ageG (General Audience): “AllAges Admitted”PG (Parental Guidance Suggested):“Some MaterialMay Not Be Suitable forChildren”PG-13 (Parents Strongly Cautioned):“Some MaterialMay Be Inappropriate forRChildren Under 13”(Restricted): “Under 17 RequiresAccompanying Parentor Adult Guardian”NC-17: “No One 17 and Under Admitted”movie trailers brief films showing afew scenes from an upcoming movieor television program in order toadvertise itmovies [see motion picture]MP3 [see Motion Picture ExpertsGroup Audio Layer 3]MTV [abbreviation of music television]24-hour cable music videochannel that debuted in 1981 withVideo Killed the Radio Star, by theBuggles. MTV quickly won a widefollowing among pop music fansworldwide, greatly influencing thepop music business. The networklater expanded to include originalprogramming such as the animatedBeavis and Butthead show and thereality series Real World, separateinternational networks (MTV Europe,MTV Latin America, and MTVRussia), and the MTV Video MusicAwards.muckraking journalism that aims touncover crime, corruption, or scandalMUD [see Multi User Dungeon]multi-actuality existence of manymeanings, some of which may evenbe contradictory, attached to a givensign or symbolmulticulturalism 1. sociopoliticalphilosophy that promotes culturaldiversity, supported by many educatorsin the United States who favorthe teaching of different cultures forthe purpose of understanding andappreciating them; 2. society that integratesother cultural systems withinitselfmultimedia computer system thatallows the user to manipulate and usedifferent types of media, such as text,sound, video, graphics, and animation.The most common multimediasystem consists of a personal computerwith a sound card, modem,digital speaker unit, CD-ROM, andportals for various devices. Commercialinteractive multimediasystems include: cable televisionservices with computer interfacesthat allow viewers to interact withTV programs, high-speed interactive203

mmsaudiovisual systems, such as videogame consoles, and virtual realitysystems that create artificial sensoryenvironments.multimedia messaging service[ abbreviated as MMS] system that allowsfor the transmission of audio, images,and animation in text messagesmultimodality 1. use of several channelsto access the same information;for example, accessing cinema listingsthrough the press, by phone, and onthe Internet; 2. the mixing of mediaforms; for example, the mixing ofsound, image and graphics on televisionnews programs or on Web sitesmultiplex large cinema complex withmany screensmultiplexing method of transmittingmultiple signals simultaneously overa single wire or channel, in orderto squeeze as much capacity into anetwork as possiblemultistep flow theory theory assertingthat media impacts are indirectand are mediated by group leaders.The theory maintains that peoplewithin different social classes havevery different interpretations of mediaproducts, thus forming interpretivecommunities, which coincide with realcommunities such as families, unions,neighborhoods, and churches.multitrack device or system capableof using different tracks in soundrecording or reproductionMulti User Dungeon [abbreviated asMUD] text-based game that can beplayed by multiple users across theInternetMurdoch effect [after Rupert Murdoch]idea that journalism is becomingmore and more obsessed withcorporate gainMurdoch, Rupert (1931–) Australian-bornpublisher who ownsmany media outlets in Australia, theUnited Kingdom, the United States,and other countries. His ownershipof print businesses ranges from TheTimes of London to the New YorkPost. Murdoch is known especiallyfor making financially strugglingmedia operations profitable.Murray, Janet (1946–) mediaanalyst, whose book Hamlet on theHolodeck: The Future of Narrativein Cyberspace (1998), has becomea reference point for discussing themetamorphosis of traditional genresas they are increasingly transferredto cyberspaceMurrow, Edward R. (1908–1965)prominent American broadcaster whoforeshadowed embedded journalismwhen he broadcast eyewitness reportsof World War II events such as theGerman occupation of Austria. In the1950s he was an influential force forthe free dissemination of information,producing a notable exposé of thetactics of Senator Joseph McCarthythat contributed to the demise ofMcCarthyism, the fanatical move-204

MySpacement investigating various governmentdepartments and questioningwitnesses about their suspectedcommunist affiliations. In 1954Murrow used footage of McCarthy’sown press conferences on his CBSSee It Now documentary program toexpose the excesses of McCarthy’santicommunist campaign. The Senatesubsequently reprimanded McCarthy.music hall popular form of entertainmentemerging in the late nineteenthcentury that featured acts by singers,comedians, dancers, and actors. Consideredto cater primarily to vulgartastes, music halls evolved in theearly twentieth century into larger,more respectable variety theaters,which combined music, comedy acts,and one-act plays.music television [see MTV]music video short film showcasinga particular song or artist. It isclaimed by many pop music analyststhat some artists, such as Madonna,Michael Jackson, and the Eurythmics,owe much of their success tothe popularity of their videos.musical theatrical production thatrevolves around the music composedfor it. Its roots can be traced toeighteenth- and nineteenth-centurygenres such as opéra comique. TheBlack Crook (1866), considered tobe the first musical comedy, attractedlovers of both opera and burlesqueshows. In the 1920s and 1930s composerssuch as Jerome Kern, GeorgeGershwin, Cole Porter, RichardRodgers, and Oscar Hammersteinturned the musical into a form withbroad appeal. The genre flourished inthe 1950s with works by composerssuch as Leonard Bernstein. In the late1960s, musicals began diversifying,incorporating elements from rockmusic and other styles. Perhaps themost famous of all contemporarycomposers of the genre is AndrewLloyd Webber, whose musicals Cats(1981), The Phantom of the Opera(1986), and Evita (1996) continue tobe popular.must-carry rules regulations establishedby the FCC (Federal CommunicationsCommission) requiringall cable operators to carry localbroadcasts on their systems, therebyensuring that local media outlets andpublic television channels can benefitfrom cable technologyMySpace online social networkingsite founded in 2003 where personalprofiles can be posted. MySpaceis one of various Web sites wherepeople can post profiles and blogs,leave messages, or connect withfriends. It also features an internalsearch engine and e-mail system. Itis headquartered in Santa Monica,California, but its parent company isheadquartered in New York City. Asof 2006, MySpace posted over 100million profiles, with several hundredthousand new members every day.MySpace prohibits the posting of anypotentially dangerous information,such as phone numbers and ad-205

mystery ingredient techniquedresses. MySpace (and other onlinenetworking sites) now allows forthe posting of other kinds of items,including profiles for companiesand various artists (e.g., musicians,filmmakers), who upload songs, shortfilms, and other work directly ontotheir profiles. Web site: www.MySpace.commystery ingredient technique advertisingtechnique whereby a mysteryingredient in a drink, detergent,or other product is claimed to be thesource behind the product’s appeal orqualitymyth 1. ancient story about gods,heroes, and supernatural events; 2.by extension, any story that aims toexplain something in nonliteral ornonscientific waysmythologie [French for mythology]as defined by Roland Barthes, anymodern-day spectacle or text thathas mythic structure built into it. Forexample, superhero comics or moviesare examples of mythologies, sincethey recast the mythic hero conceptin modern form. For instance, Supermancomes from another world, hasa fatal weakness, brings about justicein human affairs, and so on, as didmany ancient mythic heroes. Thedifference is that Superman’s personaand story have been updated to reflectthe modern imagination—Supermancomes from another planet, the ancienthero from the heavens; Superman’sweakness (or tragic flaw) isexposure to kryptonite (a substancefrom his original planet), while theancient hero may have a weak heel(Achilles) or other flaw. The Supermanstory is not a real myth, servingthe important cognitive functions thatmyths served in the ancient world;it is a recasting of myth to serve modernpsychic needs.mythology 1. group of myths connectedto each other in some way;2. the study of myths. There are fourmain types of myths found throughoutthe world: cosmogonic myths aimto explain how the world came intobeing; eschatological myths foretellthe end of the world; birth and rebirthmyths indicate how life can berenewed or tell about the coming ofan ideal world or savior; and culturehero myths tell about heroes whohave changed the course of history.mythos [in contrast to lógos] theform of thinking that generatesmyths and many symbols to helpexplain the world. For example, theancient Greeks symbolized the sunas the god Helios driving a flamingchariot across the sky. The Egyptians,on the other hand, represented thesun as a boat.206

naming identifying aperson (in relation to a kinshipgroup or a particularsociety), a brand product,or some other thing towhich people wish to referin human terms by analogy (hurricanes,pets). In Anglo-Americanculture, given (or first) names canstand for such things as a month orobject (May, June, Ruby, Daisy),pop culture icons (Elvis, Marilyn), orclassical mythic personages (Diana,Jason), among many others. Traditionally,the names of ancestors orreligious personages (Mary, John)are used everywhere in the world.Until the late Middle Ages, the givenname was generally sufficient. Duplications,however, led to the coinageof surnames (literally, “names on topof names”), indicating such thingsas the individual’s place of origin orparentage, personality, occupation,or some other recognizable trait. Forexample, a person living near a brookwould have been called by that nameBrook. Surnames such as Woods,Moore, Church, or Hill were alsocoined in this way. Surnames such asBlack, Short, Long, etc., were coinedinstead to highlight traits perceived inindividuals. Descendant surnames—for example, those created with MacorMc- in Scottish or Irish surnames(MacAdam, “son or daughter ofAdam”) or -son in English surnames(Johnson, “son of John”) were usedto specify the family to which someonebelonged. Surnames describingan occupation—Smith, Farmer,Carpenter, Tailor, Weaver, etc.—last itemN207were applied to the personwho actually practiced theoccupation, who may havebelonged to a family withwhich the occupation wasassociated, or who wasperceived as looking or behavinglike someone practicing the occupation.Naming trends are remarkablystable in most societies becausenames link people to families andcultural traditions. However, in somemodern cultures, fashion trendssometimes influence name-giving.Nevertheless, according to the U.S.Social Security Administration, onefourthof the top twenty names givenin 2004 were the same as those givenin 1880.nanotechnology technology permittingthe manipulation of atoms andmolecules to form larger structures.In the computer world, nanotechnologyrefers to any technology that allowsfor compression of data so thatit can be stored and used by increasinglysmaller devices.Napster trade name for software thatallows users to share files over theInternet. Napster is the first to havehad legal challenges to its operations,with resulting legal measures beingtaken. Its name now is associatedmore with its legal battles than withits original technology.narcotizing dysfunction accordingto one theory, the overloading ofaudiences with mediated information,which results in apathy

narrativenarrative any account (story, myth,tale, fable, etc.) that connects a sequenceof events involving charactersin certain situations that are usuallyresolved by the end. The narrativemay be fact-based, as in a TV documentary,or fictional, as in a novelor movie. Narratives are constructed(normally) with four basic elements:the plot, which is what the narrativeis all about; characters, the participantsin the plot; the setting, whichis where the plot takes place and thetime frame within which it occurs;and the narrator, who is the teller ofthe story (a character of the narrative,the author, or some other person).Fictional narratives became popularworldwide after the Italian GiovanniBoccaccio wrote the Decameron(1351–1353), a collection of 100fictional tales set against the backgroundof the Black Death in Florence.The Decameron is the first truework of fiction in the modern senseof the word—the telling of storiessimply for the sake of the telling.narrative code recurring elementwithin a narrative (prototypicalcharacters such as heroes and villains,themes such as the journey intoan unknown territory, and so on).The serious study of narrative codeswas initiated by the Russian literaryscholar Vladimir Propp, who alsoargued persuasively in 1928 that ordinarydiscourse was built upon thisvery kind of code.narrative paradigm theory thatdefines humans in terms of theirtendency to tell stories and to understandthe world in terms of narrativestructures and formsnarratology formal study of narrativesand narrative codesnarrowcasting broadcasting directedat a limited target audience. Inbroadcasting theory, most audiencesare divisible into segments definedby specific demographic and lifestylecharacteristics. The contemporaryspecialty radio stations and TV channels,for example, are aimed at audienceswith specific kinds of intereststied to age, gender, class, and otherkinds of social variables.National Broadcasting Company[abbreviated as NBC] majorAmerican commercial broadcastingcompany founded in 1926 byRCA Corporation, General ElectricCompany, and Westinghouse as thefirst company to operate a broadcastnetwork. Directed by RCA’s presidentDavid Sarnoff, it became whollyowned by RCA in 1930. In the 1990sNBC expanded its cable televisionprogramming, creating MSNBC (analliance with Microsoft) and CNBC(an alliance with Dow Jones). Website: www.nbc.comnational media media outlets and/or products that receive nationwidedistribution and attentionnational newspaper newspaper thatachieves national popularity and isavailable in every part of a country.208

needs theoryThe most well-known national newspaperin the United States is The NewYork Times, established in 1851.National Public Radio [abbreviatedas NPR] public (noncommercial)radio network established in 1967in the United States by Congress toprovide an alternative public radiosystem. Public radio stations arefinanced in much the same way aspublic television stations, throughpublic and private donations and governmentsupport. NPR offers a widervariety of news, documentary, educational,and information programmingthan commercial radio stations. Website: www.npr.orgnaturalism 1. method of filmmakingwhereby characters and locations areshot as they actually are, as opposedto creating artificial ones; 2. moregenerally, any form of representationthat attempts to reproduce real-worldfeatures as accurately as possiblenaturalistic illusion of television theimpression that people receive fromcertain kinds of television programsthat what they are watching is a representationof real life when, in fact,it is notnavigation activity of going fromWeb site to Web site on the Internet,either to search for something specificor else simply to find out what ison the InternetNBC [see National BroadcastingCompany]NC-17 rating censorship classificationin the United States indicatingthat a film cannot be seen by anyoneunder the age of 17 because ofits adult-directed content (such assexuality, excessive violence, foullanguage, nudity)needle time agreed-upon maximumamount of time that a radio stationcan spend playing recorded musicneeds theory in advertising, the theorythat advertising should be basedon linking a product to basic humanneeds and how it helps to fulfill themin some way. The most commonlyidentified needs are:Achievement: the need to achievemeaningful objectivesin life or to fulfillpersonal dreamsPopularity: the need to win theattention of othersor to be accepted bypeer groupsDominance: the need to exert influencein relations orto get the upper handin themDiversion: the need to enjoyoneself and to attainpleasure in lifeUnderstanding: the need to learn andinstructNurturing: the need to care forothers and to be caredfor by othersSexuality: the need to expresssexual feelings andurges209

negativeSecurity: the need to be freefrom harm and threatIndependence: the need to be selfreliantRecognition: the need to be recognizedor acclaimed insome wayStimulation: the need to be excitedor arousedNovelty: the need to have newthingsAffiliation: the need to winacceptanceSupport: the need to receiveemotional supportConsistency: the need to achieveorder through consistencyin lifestylenegative in older photographic technology,type of film copy in whichthe tones are the opposite of those inthe originalnegotiated reading interpretation ofa text that is a compromise reachedbetween the maker’s preferred readingof it and the reader’s own readingNegroponte, Nicholas (1943–) influentialauthor on digital media and,especially, on how convergenceunfolds in cyberspace. His book BeingDigital (1995) has been widelycited in the media and communicationsliterature.neologism 1. newly coined wordor phrase that has not been generallyaccepted yet, such as digiform(a blend of digital and form); 2. useof a word with a new meaning, suchas the use of so as an emphatic formin expressions such as That’s soyesterdayneomania [term coined by RolandBarthes] the maniacal craving fornew things, whether they are neededor not, prompted by consumerismand supportive media spectacles andadvertisingneo-Marxist theory any mediatheory that espouses basicMarxist ideas, but coming afterthe mainstream form of Marxistcriticism known as the FrankfurtSchoolneorealism Italian literary and cinematicmovement that flourished afterWorld War II, focusing on social realitiesas they are in actual everydayexistence. Neorealist writers includedItalo Calvino, Alberto Moravia, andCesare Pavese. Neorealism in filmembraced a documentary-like objectivityin style. The actors were oftenamateurs, and the action revolvedaround everyday situations. Twonotable examples of neorealist filmsare Roberto Rossellini’s Open City(1945) and Vittorio De Sica’s TheBicycle Thief (1948).Net [see Internet]net audience total number of peoplereached by an advertising campaign.An individual is counted once in thismethod, regardless of whether she orhe has seen the campaign more thanonce.210

networkingNet imperative the idea that it iscrucial for organizations to use theInternet if they are to gain success intoday’s digital universenetiquette informal set of rules regardinguse of the Internet, including thetype of language that is appropriatenetlingo [also called netspeak] formsof language used in chat rooms, textmessages, social networking sites,and the like. Netlingo is marked byefficiency of structure, which manifestsitself in such phenomena as abbreviations,acronyms, and the use ofnumbers, all of which are designed tomake the delivery of linguistic messagesrapid and highly economical.Some of these are listed below.b4 = beforebf/gf = boyfriend/girlfriendf2f = face-to-facegr8 = greath2cus = hope to see you soonidk = I don’t knowj4f = just for funlol = laughing out loudcm = call me2dA = todaywan2 = want toruok = Are you OK?2moro = tomorrowg2g = gotta gonetphone phone that makes connectionsvia the Internetnetspeak [see netlingo]netsurfing [see navigation]network 1. chain of radio or televisionstations linked technologically;2. company that produces programmingfor such stations; 3. in computerscience, system of computersinterconnected to each othernetwork era period of televisionprogramming, from the early 1950sto the 1990s, when the big three networks(CBS, NBC, and ABC) werethe dominant broadcasters, with littleor no competition from other sources.The era went into decline with theadvent of cable technology andInternet-based or Internet-connectedbroadcastingNetwork News Transfer Protocol[abbreviated as NNTP] protocol fortransferring newsgroup data acrossthe Internetnetwork programming schedulingtelevision programs over an entirenetwork, in order to take into accounttime and regional differencesnetwork society increasing tendencyof society to use global computernetworks for the purposes of communication,work, shopping, and mostof the other things that previouslywere done in person in the so-calledoffline worldnetworking 1. building up an informalgroup of people to contact as away to learn about job opportunities,especially by means of Internet communications;2. inexpensive way ofsending information quickly among211

new economycomputers connected together in asingle room or buildingnew economy information-based(digital) economic systems, incontrast to the traditional industrialeconomic systemsnew journalism type of journalismsimilar to gonzo journalism,in which the emotional content of astory is emphasized over its informationvaluenew wave 1. group of individualisticFrench filmmakers who calledfor films to give more leeway to thedirector’s own personal vision;2. type of punk rock style popular inthe mid- and late 1970s, which beganpartly as a backlash against the perceivedsuperficial disco style;3. style of science-fiction writing,which emerged in the 1960s, characterizedby a pessimistic view of theworld and revolving around antiheroes,rather than superheroesnewbie an inexperienced user of theInternetNewcomb’s ABX model of communicationearly (1953), but stilloften-cited, tripartite communicationmodel consisting of the sender (A),the receiver (B), and the social situationin which the communicationtakes place (X)news report of a current happeningor happenings in a newspaper,on television, on radio, or on a Website. The early years of televisionoffered little news coverage. In 1956the NBC network introduced TheHuntley-Brinkley Report, a half-hournational telecast presented in theearly evening and featuring filmedreports of the day’s events. The othernetworks soon followed with similarnews programming formats. In mediastudies, news is now seen as a mediagenre, with as much entertainmentvalue as any other genre.news agency [also called newsservice or wire service] organizationthat compiles, writes, and distributesnews to media outlets. The largestnews agencies are United Press International,Associated Press, Reuters,and Agence France-Presse.news anchor radio or television announcerwho leads a news broadcast,usually by commenting and introducingreports from correspondents inseveral different cities, countries, orother areasnews blackout withholding of aparticular news broadcast, for somespecific social, political, or other kindof reasonnews flash short news report thatinterrupts scheduled programmingbecause it is deemed to be worthy ofinstant broadcasting to the viewing orlistening audiencenews magazine 1. print magazinepublished regularly, containing commentaryon the news, investigative212

newspaperreporting features, and the like; 2. byextension, any radio, television, oronline program formatted like a printnews magazine. News magazineshave gained wide popularity becausethey summarize and analyze the biggestnews stories of the moment.news peg aspect of a story thatmakes it newsworthy, important, orinterestingnews server computer system thatcollects and distributes newsgrouppostingsnews service [see news agency]news television channel that broadcastsonly news and documentaries.The most widely known of these isCNN (The Cable News Network)founded by Ted Turner in 1980 topresent 24-hour live news broadcasts,using satellites to transmit reportsfrom news bureaus around the world.news values criteria applied byjournalists to evaluating which newsstories are worthy of printing orbroadcasting, and in which order ofimportance they should appearnewsbreak short news bulletininserted in a radio or televisionprogram because it is deemed to beworthy of immediate attentionnewscast broadcast of the news.Newscasting began on radio in themid-1930s and increased significantlyduring World War II. The televisionnewscast began in 1948 with15-minute programs that resembledmovie newsreels.newsgroup a news discussion groupon the Internet. Newsgroups areorganized into “interest categories”(for example, automobiles). A personstarts a discussion by posting (uploading)an article and the follow-upreplies form the discussion. Mostnewsgroups are connected viaUsenet, a worldwide network thatuses the Network News TransferProtocol.newspaper print publication issueddaily, weekly, or at regular times thatprovides news, features, informationof interest to the public, andadvertising. In 1690 Benjamin Harrisof Boston founded Publick OccurrencesBoth Forreign and Domestick,the first newspaper in the AmericanColonies. The colonial governmentordered it stopped after just one issue.In 1704 John Campbell put outThe Boston News-Letter, the firstregularly published newspaper inAmerica. Newspapers developedrapidly in the 1800s, owing to widerliteracy rates and advances in printtechnology. Newspaper publishingexpanded greatly in the twentiethcentury. Today, newspapers undergoconsolidation driven by media conglomeratesor through the acquisitionof smaller papers by larger ones.In 1980 The Columbus Dispatchbecame the first electronic newspaperin the United States. In addition toprinting a regular paper edition, the213

newspeakDispatch started transmitting someof its content to computers in homes,businesses, and libraries. Today, mostpapers offer online versions.newspeak imaginary form of speechin George Orwell’s novel 1984(1949) employed by people living ina bleak totalitarian society. In newspeak,words are twisted to mean theopposite of their real meaning so thatthey can be used ideologically by society’srulers. Language is simplifiedto impede original thinking and tomake revolutionary thoughts impossibleto express.newsreader software that allows usersto participate in newsgroupsnewsreel news report shown on filmin a movie theater, often before themain feature, popular from the 1920sto the 1950snewsweekly newspaper or magazinethat is published weekly. The mostfamous of these is Time, founded in1923 by Henry R. Luce and BritonHadden.newsworthy stories that are believedto be interesting enough to bereported in the mediaN-Gen [abbreviation of Net Generation]people who have grown up withthe Internet from an early ageniche audience small target audiencethat is predisposed toward some particulartype of broadcasting or productniche marketing marketing to small,but potentially lucrative, specializedmarketsnickelodeon type of movie theaterpopular around 1905, which openedmostly in commercial areas and inpoorer neighborhoods. Because admissionwas only 5 cents, the nickelodeonsattracted large audiences for movies,laying the foundations for the expansionof the fledgling movie industry.Nielsen ratings national ratings ofthe popularity of television shows,developed by AC Nielsen in 1950.The method now samples televisionviewing in homes, by attachinga meter to television sets, whichrecords the channels being watchedand sends the data to a computercenter for statistical analysis. Televisionnetworks use the ratings to setadvertising rates for each program aswell as to determine which programsto produce and which ones to cancel.Web site: www.nielsenmedia.com/ratings101.htmnihilism philosophy rejecting anybelief system claiming that life has apurpose. The term was first used todescribe Christian heretics during theMiddle Ages. It reemerged in Russiain the 1850s and 1860s in referenceto young intellectuals who repudiatedChristianity, considered Russiansociety backward, or advocated revolutionarychange. The best-knownfictional nihilist is Bazarov in IvanTurgenev’s 1862 novel Ottsy i deti(Fathers and Sons).214

nostalgiaNipkow, Paul (1860–1940) Germaninventor who, as early as 1884, haddeveloped a scanning device that sentpictures over short distances. His systemworked mechanically, rather thanelectronically, but is still consideredto be a forerunner of television.NNTP [see Network News TransferProtocol]noise in communication theory,anything that interferes with thetransmission or reception of signals. Inelectronic transmissions, noise is static.By extension, in human communication,noise refers to any physical noise(sneezing, chatter, etc.) or to lapses ofmemory (psychological noise).nominalism view of some medievalphilosophers that reality is constructedby humans through their words andthus cannot exist apart from them.Nominalism was a reaction to realism,according to which reality has an independentexistence prior to and apartfrom human knowledge of it. Themost widely cited nominalist is thefourteenth-century English Scholasticphilosopher William of Ockham, fromwhose name we derive the concept ofOckham’s (or Occam’s) razor, whichasserts that the simplest of two ormore theories is to be preferred andthat it should explain what is unknownin terms of what is known.nonverbal communication communicationby means of facialexpressions, gestures, postures, andother wordless signals. The term alsoincludes indirect or implicit communicationthrough grooming habits,hair and clothing styles, and suchpractices as tattooing and body piercing.Nonverbal communication playsan essential role in social interaction.The scientific study of nonverbalcommunication is called kinesics,which was established as a separatefield of inquiry and research by thetwentieth-century American anthropologistRay L. Birdwhistell, whorecorded and analyzed body movements,facial expressions, gestures,and the like during social interaction.Birdwhistell claimed that it is possibleto write a “kinesic grammar” inthe same way that linguists wrote averbal grammar by analyzing wordsand sentences. The main areas ofnonverbal communication study are:• eye contact (looking patterns)• facial expressions• posture, body orientation, sittingpatterns• gesture• interpersonal zones (zones peoplemaintain between each other)• sensory signals• hair and hairstyle• clothing• food• spaces and buildings• architecture and citiesNorthcliffe revolution shift in theeconomic basis of newspaper publishingin the late nineteenth centurywhen newspapers became dependentupon advertising revenuesnostalgia yearning for anythingremoved in space or time215

nostalgia techniquenostalgia technique advertisingtechnique that uses images fromprevious times when, purportedly,life was more serene, less dangerous,and idyllicnovel fictional prose narrative, longerthan a novella. Literary criticEdmund Gosse traced the novel asfar back as Aristides’s sixth-centuryb.c.e. story about Miletus, called theMilesiaka. Unlike modern fiction,the story had many historically accurateelements, and thus often readsas history rather than as fiction. Ineleventh century Japan, the BaronessMurasaki Shikibu wrote what manyregard as the first fictional novel, TheTale of Genji. The modern conceptof fiction starts with the fabliauin the medieval period, culminatingin the fourteenth century withGiovanni Boccaccio’s Decameron(1348–1353). Miguel de Cervantes’sDon Quixote de la Mancha (Part I,1605; Part II, 1615) is consideredto be the first novel of true artisticmerit, setting the stage for the novelas an important literary genre. Novelsbecame dominant in the eighteenthand nineteenth centuries. Theycontinue to be extremely popular,although they have been competingfor dominance with movies throughoutthe twentieth and early twentyfirstcenturies. Many novels haveformed the basis of movie scripts;today some movies are produced firstand the novels written afterward.The movie is, essentially, a “visualnovel,” with the camera taking overthe role of the narrator.novella brief prose story, consideredto be the precursor of the short storyand the novel. The first and stillmost widely read compilation ofnovellas is Giovanni Boccaccio’sDecameron (1348–1353), consistingof 100 stories, told by a group offriends who had escaped the plaguein Florence in order to entertaineach another over a period of tendays.NPR [see National Public Radio]nudity the exposure of parts of thebody that are considered unacceptableto expose in a public spectacle,performance, and the like. Thecriteria for such exposure will varywidely from place to place, and fromage to age. The ancient Greek andRoman nude statues, Michelangelo’ssculpture David (1501–1504), andRodin’s The Thinker (c. 1886) areconsidered works of art, rather thanerotic or obscene representations;on the other hand, nude poses suchas those found in contemporarymagazines are interpreted in vastlydifferent ways. In sum, nudity hasmeaning; it is perceived to havecultural (moral, aesthetic, etc.)value, rather than just biologicalmeaning.nursery rhyme poem written incatchy rhyme for children. Anexample is London bridge is fallingdown, derived probably from an olddance tune. Collections of nurseryrhymes in print started appearing inthe eighteenth century.216

O&O’s [full form: ownedand operated by networks]television stationsthat are owned and operatedby networksobject 1. in grammar, a noun or nounphrase that directly or indirectly receivesthe action of a verb, or followsa preposition; 2. in philosophy, anythingthat is knowable, as opposed tosubject (any knower); 3. in semiotics,whatever a sign stands forlast itemOobsolescence view thatthings should be constantlyreplaced by new thingsOCR [see optical characterrecognition]off the record comments madespontaneously and not intended to bepublished or broadcastoff-air events or dialogue takingplace in a broadcasting studio but notput on the airobject language meanings and symbolicvalues attached to objectsobjective journalism journalismthat aims to present the news withoutopinion or biasobjective theory of art theory arguingthat art is a projection of realityas seen by the artist. This contrastswith mimetic theory of art, whichsees art as a mirror of reality.obscenity any act, writing, depiction,or representation that is deemedto be deeply offensive or to violatecommunity standards of moralityand decency. The Supreme Courtof the United States has ruled thatmaterials are obscene if they appealpredominantly to a prurient interestin sexual conduct, depict or describesexual conduct in a patently offensiveway, and lack serious literary, artistic,political, or scientific value. Materialdeemed obscene under this definitionis not protected by the free speechguarantee of the First Amendment.off-camera actions that are takingplace out of the range of a movie ortelevision cameraoffline 1. a computer that is not connectedto the Internet; 2. by extension,anything that exists outside ofcyberspace (traditional media arenow called offline media, in contrastto those media that are online)offline newsreader software that allowsusers to read newsgroup articleswithout being online at the same timeoff-network syndication processwhereby older television programsthat no longer run on prime time aremade available to local stations, cableoperators, online services, or foreignmarkets for rerunsOgden, C.K. (1889–1957) Britishpsychologist who is often citedin media studies for his works onmeaning, especially the book hecoauthored with I.A. Richards, titledThe Meaning of Meaning (1923).217

oligopolyoligopoly situation whereby a mediaindustry is monopolized by a smallnumber of producersomnibus radio or television programthat combines all the episodes of aserial or soap opera that have alreadybeen broadcastomnimax system of film projectionthat surrounds the audience in asemicircle, thus engaging a viewer’sentire field of visionon-camera actions taking placewithin the range of a movie or televisioncameraon demand any cable or satellite servicethat allows the customer to selectthe start time of a particular program(rather than viewing or listening to itat regularly scheduled times)on the record any comment madethat may be published or broadcastfreelyonline a computer that is connectedto the Internet. Online services providee-mail and access to the WorldWide Web.online advertising advertising that iscreated for viewing on Web sitesonline auction consumer online serviceat which sellers present items forexamination by Web users who bidagainst one another for the right topurchase them. The largest and mostpopular online auction site is eBay.online database [also called onlineresources] database stored on a computerat a different location. Usersgain access to these databases usinga modem or other device that enablesthem to communicate with each otherover a network. Databases can usuallybe downloaded.online medium any medium (print,radio, television) that is deliveredonline instead of through more traditionaltransmission systemsonline service provider [abbreviatedas OSP] any provider of access tothe Internet, such as America Online(AOL) and CompuServeonomatopoeia use or creation ofwords imitating the sounds to whichthey refer: for example, buzz, swoosh,drip, bangop art art style characterized by geometricshapes and luminous colors,often to create optical illusionsop ed article expressing a personalview, published opposite an editorial,that is, on the facing page to that onwhich the editorial appearsopen source creed policy of makingtechnology, information, or data freelyavailable without charging any feesopen text [term coined by UmbertoEco] any text that is interpreted ashaving a limitless range of meanings.The open text requires the readerto have a certain erudition, whereas218

oppositionopera theatrical play with all or mostof its text, known as the libretto, setto music and choreographed in someway. Opera was created in Italy in thelate sixteenth and early seventeenthcenturies by a group of musicianswho called themselves the Camerata(Italian for “salon”). The Cameratahad two chief goals: to revive theancient Greek melodrama and to developan alternative to the rigid musicalstyles of the late Renaissance.Jacopo Peri composed Camerata’sfirst opera, Dafne, in 1597.operating system software programdesigned to control the hardware ofa computer so that users can employit easilyOpera singerclosed text does not. For instance,Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot(1952), which is an open text, requiresreaders who can make up theirown minds as to what it means; onthe other hand, a typical detective orcrime scene story does not.open-source software noncommercialsoftware developed and sharedfreely on the Internetopinion leader someone who influencesthe values, beliefs, and opinionsof others in two-step flowtheory, emphasizing the fact that afew people dictate lifestyle, fashion,and opinion, while most others aregenerally content to imitate and followthemopinion piece article in which a journalistexpresses an opinion on a topic,rather than simply reporting the factsopinion poll survey designed to identifythe attitudes, beliefs, opinions,or views of people. The target groupmay include millions of individuals.However, only a small numberof them are actually polled (called asample) because, if they have beenproperly chosen, their opinions areconsidered to usually reflect those ofthe entire group.opposition feature of forms (words,texts, etc.) that keeps them differentiatedand distinct. The two words sipand zip show a sound opposition thatis sufficient to differentiate them fora speaker of English. The theory ofopposition has been extended to includecultural ideas such as good vs.evil, male vs. female, etc., which are219

oppositional readingpurported to reveal an unconsciousmode of keeping things distinct andmeaningful. Such oppositions arecharacteristically binary and hierarchical,involving a pair of conceptsin which one member of the pair isassumed to be primary or fundamental,the other secondary or derivative.In deconstruction, the idea is todisplace the opposition by showingthat neither concept is primary.oppositional reading interpretationof a text that is in opposition to whatthe maker of the text had intended,which is known as the preferredreadingoptical character recognition[ abbreviated as OCR] device that canrecognize text characters and savethem as a text documentoptimization in advertising parlance,computer package that automaticallydevises a media schedule for an adcampaignoral culture culture in which informationand traditions are passedon from one generation to the nextby storytellers. The forms of oralculture include poetry, folktales, andproverbs as well as magical spells,religious incantations, and storiesof the past. The prevalence of radio,television, and newspapers in Westernculture has led to the decline oforal traditions, though some survive,especially during childhood, whenrhymes, stories, and songs are recountedorally.orality use of the spoken word as theprimary means to transmit information,in contrast to literacyorganizational communicationsystem of communications set upamong organizations (banks, governmentagencies, and the like) that isnot (generally) open to the publicorientalism in cultural theory, themisrepresentation of non-Westerncultures and peoples by the media.The term originated in the widelyacclaimed book Orientalism (1978)by Palestinian-born American literarycritic Edward Said, in which heexamined Western stereotypes of theIslamic world, arguing that orientalistscholarship itself was based onWestern ideological thinking.Orkut online social networking siterun by Google and founded in 2004that allows people to communicateand form interest groups. Web site:www.orkut.comorthography 1. any system of spelling;2. the art and study of spellingOscar common name for an Academyof Motion Picture Artsand Sciences award recognizingexcellence in acting, directing,screenwriting, and other activitiesrelated to film production. The termis derived from the name given tothe golden statuette that is handedout at the awards.OSP [see online service provider]220

oxymoronotherness [synonym of alterity]view emphasizing diversity in representationalpractices. This conceptbecame widely known after MichelFoucault’s accusation in the 1980sthat the “Other”—any person orgroup of different race, ethnicity,or sexual orientation—had beentraditionally excluded from Westernsociety’s representational activities.output hardware computer hardwarethat transfers information tothe user, such as video displays andprintersouttake scene or sequence that is removedfrom the final edit of a movieor radio or television programThe Oscar statue, 80th AnnualAcademy Awards, Hollywood,February 24, 2008oxymoron figure of speech that combinescontradictory ideas: for example,deafening silence, pleasing pain, etc.221

P2P [see peer-to-peernetworking]package 1. audio text readyfor broadcasting; 2. seriesof interview clips put togetherby an announcer or reporterpackage unit system system ofHollywood film production, initiatedin the 1950s, in which each movieis treated as a separate project withdifferent actors and production team;it replaced the older studio system,allowing independent filmmakerseasier access to the industrypackaging 1. creating a polishedimage for a media product throughadvertising; 2. designing the package,box, wrapping, or container of aproduct in order to enhance its lookand appealPackard, Vance social critic, whosebooks The Hidden Persuaders(1957) and The Waste Makers (1960)brought to light the persuasive techniquesused by advertisers to increasethe use of productspacket unit of data sent over theInternetPacket Internet Groper [abbreviatedas PING] message that tests theconnection between computersPage, Larry (1973–) Americancofounder of Google, along withRussian-born American SergeyBrinfirst itemP222page impression measureindicating how manytimes a Web page has beendisplayed to a visitor of aWeb sitepage reader device that convertswritten text to a form that a computercan processpage requests [also called pageviews] measure of the number oftimes a Web page has been visiteddaily, thus providing an indication ofits popularitypager small, portable electronicdevice that can receive and sendmessages through various wirelessnetworkspagination sequence of numbersgiven to pages in a document (suchas a book)painting 1. picture drawn ormade using paint (or some othersubstance) on a two-dimensionalsurface; 2. art of creating pictures ordrawings. Painting dates back to prehistoricimages found on the wallsof caves, such as those at Lascauxin France. Early societies controlledthe subject matter of painting anddetermined its function (ritualistic,devotional, decorative). Painterswere considered artisans rather thanartists; eventually, in East Asia andRenaissance Europe, the “painter-asartist”emerged as a distinct individual.In the early twentieth centurypainters began to experiment with

pamphletPetroglyphs on a rock in Canyonlands National Park, Utah (circa 1150 c.e.)art in which formal qualities such asline, color, and form were exploredrather than subject matter. In the latepart of the century some critics forecastthe “death of painting” in theface of new media such as video andcomputer art, yet artists continue topaint and fill the galleries with newworks. Many of these use wordsand images, combining them insurprising ways, forcing the viewerto search for possible meanings andconnections among the painting’svisual elements.palindrome a word, phrase, sentence,or numeral that reads the samein either direction (front to back,back to front): for example, pop; racecar; Madam I’m AdamPalmPilot a personal digital assistant(PDA) manufactured originallyby Palm Computing in 1996.The first two generations of PDAsfrom Palm were called PalmPilots.The term quickly entered the vernacularas a general word for PDAs,regardless of the brand.Palme d’Or highest honor awardedat the Cannes Film Festival, for bestfilm of the yearpamphlet folded booklet that is oftenproduced to promote a social cause orpolitical issue. Pamphlets were widelyused in sixteenth-century England,France, and Germany for religiousor political causes. Foremost amongthe American writers of political223

pan and scanpamphlets was Thomas Paine, whose55-page pamphlet Common Sense(1776) became widely known foradvocating independence. With morethan 500,000 copies sold, the pamphletis considered to be a factor in strengtheningthe early American colonists’ resolveto gain autonomy from England.By the twentieth century, pamphletscame to be used more for informationthan for polemical reasons, retainingthis function to the present day.pan and scan technique for projectingwidescreen movies on standardtelevision screenspanel 1. brief text separated from thebody of the main text by lines aboveand below, usually highlighting someaspect of the main text; 2. posterfor advertising purposes; 3. groupof individuals selected to perform aservice, such as an investigation, orto discuss a topicpanopticism idea proposed byMichel Foucault that surveillancemethods are used by thosein power to maintain control. Theterm comes from Jeremy Bentham’seighteenth-century design of prisonsin which a large number of prisonersare kept under surveillance by asmall number of guards located in acentral viewing tower. Panopticismoften refers to the modern-day useof video surveillance as an attemptto control human interaction.panorama shot in film or television,a camera shot that provides a wideview of a scene or action sequencepantomime 1. in ancient Rome, anactor who used gestures and bodylanguage rather than words; 2. anyplay or skit based on gestures andbody language (without speech).Pantomime began in ancient theater,but was developed as part of spokentheater by the commedia dell’arte,an improvised comedy style that waspopular in sixteenth- and seventeenth-centuryItaly. Actors in silentmotion pictures necessarily relied onpantomime.paparazzi freelance photographerswho pursue celebrities aggressivelyand persistently in order totake candid photos of them. Theterm comes from Federico Fellini’smovie La dolce vita (1960), whichincludes a group of roving reporterswho stalk famous people, seeking toget a sensational story about them.Fellini called one of the journalistsPaparazzo.Paper Tiger TV alternative mediaorganization founded in 1981 andbased in New York, devoted to promotingfree access and distributionfor independent producers. Web site:www.papertiger.orgpaperback book with a soft flexiblecover. Paperback books becamepopular in Europe and the UnitedStates during the 1800s, after theGerman publisher Tauchnitz beganto issue paperback editions of classicliterary works in 1841. By 1885, onethirdof the books published in theUnited States were paperback, called224

parallel broadcastdime novels because they originallycost 10 cents.papyrus paper-like material madefrom a pith of reeds, formed into acontinuous strip and rolled arounda stick, associated primarily withancient Egyptian writing. Given thegreater availability and affordabilityof papyrus, compared to the previoususe of tablets, literacy came to be valuedhighly among common people.parable 1. in ancient Greece, aliterary illustration; 2. in the NewTestament, a story used by Jesus toillustrate a spiritual truthparadigm 1. set of assumptions,principles, or practices that are characteristicof a science or philosophicalsystem; 2. in semiotics, featureor pattern that keeps signs distinctand differentiated. In pairs such ascat-rat and sip-zip, the first consonantis the paradigmatic feature that keepsthe words distinct and differentiated.paradox 1. statement or event thatappears to be contradictory, butthat somehow may actually be true;2. any circular statement (Whichcame first, the chicken or the egg?).Paradoxes constitute their own genre,having become famous for how theyhave provided insights into the natureof logic and mathematics. The mostfamous paradoxes are those of thefifth century b.c.e. Greek philosopherZeno of Elea, who is the likelyinventor of the paradox as a distinctform of language and logic. In Zeno’stime, deductive logic was seen as theideal form of logic for gaining truthabout the world. Zeno challenged thiswith a series of clever arguments,which came to be known as paradoxes(meaning literally, “conflictingwith expectation”). In one of hisparadoxes, Zeno argued cleverly thata runner would never be able to reacha race’s finish line if deductive logicwere used. He argued as follows.The runner must first reach half thedistance to the finish line. Then (andlogically) from the mid-position, therunner would face a new, but similar,task—he must cover half of theremaining distance between himselfand the finish line. But after doingso, the runner would face a new, butagain similar, task—he must oncemore cover half of the new remainingdistance between himself andthe finish line. Although the successivehalf-distances between himselfand the finish line would becomeincreasingly (indeed infinitesimally)small, Zeno concluded that the runnerwould come very close to thefinish line, but would never cross it.Clearly, by experience we know thatthe runner will cross the finish line;but by logical argument, we have justshown that he can never do so—hence the term paradox.paralanguage any aspect of language,such as tone of voice, that isused along with wordsparallel broadcast broadcast that istransmitted by radio and/or televisionand/or the Internet at the same time225

parallelismparallelism any statement made up ofparts that parallel or mirror each othersemantically: for example, I am thepresident, the country’s leader am IParamount major Hollywood filmstudio founded in 1914. In 1966Paramount was acquired by Gulf &Western, and the new company laterchanged its name to Paramount Communications.In 1994 it was acquiredby Viacom, which in 2000 mergedwith CBS. Web site: www.paramount.comparaphrase any rewording or summaryof something, usually to explainit: for example, going on a wildgoose chase can be paraphrased aspursuing something foolishparasocial interaction 1. imaginaryrelationship that often developsbetween a viewer and an on-screencharacter; 2. social relationship at adistance. encouraged by the mediaparchment ancient durable writingmaterial made from the skins ofsheep, goats, or calves. Parchmentscrolls have survived from as far backas 1500 b.c.e.parent brand [also called masterbrand] main brand in a brand family;for example, the Coca-Cola soft drinkis the parent brand of all the otherbrands of soft drinks manufacturedby the Coca-Cola Companyparody work making fun of someoneor something (especially a famouswork) in an indirect fashion. Typically,a parody distorts the theme andcharacters of a work or style. GeoffreyChaucer’s “The Nun’s Priest’sTale” (from The Canterbury Tales),for example, is a parody of thesolemn language and style of ancientmyth, since the clamor caused byMaster Reynard the fox is suggestiveof the fall of Troy. Sitcoms such asFamily Guy and The Simpsons areexamples of parodies of Americansociety.parole [see also langue] as definedby Ferdinand de Saussure,speech, or the use of language forpurposes such as communicationparticipant observation in anthropology,research method whereby theresearcher becomes a trusted memberof the culture that she or he is studying,in order to observe the culturefirsthand and thus to gain an insideperspectivepartisan press press associated witha political party or ideology, generallyshowing a bias or allegiance tothat party or ideologypassivity theory view that a typicalaudience accepts media representationspassively and unreflectivelypastiche 1. media product that iscreated in imitation of another similarone; 2. text that is constructed withcluttered or mixed forms, associatedprimarily with postmodernism,which stresses collective or shared226

PDAexpression through a blend of borrowedstylespatent governmental grant to an inventorof the exclusive right to make,use, or sell an invention or mediaproduct. The first recorded patent foran industrial invention was granted in1421 in Florence to the artist FilippoBrunelleschi. Generally, in the UnitedStates a patent term of twenty yearsis given from the date an applicationis filed.pathetic fallacy the attribution of humanfeelings to inanimate things: forexample, the angry skies, a stubborncomputer, etc.pathos a quality in a literary or artisticwork or a media text that evokessympathy or pitypatriarchy social system in whichfamilial, social, economic, religious,and political authority is wielded bymen. In feminist theories of media,the term is often used to refer to theways in which some societies arestructured to favor male dominationover women. In this usage, patriarchyimplies that the men controlthe material and symbolic resourcesof a society and that these are oftenused to oppress women. Explanationsfor the emergence of this formof oppression vary from evolutionarytheories, in which males are said tobe the more “aggressive” and thus“dominant” of the two sexes becauseof evolutionary processes that haveconditioned males to be this way, tocultural theories, in which males aresaid to be conditioned by the culturein which they are reared.pattern advertising campaign that isdesigned to have a broad appealpay services [see pay-per-view]pay-for-play interactive game Website that charges a fee for usagepay-per-view service provided bycable and satellite operators that allowsviewers to select and purchasemovies or special programming on aper-feature basisPayne Fund Studies series of studiesof controversial media effects, conductedbetween 1929 and 1933, publishedsubsequently in eight volumes,that purported to show a link betweenmovies and such social aberrations ascrime and violencepayola characterization of the bribesthat were given to popular radio DJs,especially during the 1950s, whowere in a position to influence publictastes, by record companies or artists.The term is used today more generallyto refer to any type of briberydesigned to promote artists andworks in some medium.PBS [see public broadcastingservice]PC [see personal computer]PDA [see personal digital assistant]227

P2Ppeer-to-peer networking [abbreviatedas P2P] system that interconnectsusers of the Internet to eachother. The P2P architecture allowsindividual users to share files amongthemselves without recourse to acentral server.Peirce, Charles Sanders(1839–1914) American philosopherwho, along with Ferdinand deSaussure, is considered a founderof modern-day semiotics. Peircecharacterized semiotics as the “doctrine”of signs, meaning a “systemof principles.” Contrary to Saussure,Peirce saw the relation between signsand sign users not as an arbitraryone, but rather as an interpretive one;essentially, every time a sign (suchas a word) is used, it is subject tovariant interpretations according tocontext and other external factors.Peirce is also known as a founderof philosophical pragmatism, whichmaintains that the value of a theorylies mainly in its applications.penetrated market market in whichmore of a company’s products aresold, compared to all potentialmarketspenetration strategy in advertising,a plan for promoting a company’sproducts in a particular part of thepotential marketpen name [also called pseudonym]fictitious name used by an authorinstead of his or her real name. Duringthe 1800s, some women writersadopted masculine pen namesbecause of sexual discrimination. TheBritish novelist Mary Ann Evans, forexample, concealed her femininitywith the pen name George Eliot. Twofamous pen names are Lewis Carroll,adopted by the English writer andmathematician Charles Dodgson; andMark Twain, adopted by the Americanauthor Samuel Clemens.People meter device invented bythe AC Nielsen Media ResearchCompany that is installed in a remotecontrol unit to electronically recordthe selection of television channels.The device is thus used to determinetelevision viewing behavior.perception discernment of objectsor qualities of objects by meansof the senses. According to classicpsychological theory, most percepts(= units of perception) result from theassociation of sensory cues with pastexperience.performance 1. formal exhibition orpresentation before an audience of aplay, a musical program, and the like;2. representation and communicationof a text, put on display for an audience;3. in linguistics, the actual useof language in concrete situationsperformative in discourse theoryand pragmatic linguistics a word orphrase that indicates the performanceof something, or at least the will todo something. When someone says“I am cutting grass,” that person isperforming what the utterance says228

perspectivehe is doing. The term comes fromJohn Austin’s 1962 book, How to DoThings with Words.performing rights permission to performa piece of music to which theperformer does not hold copyrightperiodical publication that is issuedat regular intervals, includingnewspapers, magazines, journals, andthe likepersona 1. character in a work,especially in theater parlance;2. in psychoanalysis, the role oneplays in social contexts, as separatefrom the inner self. In ancientGreece, the word persona signifieda “mask” worn by an actor on stage.Subsequently, it came to have themeaning of “the character of themask-wearer.” This meaning can stillbe found in the theater term dramatispersonae, or “cast of characters.”Eventually, the word came to be refashionedas person in English, withits present meaning, perhaps indicatingthe historical importance of thetheater as a medium of portrayinghuman character.personal computer [abbreviated asPC] microcomputer so named becauseit is smaller than a mainframecomputer. Early mainframes and theirperipheral devices often took up thefloor space of a house, making themimpracticable for personal use. ThePC, which was developed in the early1970s, fits on an individual user’sdesk.Typical PDApersonal digital assistant [abbreviatedas PDA] handheld or pocketsizedcomputer, offering a wide rangeof features, including calculation,time-keeping, computer games,access to the Internet, e-mail service,radio, video, etc.personification portrayal or characterizationof inanimate objects,animals, or ideas as if they werepeople or possessed human characteristics:for example, My computeris sick todayperspective technique of representingimages (of people, objects) asthey would appear to visual perceptionin reality. Although there is evidencethat the ancient Greeks alreadyknew how to create an illusion ofdepth or length in two-dimensionalsurface drawings, the Italian Renais-229

persuasion techniquesCubesance artist Filippo Brunelleschirediscovered and then entrenched thistechnique in painting. For example,the figure above is perceived as athree-dimensional box, rather than atwo-dimensional drawing, because ofthe principles of perspective, whichtrick the eye into seeing depth.persuasion techniques in advertising,techniques designed to persuadeconsumers to buy or endorse a product.These include the following:• Repetition is the technique wherebythe content of radio and televisioncommercials is reiterated in theprint media (newspapers, magazines,posters, displays) in orderto capture the attention of a largesegment of potential customers.• The something-for-nothing lureis designed to grab the attentionof potential consumers: Buy oneand get a second one free; Sendfor free sample; Trial offer at halfprice; Finish this sentence and win$1,000,000 in cash, an automobile,or a trip to Florida for two; Nomoney down; etc.• Humorously contrived ads andcommercials convey friendlinessand thus help to portray a productas agreeable.• Endorsements of products by celebritiesmake them appear reliable.• Appeals to parents induce parentsto believe that giving their childrencertain products will secure forthem a better life and future.• Implicit appeals that are designedto convince parents that they shouldget their children some product.• Scare copy techniques are designedto promote such goods and servicesas insurance, fire alarms, cosmetics,and vitamin capsules by evokingthe fear of poverty, sickness, loss ofsocial standing, and/or impendingdisaster.PG rating [full form: parental guidance]film classification indicatingthat a movie may be seen by anyone,but that parents should exercisediscretion regarding its suitability fortheir childrenPG-13 rating [full form: parentalguidance–under thirteen] film classificationindicating that a movie maybe seen by anyone, but that parentsshould exercise discretion regardingits suitability for their own children ifthey are under the age of 13phallocentrism in feminist theory,the idea that the male perspectiveis the dominant one in a patriarchalsociety, such as traditional Westernsociety, and thus is expressed in representationsand mediaphatic function as defined by RomanJakobson, the social purposeof certain forms of discourse, for-230

photographic truthmulaic forms of speech that are usedfor social contact rather than for thecommunication of ideas: for example,Hey, how are you? What’s up?phenomenology twentieth-centurymovement in philosophy and thearts emphasizing the role of sensorystimulation and the emotions. Thefounder was the German philosopherEdmund Husserl. German philosopherMartin Heidegger claimedthat phenomenology was particularlyuseful for explaining the structure ofeveryday experience.phish in netlingo, to trick someoneinto providing personal details bysending an e-mail that presents itselffraudulently as emanating from abank or Internet providerphone-in radio or television programthat receives phone calls from audiencemembers, who are encouraged toask the host or guest questions, makecomments, or take part in a discussionphoneme sound unit in language thatsignals differences in meaning. Forexample, the /p/ can replace otherconsonants, such as /w/ and /b/, tomake English words—pin vs. winvs. bin. It is thus a phoneme in thatlanguage, because it has the ability tosignal differences in the meaning ofthese words.phonetics study and classificationof speech sounds. Modern phoneticsbegan with Alexander Melville Bell,whose book Visible Speech (1867) introduceda system of precise notationfor writing down speech sounds.phonograph [also called recordplayer] device for reproducingsounds. A phonograph recordproduces sound when a stylus isplaced on its rotating surface. Itsinvention is generally credited toThomas Alva Edison. Before radioand motion pictures, the phonographreigned for several decades as thegreat modern innovation in pop cultureand entertainment.phonology study of the sounds ina language and how they are usedin the formation of words and otherstructuresphoto opportunity occasion whencelebrities, politicians, or other publicfigures pose for photographers, usuallyto get exposure or for some formof publicityphotocopy copy of a document orimage, printed directly on paper bythe action of light in a machine builtfor this purposephotodigital memory computermemory system that employs a laserto transfer data to a piece of film,which can be read again many timesphotograph image recorded by acamera and reproduced on a photosensitivesurfacephotographic truth former beliefthat photographs do not lie. With231

photographythe advent of digital technology thisbelief is no longer held, given thatimages can now be easily and readilymanipulated.photography art, craft, or scienceof taking and developing photographs.Photography originated inthe early nineteenth century when thecombined discoveries of FrenchmenJoseph Nicéphore Niépce and LouisJacques Mandé Daguerre led to theinvention of the first commerciallysuccessful photographic process,called the daguerreotype (1839). Inthe 1860s the Englishman HenryPeach Robinson pioneered a methodof creating one print from severaldifferent negatives. At the turn of thetwenty-first century, photographersstarted using digital technology,expanding the uses of photographyconsiderably and to a large extentreplacing previous photographictechnologies.photojournalism news reportingin which photography plays a moreimportant role than the accompanyingtextphotomontage art of combiningdifferent photographic images tocompose a single imagepicaresque novel novel revolvingaround the episodic adventures of arogue or adventurer who is portrayedas drifting from place to place in orderto survive. The genre originated inSpain with Mateo Alemán’s Guzmánde Alfarache (1599) being an earlyexample. The growth and popularityof the realistic novel led to its decline.pictography use of pictures orvisual symbols for writing purposes.Pictographs are drawn to stand for anobject or idea directly. The “smiley”(J), for example, is a modern-daypictograph. A pictograph that standsfor an idea rather than somethingconcrete is called an ideogram(such as the Nike “swoosh” logo,representing speed).pictorial newspaper or magazine thathas many visual images, often morethan it has written textpicture library photography store,device, or Web site from which photographsmay be borrowed or reproducedfor use in books, magazines, orother print materialspicture messaging sending imagesand photographs from one mobilephone to anotherpilot radio or television program madeas an experiment or trial so as to gleanthe audience’s reaction to it as the firstepisode in a potential new seriespilot study preliminary study intendedto identify the suitability ofconducting a full studyPING [see Packet Internet Groper]piracy unauthorized duplication,distribution, or broadcasting of copyrightedmaterial for profit232

podcastingpirate radio radio station that broadcastsillegally without a license, oftenattracting large numbers of listenersplain-folks pitch advertising strategywhereby a product is associated withcommon people using it for practicalpurposesplanned obsolescence claim bysome social critics that certain manufacturersdesign their products to lasta short time so that customers will beforced to buy them over and overplanted news propaganda disguisedas newsplasma screen flat display screen forcomputers and television sets, whichgives clearer images than other formsof screen technologyPlato (c. 428–347 b.c.e.) ancientGreek philosopher who coined theterm philosophy (“love of knowledge”).His Doctrine of Forms, bywhich he proposed that objects resemblethe perfect forms with whichall humans are born, is the basis (orstimulus) of several modern-dayideas, including that of the archetype.His writings include the Republic,the Apology (which portraysSocrates’ self-defense of the chargesagainst him), Phaedo (which portraysthe death of Socrates and in which hediscusses the Doctrine of Forms), andthe Symposium.play story acted out on a stage (orsome other place or through anothermedium); a dramatizationplay theory of mass communicationidea that the mass media do not produceharmful effects because peopleuse them, by and large, for entertainment,rather than for informationplaylist list of musical recordingsthat are scheduled to be aired by aradio stationpleasure principle [see also id]desire for the fulfillment of naturalurges, such as sexual ones, regardlessof social or moral sanctions. Itsoperation is unconscious in adults,playing an especially important rolein modes of expression that have anonrational motivation, such as themaking of art.plot 1. events that take place in a narrative;2. main action in a storyplug-in tiny add-on program to abrowser that allows a user to playanimations, videos, or sound filespluralism 1. notion that all culturaland value systems are equal andshould be allowed to coexist in thesame social situation or system; 2.view that the media should reflectsocial diversityPOD [abbreviation of Print onDemand]podcasting activity of providingimmediate audio and/or video filesover the Internet to subscribers, forplayback on mobile devices and/orpersonal computers233

POemSunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte (1886) by Georges Seuratpoem piece of writing, usually inverse form, that is more songlike, usingmore emotionally suggestive languagethan ordinary speech or prose.The oldest surviving Greek poems,and still the most referenced ones inall kinds of texts, are the great epicsthe Iliad and the Odyssey, which areattributed to Homer and were probablywritten during the eighth centuryb.c.e. They were composed fromexcerpts of Greek oral poetry, suchas folktales and songs. After Homer’stime, people recited the two works,often from memory, before audiencesat festivals.point of presence [abbreviated asPOP] phone number that a computerdials via the modempointillism painting style inwhich color “points” are used tocover a ground (background and/orforeground), appearing to blend togetherwhen viewed from a distance,producing a glowing effect. Theworks of Georges Seurat andhis followers in late nineteenthcenturyFrance best exemplify thisstyle.political advertising advertisingused for political purposes, such aspolitical campaigningpolitical correctness language orconduct that deliberately avoidsgiving offense, especially regardingsensitive topics such as gender,religion, and race234

pop languageAndy Warhol’s silkscreen paintingOrange Marilyn (1964)polysemy 1. multiple meanings thatsome words have; for example, theword play means “drama” and “totake part in a game”; 2. by extension,the different ways in which mediatexts are interpreted by differentaudiencesPOP [see point of presence]pop art [full form: popular art], artmovement surfacing in the late 1940sthat emphasized the representationand/or incorporation of the objectsof mass culture. The movement wasinitially a reaction against abstractexpressionism, with brand products,comic strips, and the like formingthe subject matter of the artists in themovement. Perhaps the best-knownpop artist was Andy Warhol, whoproduced paintings and silk-screenprints of commonplace objects andcelebrities.pop culture [full form: popular culture]culture that can be defined asthe “culture of the marketplace,” andthus produced by the people, ratherthan commissioned and sponsoredby an aristocrat, institution, or thelike (as in the past). Pop culture isthus subject to the same economiclaws connected to the making andconsumption of material goods. Popculture includes television programs,advertising, comic books, popularmusic (rock ’n’ roll, hip-hop), fashion,sports, shopping, etc. It rejectsboth the supremacy of the “high culture”of the past and the pretensionsof avant-garde intellectual trends ofthe present. It is highly appealing forthis very reason. It bestows on commonpeople the assurance that “culture”is mass consumption, not justfor an elite class of cognoscenti. Itis thus populist, popular, and public.The spread of pop culture as a kind ofmainstream culture has been broughtabout by developments in technology.The rise of music as a mass art,for instance, was made possible bythe advent of recording and radiobroadcasting technologies at the startof the twentieth century. Records andradio made music available to largeaudiences, converting it from an artfor the elite to a commodity for oneand all. The spread and appeal of popculture throughout the globe today isdue to the advent of satellite technologyand the Internet.pop language term coined by writerLeslie Savan in her 2005 book titledSlam Dunks and No-Brainers: Lan-235

pop musicguage in Your Life, the Media, Business,Politics, and, Like, Whatever,referring to language used in mediabut picked up by the population atlarge: That is so last year; I hate itwhen that happens; Don’t go there;Get a life; and so on. Savan comparesDisney’s 1953 cartoon Peter Panwith the 2002 sequel Return to NeverLand. The former was free of packagedphrases and slang. The sequel,on the other hand, is scripted on thebasis of pop language, including suchphrases as: In your dreams, Hook;Put a cork in it; Tell me about it;You’ve got that right; and Don’t eventhink about it.pop music [full form: popularmusic] music intended to be appreciatedby ordinary people, usuallyintended to provide entertainment andpleasure, and including such genresas jazz, swing, rhythm and blues,rock, and rap. Pop music surfacedat the start of the twentieth century,spreading in the 1920s with the riseof jazz music. In 1923 the Broadwaymusical Running Wild helped turn theCharleston into what most historiansof pop culture consider to be the firstdance craze. By the late 1920s, thecheapness and availability of massproducedrecords entrenched pop musicas mainstream music. In the 1950srock music came onto the scene asmainstream pop music. Many styleshave emerged since, from punk anddisco to rap and metal.pop star individual in media who hasbecome an icon in his or her field,becoming a symbol of a trend orlifestylepopulism political philosophy thatchampions the common person,combining elements of the politicalleft and right, opposing large businessand financial interests, but alsofrequently showing an open hostilityto established labor organizationspop-under ad Internet ad that appearsin a separate browser windowpop-up ad advertisement that isactivated, popping up on the screen,when a user visits a particular Websitepornography depiction of eroticbehavior intended to cause sexualexcitement, primarily in movies. Theword originally signified any workdepicting the life of prostitutes. Thedevelopment of photography andmotion pictures in the nineteenthand twentieth centuries contributedgreatly to the proliferation of pornography,as has the advent of theInternet in the late twentieth century.During the twentieth century, restrictionson pornography were relaxedthroughout much of Europe andNorth America, though regulationsremained strict in Asia, the MiddleEast, and Africa. Child pornographyis universally prohibited. Accordingto some media analysts, pornographyis central to understanding pop culture.When the pornographic movieDeep Throat premiered in 1972, itwas perceived not just as a new form236

post-broadcast mediaof blatant sexual depiction, but wasalso described by some critics as aserious threat to the political and socialorder. Pornography continues tobe a form of social criticism againstauthoritarianism, albeit much less sotoday since it has become virtuallymainstream. Some media analystsdistinguish between the erotic andthe pornographic. The former term isused to describe the sexual activitiesthat have been represented in the artof most cultures since antiquity. InGreek pottery and Indian temples, forexample, sex in its different formsappears as just one feature amongmany. It is only in modern secularcultures that a distinction has cometo be made between the two supposedlydifferent kinds of sexualrepresentation.portal entry point to the Internet,such as a search engineportrait 1. painting, photograph, ordrawing of a person, focusing on theface, extended to mean the depictionof someone’s personality in someway; 2. by extension, any penetratingdepiction of someone or something.Portraits can be traced as far backas 3100 b.c.e. in Egypt. They servevarious social functions, rangingfrom the exaltation of rulers andimportant cultural figures to sketchesof common people.positioning advertising productsin appropriate market segmentsthrough appropriate media. Forexample, advertising for women’sperfume is positioned in magazinesdealing with women’s issues or infashion magazines; men’s deodorants,on the other hand, are typicallypositioned in corresponding magazinesfor men.positive appeal advertising intendedto demonstrate why a product is attractiveor important to possesspositivism philosophical system thatconfines itself to empirical facts,emphasizing the achievements ofsciencepost 1. to send a message to a newsgroupor bulletin board on Internet;2. to update a database; 3. to showtext online at a Web sitePostal Act of 1879 legislation thatallowed magazines to be mailed atlow cost, leading to the growth of themagazine industrypost-broadcast media the shift thathas occurred in the way that mediatexts are delivered, due to theadvent of the Internet and digitaltechnologies:Broadcastpublicpassiveanalogueone-to-manymasstelevisionstandardizedPost-broadcastprivateactivedigitalmany-to-manyinteractivecomputercustomized237

postcolonialismpostcolonialism the period after acolonizing country has departed fromthe area it once controlledposter appealing print announcementor advertisement that isdisplayed publicly to promote aproduct, event, or idea. Posters werepopular in the nineteenth century,following the invention of lithography,which allowed color to be usedin the making of posters. Henri deToulouse-Lautrec was noted for hisposter art, which was often usedto advertise cabaret shows. Theearly twentieth century gave rise toadvertising posters for every conceivableproduct; the poster remainsa primary advertising tool to thisday.post-feminism approach to cultureand media that still holds to basicfeminist criticism, expanding theoriginal paradigm in order to reevaluatesome of the original assumptionsof feminism, especially the role ofsexual representations of women inthe media. Post-feminism emerged asa backlash to Eurocentric and elitiststrands of feminism, and especiallyideas such as those put forward byradical anti-male feminists such asAndrea Dworkin, arguing that it is adelicate balance to differentiate betweensexual explicitness and sexualexploitation and sexism. Perhapsinspired by artists such as Madonnain the 1980s, post-feminism celebratespreviously taboo areas amongfeminists such as sexual attractivenessand fashion.post-Fordism [in contrast to Fordism]trend of moving away fromtraditional industries toward serviceand technology-based work involvingdigital mediapost-humanism secular philosophythat aims to reassign humanity to itsplace among natural species, bringingit down from its privileged position.According to this claim, humans haveno inherent right to destroy natureor set themselves above it. Posthumanismhas also been enlisted tosuggest that human bodies can be amelioratedthrough technological interventionsuch as genetic engineering.posting message sent to a newsgroupPostman, Neil (1931–2003) wellknowncritic of media technologies,entertainments, and their effects onpeople and cultures. Among his bestknownworks are Amusing Ourselvesto Death (1985) and The End ofEducation (1995).postmodernism movement in philosophyand art rejecting traditionalnarrative and aesthetic structures. Theterm was coined by architects in theearly 1970s to designate a buildingstyle that was adopted at the timeto contrast with modernist Bauhausstyle (characterized by boxlikeskyscrapers and tall apartment buildings).Postmodern architects emphasizedeclecticism and eccentricity indesign, putting, for example, a triangularroof structure on skyscrapers.The term caught on more broadly,238

PRESSbecoming the moniker for a moregeneral trend in art and philosophy.postmodernity generally a synonymfor postmodernism, but sometimesused to refer to the state of the world,rather than to the artistic or philosophicalaspects of the postmodernmovementpost-production final stage in themaking of a recording, film, or televisionprogram, involving editing, dubbing,and other special effectspoststructuralism movement insemiotics that challenges basicstructuralist theories, such as that ofbinary opposition, initiated by thepsychoanalyst Jacques Lacan andthe philosopher Jacques Derrida.In structuralism, signs are implicitlyassumed to be the bearers of meanings,independently of their users;in poststructuralism, signs bear nomeaning, apart from the meanings wegive them in specific situations.post-testing evaluation of an advertisingcampaign in order to determineits effectivenessPR [see public relations]pragmatics study of how languageis used in social contexts. Pragmaticsdeals with who says what to whomin specific situations. For example,saying good-bye can unfold with theexpression Good-bye or with the expressionI’m outta here. The formeris used in formal situations and thelatter is typical of the language usedamong friends.pragmatism philosophical movementdeveloped by Charles S.Peirce and William James, claimingthat the validity of anything (an idea,a theory, etc.) lies in its practical usesor effectsprecision journalism type of journalismthat attempts to make newsreporting a scientific enterprise withrigorous methods such as surveys andquestionnairespreferred reading interpretation ofa media text that is the one intendedby its maker or that is shaped by theideology of the society in which it ismadeprejudice unfair opinion formedby an individual or group, who maytwist or even ignore facts that conflictwith that opinionpre-production work to be donebefore the filming or recording stageof a text or program, such as scriptreading and budgetingprequel story set at a time before theaction of an existing work, especiallyone that has achieved successpress 1. those involved in journalism;2. company that publishes books. Theterm was originally applied to printjournalism, specifically newspaperjournalism, but in the late twentiethcentury it started being applied to239

PRESS CONFERENCEelectronic forms of journalism aswell.press conference meeting where thepress and other media reporters areinvited to hear announcements of animportant naturepress gallery location in a courtroomor legislature where the press can sitand take notes or record the ongoingproceedingspress kit package of backgroundmaterial for a product or campaigndistributed to the press by an agencyor publicity departmentpress release announcement, usuallyin a print form, providing facts to themedia so that they can be reported orbroadcastpressure group group of peoplewho work together in order to maketheir common concerns known to themedia or government in the hope ofinfluencing themprestige advertising advertising inhigh-quality magazines or mediaprograms, with the aim of enhancingthe company’s reputationpre-testing the testing of an advertisementor ad campaign before it islaunchedpreview text (poster, short film,etc.) describing or showcasing anupcoming media event (a movie, TVprogram, etc.)primacy effect theory notion thatthe information most likely to be rememberedis the one that occurs firstin a text, film, or programprimary text media text created beforeit is transmitted or made knownprime time period in a radio or televisionschedule when the potentialaudience is the largest, generallyweekday evenings from around7 p.m. to 10 p.m.priming process of organizing newsitems in order of their perceivedimportanceprint 1. medium of communicationutilizing written text, rather thanvisual or audio images; 2. edition of abook, newspaper, or magazine, madeat a specific time; 3. photographproduced from a negative or by adigital process. The invention of theprinting press is widely thought tobe the origin point of mass communications.Some historians suggest thatprint was instrumental in bringingabout all the major shifts in science,religion, politics, and the modes ofthought that are associated with modernsocieties.Print on Demand [abbreviated asPOD] printing technology by whichbooks and other print materials areprinted only after they have beenrequested. Such technology has beenmade possible because of the adventof digital printing. POD is used, for240

PROGRAMinstance, by presses to reprint oldertitles for which there is a moderatedemand.printing press machine used forprinting materials from movablemetallic characters, perfected byJohannes Gutenberg during the mid-1400sprivacy 1. right to be let alone, to befree from surveillance by the state,official institutions, or one’s fellowcitizens; 2. right to control the disclosureof personal informationprivatization process of transferringownership of a media outlet orinstitution from the public sector tothe private oneprocess model theoretical model ofcommunication in which the meaningof a message is assumed to be theone intended by the sender, with noinput on the part of the receiverproducer member of a film team,a television program, or radio showresponsible for general supervisionand financingproduct character fictional personor cartoon animal used in advertisementsover a long period. Thecharacter becomes highly familiarto people and thus provides enduringidentification with a company’sproducts. Well-known product charactersinclude Tony the Tiger, BettyCrocker, Mr. Clean, and RonaldMcDonald.product placement marketing strategywhereby a brand product is featuredin a prominent venue or event,such as a film or television program.This strategy goes back to the 1950swhen TV programs such as TexacoTheater, General Electric Theater,and Kraft Theater became associatedexclusively with one sponsor continuinga previous radio tradition. In 1982the extraterrestrial creature in StephenSpielberg’s E.T. was seen snacking onReese’s Pieces—increasing sales forthe product enormously. That eventstarted a trend in Hollywood. In 1983Tom Cruise donned a pair of Wayfarers(Rayburn sunglasses) in RiskyBusiness, and sales for that productshot up. The placement of brands inthe scripts of TV programs and moviesis now so common that it goeslargely unnoticed. Its main objectiveis to amalgamate brand identity withpop culture.production work of putting togethera media text (a film, a televisionprogram)profile in netlingo, the pages thatusers of a Web site set up to shareinformation, including photos,residence address, interests in music,movies, TV, books, etc. A typicalprofile has the name of the user,sometimes written with mismatchedletters (for example, JohNnY), a listof personal details (sex, age, maritalstatus, zodiac sign), interests (music,sports), and commentaries.program 1. any radio or televisiontext or spectacle; 2. set of commands241

PROGRAM DIRECTORthat allow users to operate a computerprogram director person responsiblefor the selection and scheduling ofprograms for broadcasting or podcastingprogressive rock rock music stylethat emerged in the late 1960s,emphasizing creative freedom, oftendrawing on blues and jazz styles incombinationprojection television television systemin which an amplified picture isprojected onto a screenpromo advertisement for anotherprogram or moviepropaganda materials, strategies,etc. (overt or covert), used to spreadparticular ideologies or opinions inorder to convince or persuade peopleof their validitypropaganda model media and masscommunication model, associatedprimarily with Noam Chomsky,which claims that those who controlthe funding and ownership of the mediadetermine how the media selectand present their news and events,making the media nothing more thana propaganda arm of governmentsand business institutionsPropp, Vladimir (1895–1970) Russianliterary critic who developed alist of basic character roles and plotsettings that, he claimed, were presentin all kinds of stories, includingthe hero (or anti-hero), the villain, theobject of the quest, the hero’s helperor companion, etc.props small objects on a movie ortelevision set that are used as part ofa scene or a sequenceprose ordinary language (as opposedto poetry); for example, novels, essays,reviews, critiques, and the likeare all written in prose; on the otherhand, cards (such as those given onValentine’s Day) are typically writtenin poetic styleprosody 1. poetic versification;2. tones, pitches, and stress patternsthat accompany the pronunciationof words, phrases, and sentencesprotocol software that controls connectionsbetween computers on theInternetprototype theory psychologicaltheory claiming that the conceptthat most people generate in theirminds when a word is used is themost common, basic, or prototypicalexemplar of a category. For example,when the word cat is used, peopletypically generate an image of thecommon cat. They do not normallythink of a cat as a feline, as is a lionor a tiger. If asked what kind of cat,people might refer to it as a Siamesecat, a Persian cat, and the like. Theword feline reflects a superordinateconcept (a concept with a generalclassificatory function); cat a basic242

PBSor prototypical concept; and Siamesea subordinate concept.proverb traditional saying thatexpresses an intrinsic truth or elsegives practical advice: for example,Don’t count your chickens beforethey’re hatched (= exercise caution).Every culture has proverbs; they arepart of what anthropologists call folkwisdom.proxemics study of the kind of zonesthat people maintain while interacting,introduced into anthropologyby Edward T. Hall, who measuredsuch zones, finding that they variedfrom culture to culture (allowing forpredictable statistical variation). InNorth American culture, for instance,Hall found that a zone of 6 incheswas perceived as an intimate one;while one from 1.5 to 4 feet was experiencedas a safe zone. A strangerintruding upon the limits set bysuch boundaries causes discomfortand anxiety. If the safe distance isbreached by an acquaintance, on theother hand, it would be felt to signala sexual or aggressive advance.pseudoevent a staged event for themedia, planned for the sole purposeof playing to huge audiencespseudonym [see pen name]psychedelic hallucinogenic drugthat distorts perception. The termwas used in various phrases in thecounterculture era of the 1960s: forexample, psychedelic rock, psychedelicpoetry, etc. The term is fromAldous Huxley’s book on mescaline,The Doors of Perception (1954).psychoanalysis psychological method,developed by Sigmund Freud,based in part on the assumption thatunconscious instinctual drives (thelibido) are primary motivators ofbehavior. Freud introduced the techniquesof free association and dreaminterpretation to explore unconsciousdrives and anxieties. Freud’s tripartitemodel of personality—including theid, the ego, and the superego—hasbeen used by various media and advertisinganalysts to explain how werelate to texts unconsciously.psychographics study of the psychologicalprofiles of different people foradvertising and marketing purposes.Psychographics differs from demographics,which studies lifestylepatterns and other social characteristicsof subjects.Public Broadcasting Act of 1967U.S. legislative act that establishedthe Corporation for Public Broadcasting,which oversees the PublicBroadcasting Service (PBS) andNational Public Radio (NPR)Public Broadcasting Service[ abbreviated as PBS] nonprofitorganization that oversees publicradio and television programming inthe United States, made possible bythe Public Broadcasting Act of 1967.PBS stations operate on contributionsfrom viewers, corporate gifts,243

PUBLIC DOMAINfoundation grants, and support fromthe Corporation for Public Broadcasting.Similar services exist in othercountries. Web site: www.pbs.orgpublic domain realm of works thatare free from copyright or patent andthat can be used or released withoutthe payment of royaltiespublic relations [abbreviated asPR] activities and techniques usedby organizations and individualsto establish favorable attitudes andresponses by the general public orspecial groupspublic service announcement announcementcarried free by a mediaoutlet promoting a program or project(usually sponsored by a governmentor educational institution) that isdeemed to be of interest to the generalpublicpublicity any favorable informationabout something or someone in orderto stimulate public interest or to raiseawarenesspublisher company that producesbooks, journals, or other printmaterialspublishing trade, profession, oractivity of producing material in printor electronic form for distribution tothe publicpuff piece 1. an article that gives uncriticalsupport for a person or cause;2. in advertising, an ad that borderson exaggerationPulitzer Prize set of prizes awardedby Columbia University for outstandingpublic service and achievementin American journalism, letters, andmusic, named after editor and journalistJoseph Pulitzerpulp fiction magazines and novels(originally produced on cheap paper)that deal with popular and titillatingthemes, such as crime, sex, andhorrorpun play on the different senses ofthe same word or else on the sensesor sounds of different words: forexample, Dee Light is a delight; Theanalyst is called Anna Listpunk rock aggressive style of rockmusic starting in the mid-1970s,developed from counterculture rockof artists such as the Velvet Undergroundand Iggy (Pop) and theStooges and represented by Americanrockers such as Patti Smith and theRamones. The style soon took rootin London—where distinctly “punk”fashions, including spiked hair andripped clothing, were adopted bypunk bands such as the Sex Pistolsand the Clash. The fashion itemsintroduced into pop culture by thepunk movement include: chains, dogcollars, army boots, and “Mohawk”hairdos.244

Q & A [full form: questionsand answers] style ofradio or television reportingin which an announcer asksa correspondent questionsabout a storyquadraphonic four-channel (fourspeaker)sound systemqualified privilege legal right allowingreporters and journalists to reportjudicial or legislative proceedingseven though statements made in theproceedings may be libelousqualitative research method ofmedia and advertising research thatis based on observational techniquessuch as in-depth interviews and focusgroupsquantitative research method of mediaand advertising research that emphasizesthe measurement of trendsand their statistical implicationsqueer theory in culture studies,idea that sexuality cannot be definedrigidly, and that non-heterosexualforms of representation (in the media)are as legitimate as heterosexualonesquest in a narrative, the journeythat a protagonist undertakes inorder to achieve or find somethingimportantlast itemQquestionnaire method ofconducting research on mediaand advertising basedon the use of specificallydesigned questions. Thesecan be of two general types:closed and open. The former asksrespondents to select their answersfrom various choices; the latter asksthem to give their opinions in theirown words.quiz show [also called game show]radio or television show designedto test the knowledge, luck, or skillof contestants or experts. Two ofthe most popular quiz shows onAmerican television are the Wheel ofFortune and Jeopardy.quiz show scandals the fraudulentpractices by quiz shows of the mid-1950s, when some producers beganfeeding answers to contestants whohad been chosen to win. Governmentinvestigations led to a demise of thebig-money quiz shows. These regainedpopularity only in the 1970s.quota restriction on the amount oftime a particular media product maybe given airtimequotation piece of writing or oralspeech used, for example, in a bookand enlisted for some purpose (tosupport an idea, to embellish a presentation)245

R rating film classificationin the United States indicatingthat a movie cannot beviewed by anyone under theage of 17 unless accompaniedby a parent or guardianracism any action or practice basedon the erroneous belief that somegroup(s) of humans is (are) superioror inferior to othersradical reading one of threesupposed readings or interpretationsapplied to a media text (the othertwo being dominant and subordinate),in which the audiencerejects the meanings, values, andviewpoints built into the text byits makersradio transmission of sounds convertedinto electromagnetic wavesdirectly through space to a receivingdevice, which converts them backinto soundsRadio Act of 1912 first radio legislationpassed by the U.S. Congress,which addressed the problem ofamateur radio operators jamming theairwaves by regulating the licensingof transmittersRadio Act of 1927 radio legislationpassed by the U.S. Congress creatinga Federal Radio Commission, statingthat radio operators could own theirchannels if they operated them toserve the public interest, defining thebroadcast band, and standardizingfrequency designationsfirst itemR246radio broadcasting broadcastingthrough radio technology.Evidence of a planfor radio broadcasting to thegeneral public is found in a1916 memorandum writtenby David Sarnoff, an employeeof American Marconi, which wouldeventually become the Radio Corporationof America (RCA). Sarnoffrecommended that radio be madeinto a “household utility.” The memowas given little if any considerationat first. After World War I ended in1918, however, several companiestook up Sarnoff’s idea for the massmarketing of home radio receiversvery seriously. In an effort to boostradio sales, the Westinghouse ElectricCorporation of Pittsburgh establishedwhat many historians consider to bethe first commercially owned radiostation to offer a schedule of programmingto the general public. Itwas called KDKA, after it receivedits license from the Department ofCommerce (which held regulatorypower following the end of the war)in October 1920. KDKA aired mainlyentertainment programs, includingrecorded music, using a phonographplaced within the range of a microphone.The station did not chargeuser fees, nor did it carry advertisements.Westinghouse used KDKAsimply as an enticement for peopleto purchase home radio receivers.Radio broadcasting reached the pinnacleof its popularity and influenceduring World War II, when Americancommentator Edward R. Murrowchanged the nature of news report-

Radway, Janiceing permanently with his eyewitnessdescriptions of street scenes duringthe German bombing raids ofLondon, delivered from the rooftopof the CBS news bureau there. U.S.president Franklin D. Rooseveltwas among the first politicians tounderstand the power of radio as apropaganda tool. He used the radioto bypass the press and directly addressthe American people with hisso-called fireside chats during theGreat Depression. Roosevelt clearlyunderstood that the emotional powerof the voice would be much morepersuasive than would any logicalargument he might put into print.The chats continue to this day aspart and parcel of the Americanpresidency.Radio Corporation of America[abbreviated as RCA] companyestablished during World War I topool radio patents, giving the UnitedStates control over the new massmedium of radio broadcasting. Website: www.rca.comradio frequency spectrum portionof the electromagnetic spectrum thatis used for all radio, wireless communication,and television channelsradio genres programming genresassociated with radio broadcasting,either currently or in the past. Atfirst, radio simply adapted variousgenres of traditional stage drama,transforming them into radio dramas,action serials, situation comedies,and so-called soap operas. It lookedto vaudeville to garner and adaptmaterial for its comedy-varietyprogramming. And it modeled itsnews coverage on the format of dailynewspapers—announcers would, infact, often simply read articles fromthe local newspaper over the air.Because of its capacity to reach largenumbers of people, from the 1920sto the early 1950s radio broadcastingevolved into society’s primarymedium of information, arts appreciation,and entertainment. Onlyafter the advent of television in thelate 1940s did radio’s hegemony inthis domain begin to erode, as itsaudiences split into smaller, distinctsegments. Today, radio is primarily amedium for specialized purposes (forexample, automobile and office use).People listen to it in their cars as theydrive from location to location, or intheir offices (or other places) as theydo something else. Aware of this,radio stations typically present trafficinformation in a regular interspersedfashion throughout their broadcasts,or else present uninterrupted stretchesof music during certain periods ofthe working day. Radio stations are,typically, specialized according tomusic genre (classical music station,country music station) or service (allday news station, religious station,etc.).Radway, Janice (1949–) leader ofpost-feminist thought, who hasstudied women’s representationaland social issues and the power ofwomen-centered texts. Her mostinfluential work is Reading the247

agtimeRomance: Women, Patriarchy, andPopular Literature (1991).ragtime popular music of the latenineteenth and early twentieth centuriescharacterized by syncopatedrhythms—the term, in fact, probablyderives from “ragged time,” alludingto its basis in syncopation. Themost celebrated ragtime composerof the early period was Scott Joplin.Ragtime is considered an importantinfluence on the development of popmusic.random probability testing techniqueof carrying out a survey on arepresentative test group, withoutany restrictions as to type of personsurveyedrandom sample sample taken fromany given population, in which eachperson maintains equal chances ofbeing selectedrap musical style in which lyrics arerapped (chanted) to rhythmic musicalaccompaniment, associated in itsorigin with African American youth.The first rap records were made inthe late 1970s by small, independentrecord companies. Although rappergroups such as Sugarhill Ganghad national hits during that period,the musical style did not enter thepop culture mainstream until 1986,when rappers Run-D.M.C. and thehard-rock band Aerosmith collaboratedon the song Walk This Way,creating a broader audience for rap.The terms rap and hip-hop are oftenused interchangeably. But the former,which derives from Sugarhill Gang’sRapper’s Delight (1979), refers to themusical style itself, whereas the latterrefers to the attendant lifestyle thatthose who listen to rap tend to adopt.Rap’s lyric themes can be broadlycategorized under three headings:those that are blatantly sexual, thosethat chronicle and often embrace theso-called gangsta lifestyle of youthswho live in inner cities, and thosethat address contemporary politicaland philosophical issues related tothe black experience and its history.By the mid-1990s, rap developedinto a more eclectic musical form,as rap artists borrowed from folkmusic, jazz, and other music styles.Consequently, it became more melodiousand traditional in its use ofinstrumentation.rapport talk style of speech aimedat establishing harmony amongindividualsrating point one percentage of allTV households who are viewing aparticular station at a given time, orone percentage of all listeners whoare listening to a particular radiostation at a given timeratings estimated size of a radio orTV audience for a program, broadcast,series, etc. Ratings are usedto help broadcasters determine thepopularity of a radio or TV programand to allow sponsors to determinehow many people they are reachingwith their advertising. This system248

REALISmhas no use on broadcasting Web sites,where visitors to the sites can simplybe tracked and recorded.rational appeal technique of designingadvertising to appeal to customersby using logical arguments thatdemonstrate how the product mightfulfill some needrationalism philosophy stressingthe role of reason in obtainingknowledge. Rationalism has its rootsin ancient Greek philosophy, especiallyin the works of Aristotle,but it has come to be associated withseventeenth-century French philosopherand mathematician RenéDescartes, who expressed the essenceof his view with the widely knownexpression Cogito ergo sum (“I think,therefore I am”).rave venue for electronic dancemusic, also called techno, that firstappeared in the United States in the1980s. Raves took place primarily inthe form of all-night dance parties,often involving use of the hallucinogenicdrug ecstasy.RCA [see Radio Corporation ofAmerica]reach estimated number of individualswho are tuned into a radio stationor a television programreader person decoding or interpretinga text. Traditional literaryanalysis has focused on how areader tries to figure out what theauthor of a work intended. In recentcritical approaches, however, themeaning of a work is described asa system of meanings to which areader responds, according to hisor her personal experiences and theparticular context (social, historical,psychological) in which the readingoccurs.reader response theory [seereception theory]reading in media studies, a widerange of processes such as reception,interpretation, and understanding oftextsRead-Only Memory (abbreviatedas ROM) form of computer memorythat remains, keeping its content evenwhen the power supply is cut off; thecontent cannot be altered once it ismanufactured.realism 1. view positing that universalsin human cognition and/or culture exist and can be identifiedwith logical analysis; 2. viewthat objects exist independently ofhuman perception and identification;3. in media theory, the degreeto which a text accurately reflectsthings as they really are, and not aswe wish them to be. In literature itrefers to works that depict everydaylife. Realist writers include Frenchwriters Gustave Flaubert and Guy deMaupassant, Russian author AntonChekhov, English novelist GeorgeEliot, and American writers MarkTwain and Henry James.249

eality televisionreality television [also calledreality show] genre of televisionprogramming that presents purportedlyunscripted situations, featuringordinary people instead of professionalactors. Reality televisioncovers a wide range of programming,from quiz shows to those showinga group of people trying to survive(in a particular situation, such as ona faraway island) and those in whichpeople compete for a prize by havingto go through a difficult trial or test.The television show Candid Camerawas one of the first reality shows ontelevision, debuting in 1948. An actorpulled pranks on ordinary people andthe “candid camera” showed their reactions.Another early prototype wasthe 1973 PBS series An AmericanFamily, which dealt with a modernfamily going through a divorce. Realitytelevision as it is currently understoodcan be traced directly to severaltelevision shows that began in the late1980s, such as: ABC’s Cops, whichstarted in 1989, showing police officerson real duty apprehending realcriminals; MTV’s The Real World,which began in 1992, putting strangerstogether for an extended periodof time and recording the situationsthat ensued; and Temptation Island(2001), which achieved notoriety byplacing several couples on an islandsurrounded by unmarried people inorder to test the couples’ commitmentto each other. Today there arereality shows in all kinds of genres,from talk shows, such as The JerrySpringer Show, to shows in whichpeople compete for a job.real-time 1. any event that is transmittedor broadcast as it is occurring;2. any film, program, etc., whose plotlasts the same period of time that itwould take if it occurred in thereal world; an example is the TVseries 24recall test [see recognition test]receiver 1. person or device capableof receiving particular kinds ofsignals; 2. entity or device to which/whom a message is directedreception theory any media theoryattempting to explain how audiencesinterpret texts. Reception theorywas at its most influential during the1970s and early 1980s, especiallythrough the work of Stuart Hall,one of its main proponents. Theapproach focuses on the kinds of “negotiation”or “opposition” strategiesemployed by the audience. Receptionresearch has found that audiencereadings of texts are based on culturalbackground and life experiences. Inessence, the meaning of a text is notpresent within the text itself, but iscreated in the dynamic between thetext and its reader.recital 1. repeating or reading somethingout loud; 2. musical or danceperformancerecognition test [also called recalltest] research tool designed tocheck how well someone can recallan advertisement, with or withoutprompting250

REGGAErecord 1. an account or history;2. disc, cylinder, or other device thatcontains sounds that can be playedwith the appropriate equipmentrecording permanent copy of musicon a disc, CD, DVD, or other devicereductionism view that complexstructures or concepts are reducibleto simple physical or psychologicalprinciplesredundancy any feature that counteractsnoise. In language, for example,redundancy can be seen in the highpredictability of certain words in particularutterances and the repetitionof elements.reference 1. note directing a reader’sattention to a source of information;2. source of information quoted in atext; 3. process of pointing out or identifyingsomething. Reference is to bedistinguished from sense. For example,the words rabbit and hare make referenceto the same kind of animal. Butthe sense of each term is different—hare is the more appropriate term fordescribing the mammal if it is larger,has longer ears and legs, and does notburrow; rabbit is the animal that peoplewould normally think of as a “pet.”reference work dictionary, encyclopedia,atlas, or other written orelectronic work containing specializedinformationreferent the thing or idea that a wordor a symbol stands forreferential code code guiding theinterpretation of references found ina narrative, especially scientific andspecialized onesreferential framework narrativetechnique of portraying a story asrepresenting real life, by relatingit to the lives and experiences ofaudiencesreferential function as defined byRoman Jakobson, any utterancethat is designed, simply, to refer tosomething real: “Main Street is twoblocks away.” This utterance has thespecific referential function of indicatingwhere a street can be found. Itconveys, in other words, informationabout some real phenomenon.reflection theory view that languagemirrors the things it represents insome way (through imitation of itssound properties, through allusion toits appearance, etc.)reflexivity way in which modern societiesconstantly examine their owncultural practices critically, resultingin their alterationreformer in advertising jargon,person who wants products that willimprove the quality of his or her life,rather than products that appeal to asense of lifestylereggae type of popular music combiningelements of calypso, rock,and soul. Reggae originated in themid-1960s in Jamaica, as a means251

eGISTERof expressing social discontent. Itwas popularized by the movie TheHarder They Come (1972), starringthe singer Jimmy Cliff, and by BobMarley, its greatest and best-knownexponent.register type of language that fitsinto a particular social situation:Would you be so kind as to tell mewhere you live? (= high/formal register);Hey, where do you live? (= low/informal register)regulation activity of controllingwhat occurs in mediareification 1. rendering an idea realby expressing or representing it insome way; 2. in Marxist theory, thetendency of people to associate withthe commodities they producereinforcement effect theory thatexposure to specific kinds of acts inthe media, especially violent ones,may reinforce tendencies in somepeople (toward violence) that theymay already haverelativism 1. theory that cultureshapes an individual’s worldview;2. philosophical view that there is nomoral system that applies to all peopleremake new version of an old film orprogramreminder advertising techniquedesigned to make consumers recallan advertisement they have alreadyviewedremote control device that operatesa system from a distance. Remotecontrolled systems include televisionsets, garage door openers, robots,and spacecraft. The first machinesoperated by remote control weremotorboats. The German navydeveloped them during World War I(1914–1918). Automatic garage dooropeners were introduced in the late1940s and TV remote controls in themid-1950s. Today, using applicationson the World Wide Web, people cancontrol such devices as robots andcameras remotely.repertoire list of works that a company,an actor, a musician, and thelike can perform at any timerepetition and difference combinationof expected and unexpectedelements in a media text that are designedto create interest in audiencesrepetition in advertising techniqueconsisting of the use of differentmedia to repeat the same message,adapting it to the properties of thedifferent mediareplay an event or occurrence recorded(on tape, video) and playedagain (as in a sports program) tohighlight the event (such as a goalthat was scored)replicability view in the social sciencesthat research findings based onthe testing of sample populations arevalid if they can be obtained again bydifferent researchers at different times252

RERELEASEreport account of news presentedby a journalist in print, broadcast, orInternet formreportage 1. use of a medium (print,broadcast, Internet) to present thenews; 2. corpus of news; 3. a style ofreporting newsreporter someone who presents thenews in print, broadcast, or Internetformreport-talk speech style in which theexchange of information and contentof a message are emphasized overany emotional factorrepositioning marketing strategy ofchanging a product’s image either byshifting its positioning (the targetaudience to whom advertisements ofthe product are aimed), by changingits design, or by changing the style ofadvertising used to promote itrepresentation way in whichsomeone or something is portrayedor depicted in media. For example,in news reporting, a specific crimeevent can be represented either as acommon everyday occurrence or elseas something much more sinister,such as a symptom of society’s loosemoral standards. Representationsgenerally possess an underlyingview. For example, some televisionsitcoms depict (or have depicted) thefamily as an ideal social structurefor resolving emotional problems (aswas evident in the 1950s Americansitcom Father Knows Best), whileothers depict it as a dysfunctional one(as was evident in All in the Family inthe 1970s and Married with Childrenin the 1990s).representation and reality view thatthe ways in which media representevents, situations, and people areconstrued to either mirror or constructreality. Research has shownthat events that are showcased on TVor on Internet are felt as being moresignificant and historically meaningfulto society than those that are not.Events such as the John Kennedyand Lee Harvey Oswald assassinations,the Vietnam War, the Watergatehearings, the Rodney King beating,the O.J. Simpson trial, the death ofLady Diana, and the 9/11 attack areperceived as portentous and prophetichistorical events through thefilter of media coverage. The horrificimages of the Vietnam War that weretransmitted into people’s homes dailyin the late 1960s and early 1970s areconsidered to have brought about anend to the war by mobilizing socialprotest. Significantly, an MTV flagwas hoisted by East German youthsover the Berlin Wall as they tore itdown in 1989. The images of the twoplanes smashing into the World TradeCenter buildings on September 11,2001, brought about an internationalreaction, whose consequences arestill being felt.rerelease music recording, movie,or other media product that has beenreleased again to the public in orderto gain a new audience253

RERUNrerun repeat broadcast of recordedentertainment, especially a televisionseriesresistive reading act of reading amedia text by consciously opposingits apparent meaning or functionresolution optical quality of imageson a screen (television, computer) orphotographresonance positive reaction that aviewer has to a television broadcastor other media event becauseit corresponds closely to his or herexperiences or expectations, thusreinforcing themresponse function measure of theeffect that a particular amount ofadvertising has on a personresponse mechanism method ofshowing people’s responses to Internetadvertising by measuring the waythat people respond to it through suchmeans as direct clicking and “faxback”sheetsresponsive chord theory concept putforward by sound archivist AnthonySchwartz, which holds that mediaactivates ideas that are already presentin people, Media do not transportinformation to audiences. Rather, theystrike a responsive chord with informationthat people already possess.restricted codes discourse patternsthat are thought to be characteristicof less-educated working-classindividuals, involving the use of asmaller vocabulary, simpler grammar,and the likeretention preservation of brandloyalty by means of appropriate adcampaigns and marketing strategiesreterritorialization any media strategyof reclaiming cultural “territory”by representing cultural meaningsand artifacts in new waysretrospective article or program thatlooks back at an earlier occurrence,such as a news event or a musicaltrendReuters trade name for a Londonnews agency, founded in 1851 byGerman journalist Paul Reuter, thatprovides international news. Website: www.reuters.comreview critical assessment of amovie, television series, book, orother media product in a newspaper,in a magazine, on a radio or televisionprogram, or on a blogrhetoric 1. effective speaking orwriting; 2. discipline studying howlanguage is used effectively in variousdomains (from poetry to advertising).Rhetorical analysis explainshow figures of speech create powerfulmeanings. The use of rhetoricallanguage is particularly evident inadvertising.rhetoric of the image in mediatheory, the way in which images are254

RITUALused in advertising and filmmakingso as to persuade the viewer to accepta message or to reinforce itrhetorical question a question askedfor effect, in order to emphasizesomething, rather than to obtain ananswerrhyme feature of verse in whichwords that have correspondingsounds and word stress are used, particularlyin various linguistic genres(especially poetry), especially at theends of lines: for example, some andcome; win and sinrhythm regular recurrence of similarbeats in language forms (such aspoetry) and music, in alternation witheach other and combined into somepatternrhythm and blues style of musicdeveloped by African Americanblues musicians, after they left therural South and moved to Chicagoand other northern cities in the late1940s. There, they developed a styleof music combining elements of bothblues and jazz.rich e-mail e-mail that has a voicemessage attached to itRichards, I.A. (1893–1979) Englishliterary critic who emphasized therole of metaphor in literature andordinary language. In The Philosophyof Rhetoric (1936), he provided a stillwidely used terminology for describingmetaphor—the tenor (what themetaphor is about), the vehicle (whatis used to characterize the tenor), andthe ground (the meaning of the metaphor).For instance, in My grandsonis a sly fox: My grandson is the tenor,fox the vehicle, and the ground issomething like “My grandson is ashrewd, crafty person.”riddle linguistic puzzle playing onword meanings. The oldest riddleknown is the so-called Riddle of theSphinx: What is it that has four feetin the morning, two at noon, andthree at night? The answer is humanbeings, who crawl on four limbs asinfants (in the morning of life), thenwalk upright (at the noon hour oflife), and finally walk with the aid ofa cane in old age (at the twilight oflife). As this riddle shows, there is aplay on the metaphorical meaningsof the words standing for the timesof day.right of reply the right of an individualor group represented in the mediato answer back if dissatisfied with therepresentationrisk society any group or communitythat is preoccupied with the risksposed by modernizationritual any meaningful activityintended to symbolize an event; forexample, the use of ritual dancesto exorcise spirits. By extension,the term is now used to refer to anysymbolic activity that is performedrecurrently or systematically—for example,ritual media interaction such255

oad blockingas ritual TV watching, ritual Webnavigating, etc.road blocking [see repetition inadvertising]road movie film genre that depictsthe adventures of an individual and/orgroup who leave their residence andtravel from place to place, often toescape from their current livesroadshow live open-air radio ortelevision broadcast that travels fromplace to place and usually centers ona theme (for example, life across theAmerican Midwest, life in the city)rock [abbreviation of rock and rollor rock ’n’ roll] musical style thatarose in the mid-1950s, becoming adominant form of popular music untilthe 1990s. The first rock songs reflecta blend of the blues, gospel, doowop, boogie woogie, and honky tonk.They were recorded and released bysmall, independent record companiesand promoted by controversial radiodisc jockeys such as Alan Freed, whohelped spread the term rock and roll,first used by the Boswell Sisters in1934 in their song titled Rock andRoll, although their term referred tothe back-and-forth movement of arocking chair, not to the meanings developedlater. By the time Elvis Presleyrecorded Good Rockin’ Tonight in1954 (a remake of Wynonie Harris’s1948 rendition of the song), rock hadestablished itself as a new trend inpop culture. After Bill Haley and theComets recorded Rock Around theElvis Presley (1935–1977) during hissecond appearance on the Ed SullivanShow, October 28, 1956Clock in 1955, the music genre wasappropriated by the teenagers of theera. Throughout the 1960s, 1970s,1980s, and 1990s, rock developedvarious genres, from disco and punkto grunge and techno. Rock musiciansand bands that have becameicons include Elvis Presley, Jerry LeeLewis, Little Richard, the Beatles,the Rolling Stones, Madonna, andNirvana, among many others. In1995 the Rock and Roll Hall of Fameopened in Cleveland, Ohio. Also inthe 1990s, several major televisiondocumentaries were produced on thehistory of rock and roll, and historicalbox-set recordings were reissuedfeaturing rock artists from the past.rockabilly musical style emergingin the 1950s in Memphis, Tennessee,which combined elements of countrymusic with rock and roll andrhythm and blues. Elvis Presley,Carl Perkins, Jerry Lee Lewis, and256

ule of thirdsJohnny Cash began their careers asrockabilly performers. Some countryperformers of the 1990s, includingthe Mavericks and Mark Collie,revived the rockabilly style.rockumentary filmed or televiseddocumentary about rock music or arock musician or bandrole character or part played by anactor or performer in a movie, televisionseries, etc.role fulfillment [also called rolereversal] in a narrative, the way inwhich characters subvert the expectationsthat people attach to the traditionalroles they typically play, suchas a hero playing the role of villain,and the effect this role reversal has onaudiencesROM (abbreviation of Read-OnlyMemory)romance 1. originally, a medievalnarrative (in verse or prose), writtenin a Romance language (a languagederived from Latin), revolvingaround the amorous exploits ofknights and other chivalric personages;2. by extension, any mediatext (novel, movie) revolving aroundlove and romance. In Reading theRomance (1991), Janice Radwayargues that romances are popularamong women because they providean escape from domestic life.romantic comedy humorous comedygenre involving a love story that usuallyends happilyRomanticism literary, artistic, musical,and philosophical movement thatbegan in Europe in the eighteenthcentury and lasted until the end ofthe nineteenth century. Romanticismemphasized subjective and emotionalart forms, as well as exotic, occult,and monstrous themes. In literature,the Romantic hero was often a rebelor outlaw. Romantic composers, suchas Frédéric Chopin and Robert Schumann,wrote highly emotional worksthat broke with existing traditions.In the visual arts, Romantic paintersdepicted faraway exotic subjects anddramatic scenes of nature, suggestinga mysterious, otherworldly qualitythat went beyond nature itself.rotary press press that prints onpaper passing between a supportingcylinder and a cylinder that containsthe printing plates. It is used mainlytoday in high-speed, Web-fed operationsin which the press takes paperfrom a roll.rough cut 1. first stage of editinga movie or program in which allparts are put in order; 2. preliminaryversion of a movie, with only basicediting performed on itroyalties 1. fees paid for the right toplay commercially produced musicon radio; 2. money payable to awriter or artist, according to copyrightfor sales of his or her material(book, recording, etc.)rule of thirds technique of dividinga scene or frame into three sections257

un of network(horizontally and vertically), in orderto create a balanced compositionrun of network banner advertisingthat runs across a network of Websitesrun of site banner advertising thatruns on a specific Web siterun of station television advertisingto which no particular time slot hasbeen assignedrun of week advertising spacebought at the basic rate, but notassigned to any specific mediaoutletrun on text that continues on the nextline or columnrunning head heading printed onevery page, or every other page, of abook, indicating its title or a chapteror section titlerunning story news story that isfollowed in a series of articles overdifferent editions of the same newspaperor programRussian formalism school ofsemiotics and literary criticism,prominent from 1916 to around 1930,which stressed the role of figurativelanguage in all kinds of representationsand discourses, not just poetry258

safe harbor broadcasttimes, usually from 10 p.m.to 6 a.m., when children arenot likely to be a listeningor viewing audience andthus when adult programmingcan be safely airedsaga 1. narrative genre dealing withprominent figures and events of theheroic age in Norway and Iceland,that is, during the late twelfth andthirteenth centuries; 2. by extension,any narrative about heroic figures oreventsSaid, Edward (1935–2003) importantcommentator on the culturalpolitics of the Middle East and theoriginator of the theory of orientalism,which claims that Westernrepresentations of Middle Easternpeoples and cultures have been constructedin accordance with Westernviews and are thus often inaccurateor misleadingsales house company that sellsadvertising space in the mediasales literature leaflets, brochures,and other printed information abouta product that can be used by salespeopleto promote itsalience meanings in a text that arerelevant to specific audiences, butnot to others. For example, theStar Trek series of television seriesand movies has great salience for“ trekkies” (fans) but not necessarilyfor others.last items259salutation displays cues,such as gestures and facialexpressions, which betray ifsomeone is inclined or notto enter into a conversationsample 1. representative groupof people chosen for research;2. music snippets taken from anexisting recording and used as a partof a new recording. Early rap is thebest-known pop music genre to usesamples from prerecorded material.sample survey statistical surveytargeting a specific group of individuals,aiming to collect information onparticular subjects, such as buyinghabits and program preferencesSapir-Whorf Linguistic RelativityHypothesis [also called WhorfianHypothesis] theory, associated primarilywith linguists Edward Sapirand Benjamin Lee Whorf, whichmaintains that the categories of a specificlanguage tend to condition theways in which its speakers thinksarcasm mocking or satirical language:for example, How slim youlook these days! (uttered to someonewho has put on weight)satellite [full form: communicationssatellite] earth-orbiting systemcapable of receiving a signal andrelaying it back to the ground. Satelliteshave played a significant role inthe development and use of communicationstechnologies since the1970s

satellite dishsatellite dish dish-shaped aerialcapable of receiving broadcast signalsvia satellitesatellite footprint surface areacovered by a satellite signalsatellite phone wireless phone thatconnects callers via satellitesatellite radio radio stations, suchas Sirius and XM, that broadcastvia satellite and usually operate on apay-per-service basissatellite television televisionbroadcasting received via satellitethat offers a large number of channelsto its subscribers. Millions ofhomes in many countries receivesignals from direct broadcastby satellite (DBS). Most DBSprogramming is provided by thesame services that supply programsto cable television.satire literary, dramatic, or cinematicwork that ridicules someone or something,for example, the TV sitcomThe Simpsons is considered a satireof American culture.saturation advertising strategy offlooding the various media outlets(print, television, etc.) with the sameads or ad campaign so as to garner abroad audienceSaussure, Ferdinand de (1857–1913) Swiss founder of modernlinguistics and semiotics, born in Geneva.As a student he wrote Mémoiresur le système primitif des voyellesdans les langues indo-européennes(Memoir on the Original VowelSystem in the Indo-European Languages,1879), on the vowel systemof Proto-Indo-European. Although henever published another book, afterhis death, two of his assistants compilednotes from his lectures into theseminal work Cours de linguistiquegénérale (1916; Course in GeneralLinguistics). The book became thebasis for both semiotic and linguistictheories and methods.scenario 1. plot summary of adramatic or literary work; 2. actualscreenplay for a moviescene 1. subdivision of a play, amovie, or other work; 2. particularsituation in a play, a movie, or otherwork (for example, a love scene); 3.motion picture or television episodeor sequence; 4. main picture or viewin a paintingscenery set or decorations providingthe background for a play, movie, orother workscenography art of making and/orusing sceneryschedule order of programs on abroadcasting system (channel, station)for a day, week, month, or year,devised in such a way as to reachtarget audiencesschedule evaluation assessment ofhow a particular media plan or strat-260

science fictionegy has performed with respect to itstarget audienceschema 1. any diagram that representssomething in outline form;2. pattern representing something inits essential featuresSchramm, Wilbur (1907–1987)leading researcher on the effects ofmass communications on people andsociety. His most famous work isProcess and Effects of Mass Communication(as editor, with DonaldF. Roberts, 1954). Schramm’s modelof communication expanded on thebull’s-eye model. Schramm brokedown the communication processinto four major components: a source(S) of the communication; a message(M); a channel (C) for transmittingit from one place to another; and areceiver (R) at whom the messageis aimed. It is also known as theSource-Message-Channel-Receiver(SMCR) model. Schramm alsorefined the notions of feedback andnoise, viewing the former as anymechanism between the source andthe receiver that regulates the flowof the communication, and the latteras any distortion or errors that areintroduced in an exchange. Schrammcompleted his model a little laterwith two other components: theencoder, which converts the messageinto a form that can be transmittedthrough an appropriate channel; and adecoder, which reverses the encodingprocess so that the message canbe received successfully. The SMCRhas been used extensively in mediastudies because of its simplicity andapplicability to all types of media.sci-fi [see science fiction]science fiction [abbreviated assci-fi] literary and cinematic genrein which the science of the future isportrayed as having impacts of variouskinds (psychological, social) onhuman beings. The predecessors ofthe genre are Lucian of Samosata’sTrue History (160 c.e.), in which hedescribes an imaginary trip to themoon; Utopia (1516), by ThomasMore, which depicts a futuristicworld; and Micromegas (1752) byFrench satirist Voltaire, in which hetells of visitors from other planets.As we understand the genre today,however, science fiction originateswith the novel Frankenstein (1818)by Mary Shelley. The first writerto specialize in the new genre wasJules Verne. His hugely popularworks include Journey to the Centerof the Earth (1864) and Around theWorld in Eighty Days (1873). H.G.Wells followed Verne with TimeMachine (1895), The Island of Dr.Moreau (1896), and The War of theWorlds (1898). Mass-distributionmagazines, called pulp fiction,also published many science fictionstories, including those of EdgarRice Burroughs, beginning in the1890s. (The first pulp fiction magazineis thought to be Frank Munsey’srevamped Argosy Magazine of1896.) In the twentieth century thepopularity of science fiction grewwith the publication of Brave New261

scoopWorld by Aldous Huxley in 1932and 1984 by George Orwell in 1949.In the 1950s and 1960s a New Wavesubgenre emerged, which focusedon the loss of human values in aworld of increasing technology. NewWave science fiction writers includeRobert Heinlein, Isaac Asimov, RayBradbury, Philip K. Dick, and UrsulaK. Le Guin. In the 1980s anothersubgenre, called cyberpunk, beganto focus on the dangers of computertechnologies; an example is Neuromancer(1984) by William Gibson.Numerous science fiction televisionshows have become part of popculture lore, including The TwilightZone, Lost in Space, Star Trek, andThe X-Files, among others.scoop story appearing initially inonly one newspaper, on only one radioor television news program, or ononly one blog. A scoop is, essentially,a story published by one media outletahead of the competition.scopophilia (from a Greek wordmeaning “pleasure of looking”) inFreudian psychology, the desirein people to see the unseeable. Infeminist theory it refers to the malegaze as it seeks pleasure in looking atwomen on the screen.score music composed expressly fora movie, play, or other workscrambler electronic device thatgarbles telecommunications or broadcastsignals, so that they can only beunscrambled by a special devicescreen 1. flat surface on which imagesare projected; 2. general termfor the film industry, known morespecifically as the silver screenscreen test audition for a film ortelevision role in which various actorsare asked to play the role brieflyin order to assess which one is bestsuited for itscreen violence general fear thatexposure of children to violence onthe screen (movie, television, videogame, Internet) will produce a negativeeffect. But research has rarelyfound any correlation between exposureto screen violence and negativeeffects such as a propensity tocommit violent acts. Media effectsmodels, on the other hand, have alwayssustained a correlation betweenthe two. But such models have beencriticized for:• focusing on the mass media ratherthan on the perpetrators of violencethemselves• viewing children as passive malleablecreatures, incapable of makingdistinctions between fantasy andreality• being motivated by political conservativeideologies• defining their study focus inadequately,often selecting mediasamples in order to verify biases inthe models themselves• portraying mass audiences asintellectually inferior and thusincapable of making up their ownminds262

secondary viewingscreenplay script and shooting directionsfor a moviescreenwriter [also called scriptwriter]person who writes thescreenplay for a moviescrewball comedy genre of comedy,originating in the cinema of the1930s, featuring the humorous adventuresof appealing characters andshowcasing a world of sophisticatedglamour and audacityscribes persons in the medieval era,mainly monks and nuns, who copiedmanuscripts so that they could bedistributed. Scribes made importantcontributions to the development ofthe modern book, separating wordswith spaces, using capital and smallletters, and establishing a system ofpunctuation to make reading easier.script written text of a play, screenplay,or broadcast, used in productionor performancescript doctor writer who is asked toimprove a script written by someoneelse, to make it conform to productionexpectationsscript theory language theorypositing that conversations are oftenstructured in a scriptlike manner,unfolding in terms of so-calledvocabulary frames that are adaptedby speakers to fit a situationsculpture a three-dimensional workof art, often executed by modelinga substance (clay, stone, etc.) into afigure. Sculpture has been found invirtually every culture throughouthistory. Early sculpture was primarilyrepresentational, but in the twentiethcentury sculpture became largelyabstract or conceptual in nature,often incorporating found objects andnontraditional materials. For example,Judy Chicago’s Dinner Party(1974–1979) integrates traditionalwomen’s crafts such as weaving andembroidery with ceramics on a largetriangular table, paying tribute to thekey role of women in social history.search directory Web site that organizeslinks to information sourcesalphabetically and thematicallysearch engine computer system thatallows users to enter key words orqueries in order to locate sites on theWorld Wide Web. Search enginesconsist of three components: a program(or programs), called a spider,crawler, or bot, which “crawls”through the Internet gathering information;a database, which stores thegathered information; and a searchtool, which users employ to searchthrough the database by typing inkeywords describing the informationdesired.season package or set of episodes ofa television program, scripted to forma coherent sequencesecondary viewing act of watchingtelevision while doing something else,such as reading or doing housework263

second-generationsecond-generation digital wirelesstechnology, as opposed to earliertechnologysecretive statement technique advertisingtechnique designed to createthe effect that a secret is being communicated,thus capturing people’sattention by stimulating curiosity:Don’t tell your friends about . . . ; Doyou know what she’s wearing?Section 315 section of the CommunicationsAct of 1934 that stipulatesthe “equal time” rule in electioncampaigns, whereby the broadcastmedia must make equal air timeavailable to all qualified candidates;if one candidate is accorded free airtime, opposing candidates must beaccorded equivalent free air timesecularism philosophy that is basedon indifference to, or rejection of,religion or religious ideas. One of themost famous of all early secularistswas the Florentine politician NiccolòMachiavelli, who argued in favorof separating the political sphere ofsociety from religion. His ideas werepursued further by English philosopherThomas Hobbes.secure server Internet server thatallows for encryption and is thereforeappropriate for e-commercesecure Web site Web site that encryptsmessages to prevent the unauthorizedretrieval of information thatwas utilized or exchanged betweenprevious visitors and the Web sitesegmentation 1. the division oftelevision schedules in terms of genreor channel; 2. division of audiencesaccording to demographics for advertisingpurposesseditious libel act of defaming apublic official or other individualin printselective attention tendency to avoidmessages, texts, and representationsthat conflict with our beliefs andvaluesselective exposure tendency of audiencesto view media products thatcorrespond to their preexisting beliefsand valuesselective perception refers to the initialreading of a media text and whatthe audience or individual gets fromthe informationselective retention tendency ofpeople to select from media textsonly those meanings that reinforcetheir preexisting beliefs and values.Anti-pornography individuals whowatch a TV debate on freedom ofexpression have been shown to takeaway from the debate only the viewsthat are consistent with their particularbeliefs; libertarian individuals,on the other hand, tend to take awayfrom it a sense of triumph by virtueof the fact that the debate occurred inthe first place (thus legitimizing thetopic). This view suggests that mediamay have limited impacts on mostindividuals, and that the communities264

senderin which they are reared have more ofan influence on their worldview thando the media.self-censorship act on the part ofjournalists to censor themselves becausethey are under pressure not toraise sensitive questions from eithergovernments or the institutions thatemploy themself-regulation practice of someindustries to set up their own regulatoryagenciessemantic code one of five codes(the others being action, enigma,referential, symbolic) used inthe interpretation of texts, wherebythe interpreter focuses on the meaningsconveyed by “human voice”and the semantic features of thetext itselfsemantic differential techniquedeveloped by C.E. Osgood, G.J.Suci, and P.H. Tannenbaum in TheMeasurement of Meaning (1957)for assessing the social and/oremotional meanings associatedwith certain words or concepts. Thetechnique consists of posing questionsabout things or concepts—Isit good or bad? Weak or strong?—to subjects, who respond by usingseven-point scales. The answers arethen analyzed statistically. Researchhas shown that people’s assessmentsform culture-specific patterns.In other words, meanings areconstrained by culture; for example,noise turns out to be a highly annoyingthing for the Japanese, whorate it typically at the ends of thescales, whereas it is a fairly neutralconcept for Americans, who rateit typically in the mid-range of thescales.semantics study of meaning in languagein all its dimensions, includingword meaning, phrase meaning,sentence meaning, utterance meaning,etc.semiology [term coined by Ferdinandde Saussure] the study ofsigns. Although still used, semioticshas become the more commonterm.semiosphere sphere of life governedby signs and their meanings,including words, texts, and codes(sign systems) that humans havecreated to understand the worldsemiotic power ability of an audienceto assign meanings to mediarepresentations, even if these werenot intendedsemiotics the study of signs andtheir uses in human life. Semioticshas become an important part ofmedia analysis, used especially todecode the meanings of ads, programs,and the like. The first definitionof sign as a physical symptomcame from Hippocrates.sender person or device who/whichinitiates and transmits a message265

sensationalismsensationalism lurid, superficialcoverage of news, events, celebrities,or public figures in any mediumsense [in contrast to reference] anyaccrued meaning that a word or texttakes on in cultural context. The referentis the object named, whereasthe sense is a mode of understandingit. So, the word cat has a mammalreferent, but it has various sensesattached to it that have accrued overtime (a pet, an animal with superstitiouseffects if its color is black, andso on).sense ratio according to MarshallMcLuhan, the degree to whicheach of the physical senses are usedin communication and in undertanding.The sense ratios are equallycalibrated at birth, but depending onculture, one or the other will becomedominant. In an oral culture, theauditory sense ratio dominates; inan alphabetic one, the visual senseratio dominates. Sense ratios are notpreclusive. The raising or loweringof the ratios depends on the type ofinformation being processed.sensitization as used in mediastudies, way or ways in which mediacoverage can influence audiencesto react to the events covered( sympathetically, empathically, etc.).An example of a television programdesigned to sensitize audiences is onethat deals with social issues such aspoverty or abuse, presenting themin a way that emphasizes “humansuffering.”sensorium as defined by MarshallMcLuhan, the environment in whichthe senses are stimulated. In mediastudies, it refers to the total sensoryexperience that is evoked by a text.sequel film, series, or novel thatcontinues a story started in a previousfilm, series, or novelsequelitis [colloquial] the tendencyof some authors and/or filmmakers towrite or produce a story in anticipationof producing sequelssequence section of a movie showinga single incident or set of relatedincidentsserial 1. novel, popular in the 1830sand 1840s, that was divided intoa number of consecutive episodesthat were published in installments;2. movie presented in a series ofepisodes over several days, weeks,or months. The first widely popularserial movie, called The Perils ofPauline (1914), was followed by TheHazards of Helen, which ran for 119episodes from 1914 to 1917. A serialepisode typically had a “cliff-hanger”ending, enticing viewers to anticipateits resolution in the subsequent episode.Serials remained popular withmovie audiences, especially children,well into the 1940s. A revival of theserial concept can be found in the1981 movie Raiders of the Lost Arkand its sequels.series popular form of broadcastdrama unfolding in episodes; for266

Shannon, Claudeexample, TV police dramas, privateeyeseries, Westerns, science-fictionseries, and series that follow the exploitsof lawyers, doctors, or familiesserver storage system that controlsnetwork services available on othercomputers. On the World Wide Web,for example, a server is a computerthat uses the HTTP protocol to sendWeb pages to someone’s computerwhen the user requests them. Essentially,servers are host centers run byuniversities, corporations, governmentagencies, and other organizations,all of which are connected tothe Internet.service area geographical area overwhich a broadcasting station cantransmit signalsservice provider company thatprovides people with access to theInternet, usually charging a regularfee. Service providers may also offerbrowsers, e-mail accounts, and apersonal Web page.set location (along with appropriatescenery) where a film or televisionshow is being shotset designer person responsible fordesigning scenery and props for amovie set, television program, orstage productionset top box [abbreviated as STB,also called converter] device thatprovides an interface between atelevision set and incoming signalsfrom cable providers, satellites, or theInternet. An STB can be a separatedevice from the television set or canbe built into it.sets in use [abbreviated as SIUs]number of television sets that aretuned into a particular broadcast duringa specific period of timesetting place and conditions in whicha narrative, play, or poem takes placeseventy-eights [also called 78 rpmrecords] previous record type madeof shellac that played sound on aturntable at 78 revolutions per minute(rpm). Seventy-eights were the onlykinds of records produced until the1950s, when technological advancesmade the production of other typespossible.sex symbol any celebrity who isknown primarily for his or her sexualityand attractive appearancesexism 1. practice of some mediaproducts of emphasizing purportedsexual differences in a stereotypicalfashion; 2. generally, any unequaltreatment of the sexessexploitation [blend of sex andexploitation] deliberate use of sexualmaterial or themes to make a product,such as an advertisement or a movie,commercially successfulShannon, Claude (1916–2001)American engineer who was a pioneerin communications, information267

Shannon and Weaver’s model of communicationscience, and artificial intelligence (abranch of computer science that aimsto design computer systems capableof processing information in a mannerthat resembles human cognition).During the 1950s and 1960s, Shannondeveloped early computers thatplayed chess against human opponents.Shannon and Weaver’s model ofcommunication one of the firstmodels of communication (1949)put forward by Claude Shannonand Warren Weaver, also known asthe bull’s-eye model. The modeldepicts information transfer betweentwo humans as a process dependenton probability factors, that is, onthe degree to which a message is tobe expected or not in a given situation.The model also introducedseveral key terms into the generalstudy of communication: channel,noise, redundancy, and feedback.The channel is the physical systemcarrying the transmitted signal.Noise refers to an interfering element(physical or psychological) inthe channel that distorts or partiallyeffaces a message. Redundancyfeatures are built into communicationsystems for counteracting noise.These allow for a message to bedecoded even if noise is present.Finally, feedback refers to the factthat senders have the capacity tomonitor the messages they transmitand to modify them to enhance theirdecodability.share [see share-of-audience]share-of-audience [abbreviated asshare] percentage of people who aretuned to a particular program at a giventime; for example, the number ofpeople watching television betweenthe hours of 8:00 p.m. to 11:00 p.m.shareware software that can bedownloaded from the Internet andused free of charge for a trial periodsheet music print publication ofmusical compositions. The publicationof nonreligious music in theUnited States started in the 1790s inNew York, Boston, Philadelphia, andBaltimore, where the major musicpublishers were located. These publishersproduced sheet music, mostlyfor solo voice with piano accompaniment,of popular melodies. Manyhistorians trace the origins of popculture to the rise of the sheet musicindustry, because it was among thefirst industries to make music availableto large audiences.shield law legislation that protects ajournalist from having to reveal his orher sources of information for a story.In the United States, shield laws areenacted at the state level; more than30 states have passed some form ofsuch legislation.shock jock any disc jockey or radiohost who uses vulgar language orexpresses extreme views, in order toprovoke, offend, or shock listenersshock site Web site designed toshock or offend viewers268

sidebarshooting actual filming of a movie;may also refer to television programsand to still photographyshopping channel television channeloffering items for sale, usually withseveral presenters who demonstrateand talk about them. Products can bepurchased by dialing a phone numberor visiting a Web site shown on thescreen.short film running for a shortperiod of time, usually 30 minutesor lessshort message service [abbreviatedas SMS] communications protocolfor text messages, sent in real timeamong computer or cellular phoneusersshort ordering network practice ofordering only a couple of episodes ofa new television seriesshort story short prose fiction. Earlyshort stories include such diverseworks as tales told in ancient Egypt,the fables of the Greek slave Aesop(sixth century b.c.e.), the stories ofOvid (43 b.c.e.–17 c.e.) and LuciusApuleius (second century c.e.), theIndian Panchatantra (fourth centuryc.e.), and many others. Such narrativesbecame popular in Europeafter Giovanni Boccaccio publishedthe Decameron (1348–1353). Themodern short story traces its roots tonineteenth-century writers such asEdgar Allan Poe and AntonChekhov.short subject [see short]shortfall signal gesture or facialexpression that conveys insincerity orsuggests some hidden emotionshort-wave radio radio that transmitswaves that have lengths shorterthan those of waves used in amplitudemodulation (AM) transmissions.Short waves carry frequency modulation(FM) radio broadcasts andtelevision signals.shoshkeles [also called floating ads]online advertising technique in whichanimated objects, such as a car, areprojected across the screenshot 1. actual piece of film; 2. singlephotographic exposure; 3. singlesequence of a movie or televisionprogram captured by a camera withoutinterruptionshow public performance of a mediatext (a play, a musical, a movie, aconcert)show business the entertainmentworld, including movies, radio, television,and recordsshow reel compilation of a moviedirector’s work, usually intended tobring out his or her particular skillsshowtime time when a performanceor show is scheduled to take placesidebar short accompanying piecefor a larger story, often with a human269

signinterest angle, usually separated fromthe main text in some waysign anything that stands for somethingother than itself in some capacity,such as a word standing for anobject, or a visual sign such as thecross standing for Christianity. Thephysical structure of a sign is calledthe signifier or representamen; the“something other than itself” for whichit stands is known as its referent, signified,or object. Its overall meaning iscalled signification or interpretation.signal emission or movement thatnaturally or conventionally triggersa reaction on the part of a receiverthe letter V, the sign for victory, thesymbol for peace, and so on.signifier physical structure of a sign.For example, the sounds t-r-e-e arenot perceived to be random physicalsounds, but sounds that are structuredto refer to something in particular. InFerdinand de Saussure’s originaltheory, the connection between thesignifier and the signified, onceestablished, is binary—that is, oneimplies the other. For example,the word tree is a word signifier inEnglish because it has a recognizablephonetic structure that generates amental concept of something else (anarboreal plant):signature in electronic communication,a piece of text that is pastedautomatically onto an e-mail ornewsgroup postingsignifiedsignifiertreesignature tune [also called themesong] musical theme used to introducea television program, radioshow, or serialsignificant symbolizer sign thatis used in communal settings; forexample, clapping the hands, alongwith other audience members, toindicate praisesignification 1. overall meaning oruse of a sign; 2. actual concept thatis evoked when a sign and a referentare linkedsignified what a sign refers to. Thesignified of the visual V-sign can be:Today, the signifier is interpretedmore broadly as any recurrent verbalor nonverbal structure that producesa mental image of something otherthan itself.silence not speaking, which conveyssomething in communicative settingssilent film early film made withoutsound. In most large theaters, silentfilms were accompanied by music,recorded or played separately, oftenprepared specifically for the film.Most silent films had subtitles. The1927 film The Jazz Singer broughtabout the end of the silent film era.Although the movie was silent for270

situation comedymuch of its length, the Americanentertainer Al Jolson sang and spokein four of its scenes. The film was notthe first talking motion picture, butit was the first to succeed at the boxoffice.silver screen movies or the cinemaindustry in generalsimile comparing ideas using thewords like or as: for example, Shesmells like a rose; He is as strong asan oxsimulacrum theory [adopted fromJean Baudrillard] view claimingthat the media simulate reality and inso doing impart the sense that theyare indistinguishable from reality. Ineffect, audiences end up not beingable to distinguish between realityand media simulations (called simulacra).simulation 1. process by which asign represents something by resemblanceor imitation: for example,the word drop simulates the audioproperties perceived when somethingfalls to the ground; 2. creation ofelectronic representations of objectsor ideas that respond to changing factorson a computersimulcast simultaneous broadcast ofa program by radio and television,or by any of these together with anInternet siteSirius Satellite Radio satellite payper-serviceradio system operatingin the United States and Canada,providing music, sports, news, entertainment,and other types of programming.Sirius was previously knownas CD Radio, changing its name in1999. It is distinguished from mostother radio systems by the fact thatit hires or involves celebrities in itsprogramming, making it highly attractiveto listeners. Web site: www.sirius.comsitcom [see situation comedy]situated audience view that audiencestend to perceive media representationsin terms of their own everydaysituationssituation analysis gathering andevaluation of information to identifythe target group and strategic directionof an advertising campaignsituation comedy [abbreviated assitcom] genre based on social situationswith which audiences can easilyidentify, broadcast on a recurring basis.The sitcom has proven to be themost durable and popular of Americanbroadcasting genres. It uses stockcharacters and recurring situations toexplore life in the home, the workplace,and other common locationsin a funny, often satirical way. I LoveLucy (1951–1957), which starredLucille Ball, was the first hit sitcom.The longest-running sitcom is TheSimpsons, an animated series createdby Matt Groening, an Americancartoonist. It originated in 1987 as ashort feature on the weekly Tracey271

siusUllman television show, premieringas a continuing series in 1990.SIUs [see sets in use]sketch comedy comedic skit with avaudeville structure, that is, withsegments consisting of singing,acrobatic acts, and other types ofperformanceskin flick colloquial name for pornographicmovieskit 1. short comic sketch; 2. comicwork that satirizes something orsomeoneskyscraper in netlingo, onlinebillboard placed down the side of aWeb pageslander any untrue or misleadingstatement that damages someone’sreputationslang 1. any language used bycertain groups (such as adolescents)for purposes of group identity; 2.informal speech in general. In thetwentieth century, the mass mediahave been instrumental in spreadingslang broadly. The Internet hasrecently brought a great deal of slangcreated and used by computer usersinto common usage: snail mail (lettersdelivered by the postal service),hacker (an expert computer programmeroften involved in illegal activities),flaming (a hostile response froma user), and spamming (unsolicitedmessages).slapstick comedy revolving aroundcrude practical jokes. The word istraced to a slapping device used invaudeville shows, made of two flatpieces of wood fastened at one end,and used for slapping onstage.sleeper effect response to a messagecontained in a media text that is notimmediately apparent, but whichsurfaces laterslogan catchy expression usedin advertising and publicity: forexample, I’m lovin’ it! (McDonald’sslogan); You’re in good handswith Allstate! Slogans help createa favorable image of a company,a brand product, a politician, or acause.slow motion method of filmingscenes or sequences so that theyappear slower than normal on thescreen, for a desired effectsmart card small plastic card thathas a built-in microprocessor to storeand process data and recordsSMCR model [abbreviation ofSource-Message-Channel-Receivermodel; see Schramm, Wilbur]SMS [see short message service]snail mail in netlingo, mail sentthrough the postal service, as distinctfrom e-mailsneak preview public screening of afilm before its general release272

soft-coresnob-appeal technique advertisingtechnique that aims to convinceconsumers that using a product willelevate their social statussoap opera serial drama genre,aimed originally at a female radioaudience. Soap operas began inthe early 1930s as 15-minute radioepisodes and continued on televisionfrom the early 1950s as 30-minuteand later hour-long episodes. Thegenre was named soap opera becausethe original sponsors were detergentcompanies. Soap operas typicallyrevolve around romance, infidelity,loyalty, and intrigue.social cognitive theory view thatpeople learn through observation.The theory has been used to supportmedia effects models.social constructivism [also calledsocial constructionism] 1. belief thatidentity is not inherent in an individualor group but, rather, is a resultof cultural, political, and historicalforces; 2. view that cultures constructrealities through signs and symbolsand thus that people come to view theworld through themsocial controls ideas, beliefs, values,and mores that people pick up fromthe societies in which they are rearedand that condition how they behaveand communicatesocial learning theory a theory thatattempts to explain how people learnthrough experience and through theexperience of others living in theirown social context. The theoryhas been applied to explain theways in which people read mediatexts.social responsibility model viewthat journalists should monitor whatthey are reporting to make sure that itis ethical, fair, principled, and just, sothat people can make wise decisionsregarding social and political issuessocialism political philosophy inwhich private property and income aredeemed to be subject to social control.The term was first used to describe thedoctrines of Charles Fourier and otherRomantic social theorists who sawspiritual and physical benefits emanatingfrom socialist communities.Marxists see socialism as a transitionalstage between capitalism andcommunism.sociometrics study of social relationsand power structures among themembers of small groupsSocrates (c. 470–399 b.c.e.) Greekphilosopher who believed that knowledgeis gained primarily through oraldiscussion. He emphasized reason inthe quest for knowledge.Socratic irony feigning ignorance ofsomething in order to make a pointmore forcefullysoft-core any representation that issexually suggestive or provocative,but not explicit273

soft newssoft news news reported in an informal,often chatty, stylesoft sell method of advertisingproducts and services that uses subtleforms of persuasion, rather thanblatant onessoftware detailed instructions usedto operate a computer for a specificpurpose. The term was coined around1960 to differentiate the programsthat run on the computer from theequipment, or hardware, that makesup the machine. Most early softwarewas developed to meet a specificneed. Often, it was included witha computer manufacturer’s hardware.Later, it was sold separately.Software is divided into a numberof categories: operating or systemsoftware, which allows the computerto operate commands; applicationsoftware, which allows people to usecomputers in specific ways; networksoftware, which links computers tothe Internet; and language software,which provides the tools for writingprograms.soliloquy monologue presenting aseries of reflections. Soliloquy allowsstage characters to confide in theaudience.something-for-nothing lure advertisingtechnique that offers a potentialbuyer a “something-for-nothing”deal: for example, Buy one and getthe second one free! Finish this sentenceand win a trip to the Caribbeanfor two!soul music style of popular musicemerging in the 1960s, sung and performedprimarily by African Americanmusicians such as James Brown,Ray Charles, Sam Cooke, and ArethaFranklin, having its roots in gospeland rhythm and bluessound bite short extract from an interviewor a speech used to support astatement or viewpoint in a broadcastor a print publicationsound card expansion card that canconvert analog sound (as from amicrophone or audio tape) to digitalform, or convert digitized audio signals(as from an audio file) to analogsignals that can be played ona computer’s speakerssound effects imitations of naturaland other kinds of sounds to accompanythe action and to suggest realismin a movie, play, or programsound image any sound that is perceivedor interpreted in the same wayas a picturesoundtrack 1. narrow band recordedon the side of the film image; 2. generalterm for the dialogue, music andsound effects in a film or videosource person, organization, book,or document that a journalist uses forinformation or evidencespaghetti Western film genre in thestyle of Hollywood Westerns, butactually filmed in Italy during the274

spin doctor1960s and 1970s. The most famousof all spaghetti Western directors wasSergio Leone, who won a wide audiencewith A Fistful of Dollars (1964),the first Italian-made spaghetti Western,starring Clint Eastwood, whoalso acted in Leone’s equally popularFor a Few Dollars More (1965) andThe Good, the Bad, and the Ugly(1966). These films initially receivedpoor critical reviews, but Leone waseventually recognized for his sense ofhistorical accuracy and his realisticuse of scenery.spam unsolicited e-mails sent to alarge number of electronic addressesspecial television program that is notpart of the normal schedulespecial effects artificial effectsintroduced into a movie or televisionshow. The earliest special effectswere created with special cameralenses. The growing use of computeranimation and imagery has madeit possible to create elaborate andhighly realistic effects. Some animatedmovies are now made solelywith computer animation, which hasmoved special effects artistry to anew level.spectacle any performance thathas enormous appeal because of its“extravaganza” style. The term wasused originally to describe the lavishproductions of circus performances.Typically, a spectacle unfolded as theband played, the ringmaster sang, andperformers in elaborate costumes andanimals paraded in front of the audience.The circus spectacle generallyended with a long mount, in whichsome elephants rested their front legson the backs of the elephants directlyin front of them.speech the use of language in faceto-faceconversations, in writing,etc. By extension, it is used in mediastudies to refer to any special kindof language (newspaper speech, Webspeech, etc.).speech act utterance intended to bringabout an actual physical act or desirefor some action; for example, Stop! Go!speech therapy [also called speechlanguagepathology] the science ofspeech disorders. Speech therapistswork with people whose speechinterferes with communication, callsattention to itself, and frustrates bothspeaker and listener.speech-recognition technologyhardware and software that enable acomputer to recognize spoken wordsand convert them into commands,thus eliminating the need to inputinformation manuallyspin the presentation of news or ideasaccording to a particular point ofview (usually political)spin doctor person working in publicrelations whose job is to put a spinon an item of news in order to protectsomeone’s public image or reputation(usually that of a politician)275

spiral of silencespiral of silence theory developedby Elizabeth Noelle-Neumann,which holds that people who haveviews that they think are not widelyheld (whether true or not) tend toacquiesce, while those who believethat their views are widespread tendto express them strongly, leadingto a spiral in which some views areexpressed and others are notsplash page Web page that is displayedto visitors before they reachthe home pagesplit run 1. printing of the same issueof a newspaper or magazine at separatetimes so that different ads maybe included in the different printings,allowing the effects of the ads to beassessed and compared; 2. specialversions of a given print publicationwith different content to suit specificdemographic and regional groupsspoiler print publication (newspaperor magazine) that is released at thesame time as a rival publication inorder to divert interest from itsponsor company that pays for radioor television programming by purchasingadvertising timesportscast radio or television broadcastof a sports event or of newsrelated to sportsspot announcements commercialor public service announcementsthat are placed on television or radioprogramsspread story or advertisement in aprint publication or on a Web page thatoccupies more than a column or pagespy genre literary and cinematicgenre that deals with espionage,mystery, or intrigue revolving aroundan intelligence agent or spy, who isthe hero of the narrative. The bestknownare the James Bond movies,originally cinematic adaptations ofnovels by British writer Ian Fleming,including Dr. No (1962), From Russiawith Love (1963), Goldfinger (1964),Thunderball (1965), and Casino Royale(1967), all featuring James Bond,the high-living secret agent 007, oneof the most successful characters oftwentieth-century cinema.spyware software that can secretlygain access to a computer user’s harddrive through an Internet connection,capable of extracting informationfrom the hard drive without the user’sknowledgestage 1. the theater or plays ingeneral; 2. actual appearance of aplay as created by lighting, scenery,costumes, and sound effectsstand-in any actor replacing anotheractor in a film or program, usuallywhen the action is dangerous andthe stand-in is trained specifically toparticipate in itstar [synonym for celebrity] personwho is in the public eye because ofhis or her achievements in cinema,sports, or some other field276

storystar system publicity strategy developedby Hollywood in its heyday,emphasizing movie stars, rather thanthe movies themselves, as a way toattract audiences to movie theaters.A movie starring John Wayne, forexample, would be promoted in sucha way to attract the many fans of thestar, rather than to focus attention onthe movie itself.station [full form: radio station]place from which a radio broadcastoriginates. There are two main typesof radio stations: commercial andpublic. The former are owned by privatecompanies, making profits fromadvertisements; the latter are fundedby the government. Some countriesalso have nonprofit stations, operatedmainly by educational institutions.Although the term station is oftenapplied to the place where televisionbroadcasting originates, the more accurateterm in this case is studio.station break interruption of a radioor television program, often to provideinformation on the program itselfor on the sponsor of the programstatus conferral gaining social statussimply by being portrayed in themediaSTB [see set top box]stereo [full form: stereophonic] anyelectronic audio playback system thatis capable of reproducing high- qualitysound that comes from various directions(usually through speakers)stereoscopy process of making photographsappear to have three dimensions,using a special camera withtwo lenses set a small distance apartstereotype biased assessment ofa person, group, or idea. The termis applied typically to describe theexpectations that people have ofothers according to their age, gender,physical appearance, ethnic group,race, or occupation. Stereotypes areoversimplified assessments applied asgeneralizations, constituting a formof biased prejudgment.still static photograph, usually of actorsor scenes in a motion picture forpublicity or documentary purposesstimulation model a model of mediaviolence, which claims that exposureto media violence can increase aggressivebehavior in viewersstimulus-response model a modeldescribing the relation between anadvertisement and the particulartype of audience reaction it tendsto receive. The model is based onthe school of psychology calledbehaviorism, which dominated thefield from 1913 to around 1970. Thestimulus-response model investigatedcomplex forms of behavior by measuringand analyzing the responses ofhuman subjects to various stimuli.story 1. fictional narrative shorterthan a novel; 2. general term used todescribe any news report or documentaryprogram277

storyboardstoryboard 1. blueprint for a filmsequence or TV commercial, which isdrawn to portray copy, dialogue, andaction, with caption notes regardingfilming, audio components, andscript; 2. in advertising, roughlydrawn version of a proposed advertisementstrategic marketing method thatassesses a specific market and thenprovides input on how to designadvertising for that marketstream of consciousness literarydevice in which the reader is exposedto the thoughts and feelings of a characteras they unfold. The term wascoined by William James in his bookThe Principles of Psychology (1890).Notable exponents of this genre areJames Joyce, William Faulkner, andVirginia Woolf.streaming in netlingo, broadcastingmaterial (audio, video) via Internetin real time. Streaming is madepossible by browsers with “player”software, which allows a user to playaudio or video files as they are beingdownloaded.stripping the showing of programsfive days a week that are either rerunsor programs made for syndicationstructuralism mode of inquiry basedon the notion that signs and texts begettheir meanings through oppositions.For example, left is understood inopposition to right, night to day, andso on. Structuralism originated withFerdinand de s aussure. Both linguisticsand semiotics are sometimescalled structuralist sciences.studio 1. place from which a televisionbroadcast originates; 2. commercialfilm production companystudio system the Hollywood studiosthat dominated film production fromthe 1930s to the 1950s, an era whenindependent filmmakers had fewopportunities to break into the moviemarket. The studios controlled allthose who worked for them by contract,including actors and directors.stunt double person who takes theplace of a screen actor in scenes thatinvolve danger or require specialphysical skillsstyle 1. patterned variation inlanguage, according to its socialfunctions; 2. the specialized use oflanguage in works of literature;3. type of clothing that is in fashion;4. particular mode of representingor performing something (adventurestyle, jazz style, Hitchcock style,Seinfeld style)subbrand secondary brand thatbuilds on the associations of amaster brandsubconscious [alternative ofunconscious] in psychology, mentalprocesses that occur without peoplebeing aware of them. These were firststudied scientifically by the Frenchneurologist Jean Martin Charcot in278

suggestionthe 1800s by means of hypnosis.Soon after, doctors realized thatmany mentally ill people, such asthose with hysteria, were influencedby unconscious thoughts and feelings.It was, however, SigmundFreud who developed the first theoryof the unconscious, which claimed,essentially, that unconscious thoughtsseek expression in various forms andmodes, such as in dreams and routineconversations.subculture any variation within aspecific form of culture, developedby a group in order to set itself apartfrom the larger society. Subculturesmay develop in ethnic groups, occupationalgroups, age groups (especiallyadolescents), and other groupswithin a larger culture. Subculturesdifferentiate themselves typicallythrough language (slang), clothing,musical preferences, and the like,providing members with a sense ofbeing a single collectivity.subject 1. topic or main theme of awork; 2. what a sentence or propositionis aboutsubliminal advertising techniquebased on hiding a meaning or form inan ad. The theory is that the unconsciousmind will pick up the image,which will create a need for the product.However, no evidence has everemerged to show the effectiveness ofsuch advertising.subordinate reading one of threesupposed readings or interpretationsapplied to a media text (the othertwo being dominant and radical),whereby the audience accepts, byand large, the meanings, values, andworldview built into the text by itsmakerssubplot plot that is subordinate tothe main plot of a work; for example,the subplot can be introduced to hidethe resolution (in a mystery story), toprovide comic relief (in a tragedy), orto shed light on the actions or personalityof a charactersubscription money paid to a mediaoutlet (newspaper, magazine, Website, satellite television service) to receiveits media products on a regularbasissubtext text (and its message)implicit within the main text; forexample, a mythic story embeddedinto an ad by means of suggestiveimages (snake figures, dark tones,etc.)subtitle 1. dialogue appearing betweenthe scenes of a silent motionpicture; 2. dialogue appearing as atranslation at the bottom of the screenin a motion picture or television showin a foreign languagesucceeder in advertising parlance,person who wants products that willenhance his or her quality of life orsocial positionsuggestion in advertising, process bywhich someone’s views are influ-279

Sundance Film Festivalenced by the message or subtext inan adSundance Film Festival annualmotion picture festival ofindependent filmmaking, foundedin 1976, giving awards in variouscategories, from best film to bestsound effects. Web site: www.festival.sundance.orgsuperego in psychoanalysis, one ofthe three basic constituents of humancharacter, the others being theego and the id. The superego controlsbehavior and develops throughparental and social conditioning.superhero fictional character whohas the characteristics of the ancientmythic heroes. For example, thecomic book figure of Superman,who was introduced in 1938 by ActionComics, and published separatelya little later in Superman ComicBooks, represents a fictional superhero,who, like the ancient heroes, isindestructible, morally upright, anddevoted to saving humanity fromitself. Moreover, like some mythicheroes, he has a “tragic flaw”: exposureto “kryptonite,” a substancethat is found on the planet where hewas born, renders him devoid of hisawesome powers. In mythology andlegend, a hero is an individual, oftenof divine ancestry, who is endowedwith great courage and strength, celebratedfor his or her bold exploits,and sent by the gods to Earth toplay a crucial role in human affairs.Heroes are character roles thatembody lofty human ideals for allto admire—truth, honesty, justice,fairness, moral strength, and so on.Modern-day audiences feel thisintuitively, as did the ancient Greekaudiences who watched stage performancesof Aeschylus’s PrometheusBound, Prometheus Unbound, andPrometheus the Fire-Bringer. Ratherthan being sent by the gods fromthe spiritual world to help humanity(something that would hardly beappropriate in a secular society), Supermancame to Earth instead froma planet in another galaxy; he leadsa “double life,” as superhero andas Clarke Kent, a “mild-mannered”reporter for a daily newspaper; he isadored by Lois Lane, a reporter forthe same newspaper who suspects(from time to time) that Clark Kentmay be Superman.superstation local independenttelevision station whose signalsare distributed nationally viasatellite to cable and othertelevision systemssuperstitial animated ad that popsup between Web page views on theInternetsupport advertising promotiondesigned to back up a campaign( political, social)surfing to go on the Internet insearch of various Web sites, for information,recreation, or someother motive280

synesthesiaSurrealism twentieth-centurymovement in literature and the artsfounded by André Breton in Parisin 1924, revolving around dreamimages and other fantastic imagery.Members of the movement includeMax Ernst, René Magritte, and SalvadorDalí.surround sound [also called ambisonics]recording and playbacksystem that uses three or more channelsor speakers in order to createthe effect of sound surrounding thelistenersurveillance society view thatpeople today can be easily trackeddown and spied upon because ofsophisticated satellite and othertechnologiessurvey study that measures attitudes,beliefs, and views by asking peopledirectly about them. Surveys areused often in audience studiesbecause they provide valuableinformation that can be assessedto identify trends, among otherthings.suspension of disbelief acceptanceof unlikely situations in a plot so thatthe story can be enjoyedswashbuckler story about a swordsmanor adventurer: for example, TheThree Musketeers (1844) by AlexandreDumas, pèresweeps survey of television ratingsused to determine advertising pricessymbol something that stands forsomething else in a conventionalway. A flag, for example, stands for acountry. White is a symbol of mourningfor Chinese people, while blackis the color of mourning in Westernsocieties. Almost anything can be asymbol. For example, the alphabetcharacter A can stand for the best(such as a grade in school) or themusical scale or key that has A as itskeynote.symbolic code one of the five codesused in the construction of mediatexts, based on the interpretation oftexts with high symbolic content andhow they generate meaning throughthe use of symbols. The othercodes are called action, enigma,referential, and semantic.synchrony use, meaning, and/orfunction of signs, codes, and texts ata specific point in time (usually thepresent)syndicated program televisionor radio program that is distributedin more than one market by anorganization other than anetworksynecdoche rhetorical techniquewhereby a part is used to representthe whole, or vice versa: forexample, Scotch tape for adhesives;the White House for the Americangovernmentsynergy strategy of actively forginglinkages between related areas of281

synesthesiaentertainment. For example, mergers,such as that of Time Warner withAOL, allow for content developedin one medium, say television, to bereused and recycled in other media(movies, Internet).synesthesia fusion of sensory reactionsto words and texts created byjuxtaposition: for example, hot pink(= feeling + sight); smooth melody(= touch + hearing)syntagm pattern resulting from acombination of elements; for example,in word construction, the order ofsounds is subject to rules of combination(pfing is not a legitimate word inEnglish because pf cannot be used atthe beginning of words)syntax 1. organization of wordsto form sentences; 2. study of howwords are combined to create largerstructures282

tabloid small formatnewspaper that is roughlyhalf the size of a standardnewspaper, usually containingsensational coverageof crime, scandal, gossip,violence, or news about celebrities.Tabloids also typically include luridphotographs, cartoons, and othergraphic features.last itemTof a movie that makes acommentary or capturesattentiontake 1. in filmic language,repetition of the sameshot because the previous one wasnot satisfactory; 2. single session inwhich a piece of music is recorded ina recording studiotabloid TV television news programthat is styled after newspapertabloidstachistoscope testing in advertisingresearch, the measurement of aperson’s recognition and perceptionof various elements within an ad byusing the different lighting and exposuretechniques of a tachistoscope,a device that projects an image at afraction of a secondtag 1. piece of data that can be usedto facilitate retrieval of text; 2. thehtml codes that create hypertexttag question a word or phrase addedto the end of a sentence or utterancethat is intended to seek confirmation,agreement, or some similar response,rather than information: for example,You like this a lot, don’t you? This isa good movie, isn’t it?tagline 1. slogan or phrase thatconveys the most important attributeor benefit that an advertiser wishes toconvey about a product (for example,Taco Bell’s Think outside the bun!);2. short phrase attached to the titletalk show genre of radio or televisionprogram in which people discussaspects of their lives or current issueswith a host. Late-night talk showsemphasize entertainment; others mayfocus on politics, controversial socialissues, or sensational topics. Sometalk shows allow listeners or viewersto take part in the program by telephoningthe station to ask questionsor give their opinions.talkie movie with a soundtrack. Theterm was coined in 1927 to characterizethe new technology that allowedsoundtracks to be integrated withpictures in films.talking head shot of a person ontelevision that focuses on his or herhead and shoulders as he or she isseen talkingtango sensual ballroom dance styleoriginating in Argentina, made popularin the United States by Vernonand Irene Castle, a famous ballroomdancing team. By 1915 it was beingdanced throughout Europe, becominga craze after Rudolph Valentino andhis partner featured the tango in the283

tap dancemotion picture Four Horsemen of theApocalypse (1921). The dance formcommunicates passion through alternatelong slow steps and short quickones, with sudden turns and sexuallysuggestive poses.tap dance a style of dance usingprecise rhythmical foot movementsand audible foot tapping. The form isderived from the traditional jigs andreels of Ireland and Scotland. It was apopular staple of nineteenth-centuryminstrel shows. By 1925 the dancehad become popular in variety showsand early musicals.tape plastic thin layer used forrecording and playing back sound.Tape recording was, until recently,widely used by the recording industryand in radio and television broadcasting.Though it still has many uses, itis being replaced by DVD and othertechnologies.target audience group at whom aspecific media product or advertisingstrategy is directed. Advertisersgather data on people (throughdiscussions, interviews, etc.) to findout all they can about them—forexample, age, class, gender, lifestylepreferences—and then use the informationto determine the best way toadvertise to them.target market group of individualswho are the intended audience ofan advertiser’s message and prospectivepurchasers of its products orservicest-commerce business conductedby means of interactive televisiontechnologyTCP/IP [see Transmission ControlProtocol/Internet Protocol]teaser 1. preview of a broadcast orpublication intended to elicit interest;2. advertisement that gives littleinformation about a product, thusmaking consumers curious to knowmoretechnical director member of afilm or television crew responsiblefor overseeing technical operations,such as camera equipment and soundequipmentTechnicolor process for makingmotion pictures in color, developedin the early 1900s, resulting in colorreproduction of high quality. The firstfull-length film made in Technicolorwas The Gulf Between, appearing intheaters in 1917. Many Technicolorfilms were made in the 1930s and1940s. Today, Technicolor has largelybeen replaced by simpler and lessexpensive color film processes.techno music [also called electronica]dance music that firstappeared in the 1980s and becameglobally popular in the 1990s, usingsynthesizer melodies with rapidelectronic rhythms. Techno wasadopted by the ravers, young peoplewho organized all-night dance partiesthat often featured the hallucinogenicdrug ecstasy.284

telegramtechnological determinism ideathat technology shapes the course ofhuman evolution. Many historians ofscience argue that technology has notonly become an essential conditionof advanced, industrial civilization,but also that the rate of technologicalchange has developed its ownmomentum. Innovations appear ata rate that increases geometrically,unhindered by geographical limitsor social systems. These innovationstend to transform traditional culturalsystems, frequently with unexpectedsocial consequences. Some socialcritics therefore define technologyas both a creative and a destructiveprocess.technophobia fear of technology.Technophobia is usually associatedwith fear of rapid innovationsin science, such as geneticengineering, Internet technology,and the like.telecast short for “television broadcast”telecommunications general termfor all electronic communicationsand transmission at a distance, overcables, wireless radio relay systems,or via satellite links. Modern telecommunicationsystems can transmitlarge volumes of information overlong distances.Telecommunications Act of 1996legislative act that opened up theUnited States telecommunicationsindustry to competition, leading atthe same time to a wave of mediaconsolidation. The act also requiresbroadcasters to add captions to anincreasing number of programs.Under the act, all programs must becaptioned in English by 2008 and inSpanish by 2012.telecommuting work performedat home by means of telecommunicationnetworks, rather than at aconventional place of work such asan officeteleculture concept suggesting thattelevision is a dominant influencein society, helping both mirror andshape cultural institutions, replacingbooks, families, and educatorsas primary influences in culturaltransmissionteledemocracy view that democracywill spread because of telecommunications,which help disseminateinformation freely across the globe,thus encouraging large groups ofpeople to make up their own mindsabout issues and thus develop a senseof democracyteledrama drama filmed expresslyfor television audiencestelefilm film made expressly fortelevision audiencestelegenic the quality of appearingattractive on televisiontelegram printed message sent bytelegraphy285

telegraphytelegraphy electrical system that cansend and receive electrical signalsover long-distance wires. The firstcommercial telegraph systems weredeveloped in Great Britain in the earlynineteenth century. In the 1840s theAmerican inventor Samuel F.B. Morsedeveloped a code that came to beadopted internationally. The code—known as the Morse Code—utilized“on” and “off” signals to representindividual letters of the alphabet.The telegrapher at one end of the linewould tap on an electrical key, andthe telegrapher at the other end woulddecode the tapping as it came in, writedown the message, and send it to therecipient by messenger. Telegraphcable was laid under the AtlanticOcean in 1858, and regular transatlanticservice began in 1866. It wasthe first interconnected global communicationssystem. Telegraphy wasgradually replaced by telex systemsin the early twentieth century. Thesegradually eliminated the need to usea code. Users could type in a message,and the identical message wouldappear at the recipient’s end, carriedover telegraph and telephone lines totelex machines anywhere in the world.As early as the 1930s these lines werealso used to transmit pictures, anevent that introduced Wirephoto servicein international communications.Today, telegraphy has been largelyabandoned, being replaced by e-mailand other digital technologies.telemarketing use of the telephoneas a medium to sell, promote, orsolicit goods and servicestelematics technology that allowsfor the exchange of computer datathrough a telephone linetelenovela melodramatic genreof soap opera popular in SouthAmericatelephone device designed for simultaneoustransmission and reception ofthe human voice. In 1876 the ScottishbornAmerican inventor AlexanderGraham Bell patented the firsttelephone. Bell believed his inventionwould be used to transmit musicalconcerts, lectures, and sermons. Butafter founding his own company, hequickly discovered that the appeal ofthe phone lay much more in allowingordinary people to talk to each other.So, in 1878 the Bell Telephone Companyestablished the first telephoneexchange—a switchboard connectingany member of a group of subscribersto any other member. By 1894,roughly 260,000 Bell telephones werein use in the United States, about onefor every 250 people. By the 1960sthe telephone had become an essentialservice. Near the end of thetwentieth century, the telephone wasused to provide access to the Internetby means of devices called modems(modulator-demodulators). Advancesin electronics have introduced a numberof “smart” features in telephonemanufacturing, such as automaticredialing, caller identification, callwaiting, and call forwarding.teleplay play written expressly fortelevision audiences286

test screeningteletext service providing televisionviewers with written text containingnews stories, stock market listings,and other kinds of informationtelethon lengthy television programproduced to collect money for a charityor causeteletype instrument that was usedfor much of the twentieth century totransmit and receive printed messagesvia telephone cables or radiorelay systems. Today teletype hasgiven way to e-mail and fax communications.televangelism evangelism carried outprimarily via television, featuring acharismatic preacher, a large audience,and emotional sermons, oftenaccompanied by healing eventstelevision [abbreviated as TV]broadcasting by means of electronicallytransmitted visual signals. In1884 engineer Paul Nipkow built ascanning disc that created televisionimages. In 1926 John Logie Baird,perfected Nipkow’s device, and in1931 Vladimir Zworykin built theprototype of the TV camera. Thefirst home television set was put ondisplay in Schenectady, New York,in 1928, by Ernst F.W. Alexanderson.By the late 1930s, televisionservice had begun in several Westerncountries. The Radio Corporation ofAmerica (RCA) showcased televisionsets at the 1939 New York World’sFair. Right after World War II,network broadcasting started in theUnited States. Television programsopened up Web sites in the 1990s tocomplement their mode of deliveringprogramming.television culture view that sincethe 1950s, the history of televisionhas become the history of Westernsociety. TV has showcased racialprotests, riots, and other significantsocial events, thus influencing socialchange. Some critics claim that withouttelevision, there would have beenno civil rights legislation, no VietnamWar protests, and diminished ordifferent public reactions to politicsafter Watergate. Moreover, many TVprograms have been pivotal in bringingabout a change in social mindsetand mirroring changes in mores.For example, in 1977 the miniseriesRoots was the first to deal forcefullywith the enduring problem of racism;in 1968 Star Trek featured the firstinterracial kiss in an episode titledPlato’s Stepchildren; in 1991 the firstscene of women kissing each otherwas aired on an episode of L.A. Law.With the advent of satellite technologies,television has also become asource of influence across the globe.test market smaller market that isthought to be representative of alarger one and on which an advertisingstrategy is tried out in order todetermine its effectiveness, beforeintroducing it to the larger markettest screening showing of a provisionalversion of a movie to assessan audience’s reaction to it287

testimonial techniquetestimonial technique advertisingmethod that incorporates statementsfrom famous people or satisfiedcustomers, who endorse a product.Under U.S. government regulations,endorsers must use the advertisedproduct if they claim they do so.text anything constructed to express,represent, or communicate something—speeches,poems, televisionprograms, scientific theories, musicalcompositions. Work on texts in recentyears has produced a convenienttypology. A paratext, for example, isdefined as the physical and conventionalcharacteristics associated withcertain kinds of texts; paratextualfeatures include such things as titles,headings, footnotes, dust jackets, andso on; an architext is the prototypefrom which other texts are derived(for example, the Iliad is the architexton which many stories are based); ametatext is a text that makes an explicitor implicit critical commentaryon another text; a hypotext is a textbased on another text that it alters insome way; a hypertext is a text withina main text that is linked to it in someway.text message short written messagesent from one mobile phone or deviceto anothertext theory any theory aiming toexplain how we create and interprettexts. The twentieth-century Americanphilosopher Susanne Langerclaimed that there were two waysin which we read texts, discursivelyand presentationally. Discursive textshave “detachment,” which simplymeans that their constituent elementscan be considered separately—forexample, one can focus on a digit ina number or on a single word in anovel, detaching it from its locationin the text, without impairing theoverall understanding of the text. Incontrast, the elements in presentationaltexts cannot be detached fromthem without impairing the overallmeaning—for example, one cannotdetach a note or phrase from amelody without destroying the senseof the melody. The relation betweenthe structure of a text and its interpretationhas become a primary areaof research within media studies. Especiallyinteresting is the “location”of a text’s meaning. Does it lie in theintentions of the makers of texts?And, consequently, is successfulinterpretation of the text on the partof the reader a straightforward matterof trying to determine the maker’sintentions? Or does the meaning ofthe text reside instead in the reader,regardless of the maker’s intentions?Both the nature of the text itself andthe author’s intentions constrain therange of interpretations. When agiven interpretation goes beyond thisrange, people tend to evaluate it aserroneous, extreme, far-fetched, orimplausible.textuality style and pattern of techniquesused to create textstheater 1. building or outdoor area fordramatic performances or other forms288

theater testingof entertainment; 2. dramatic or comedicliterature performed by actorsfor an audience. Scholars trace theorigin of theater to ancient ceremonialpractices. In ancient Greece the firstdramas revolved around myth and legend.The actors wore masks, a practicethat also had a ritualistic source.Comedy was developed in ancientGreece alongside tragedy for criticizingand satirizing both individualsand society in general. After the fallof the Roman Empire in 476 c.e., theChristian church discouraged comedyfor more than 500 years, promotinginstead a liturgical form of theaterbased on biblical stories. By the fifteenthcentury, the latter had evolvedinto the morality play, performed byprofessional actors, which dealt withreligious themes. Interest in comedictheater was revived by the movementknown as the commedia dell’arte.Commedia actors developed comicroutines, called iazzi, which theycould execute on demand, especiallywhen it was felt that a sudden laughwas needed. For instance, a performermight pretend to trip and tumble into apail of water during the exit sequence.Many of the routines and ideas of thecommedia live on in contemporaryforms such as vaudeville, burlesque,and even television sitcoms. By themid-sixteenth century, a new, dynamicsecular theater had developed. Themost important concept in its designwas verisimilitude—the appearanceof truth. Characters were commonindividuals. The plays had a singleplot, which took place within a 24-hour period, and occurred only in onelocale. In the Romantic nineteenthcentury, theater took another turn,concentrating on a search for the spiritualnature of humankind. One of thebest examples of Romantic drama isFaust (Part I, 1808; Part II, 1832), bythe German playwright Johann Wolfgangvon Goethe. Based on the classiclegend of a man who sells his soulto the devil, the play depicts humankind’sattempt to master knowledgeand power. As plays attracted largerand larger audiences, playwrightsbecame more and more involved inwriting about everyday life, focusingon psychological realism and socialproblems. This new realistic trend intheater led to the notion of the directoras the one who interprets the text, determinesacting style, suggests sceneryand costumes, and gives the productionits overall quality—a traditionthat continues on to this day. By thefirst decades of the twentieth century,a reaction against realism eruptedin the world of theater. Parallelingcontemporaneous radical visual artand musical movements, a movementknown as absurdist theater emerged.The emphasis of this new form oftheater was on the absurdity of thehuman condition. The subtext in allabsurdist drama is that of humanity aslost in an unknown and unknowableworld, where all human actions aresenseless. Absurdism reached its peakin the 1950s, but continues to influencedrama to this day.theater testing in advertising, amethod used to test viewer responsesto an ad in a theater-like setting289

third generationthird generation latest version oftelecommunications devices or systems(such as mobile phones)third person effect personal beliefthat one is not influenced by mediamessages, but that others arethirty-threes [full form: 33 1/3 rpmrecord, also called LP for long playingrecord] vinyl record popular inthe 1950s through 1970s that allowedrecorded sound to run for many moreminutes than seventy-eightsthree-dimensional [abbreviated as3-D] any medium or text (such as amovie or a computer game) that createsthe illusion of experiencing it inthree-dimensional spacethriller genre of novel or moviedesigned to hold audience interest bythe use of intrigue, adventure, and/orsuspensetie-in product that accompanies andhelps publicize a major film release,such as, for example, a novel basedon the movie scripttime-lapse photography techniqueof shooting something so that, whenprojected, a slow action (such asthe opening of a flower bud) can beshown in a sped-up fashionTin Pan Alley name given to West28th Street between Broadway andSixth Avenue in Manhattan where,from the 1880s to the 1950s, mostpopular music was composed, oftenby anonymous composers workingfor low wages. Tin Pan Alley songswere important elements in thesheet-music and popular-recordingindustries of the day, as well as inradio, vaudeville, and film. Tin PanAlley is most closely associated withpopular ballads, show tunes, and lovesongs. Notable Tin Pan Alley composersinclude Irving Berlin, HoagyCarmichael, Dorothy Fields, JohnnyMercer, Cole Porter, Richard Rodgers,and Jerome Kern.title 1. name given to a book, movie,or program, usually by its author; 2.heading, including credits, that appearsat the beginning and/or end of afilm or television programtitle role main part or leading role ina film, play, or television programtitle track song in a multi-songrecording whose name is used as thetitle of the recordingTiVo digital box attached to a televisionset allowing viewers to controlincoming broadcasts. The deviceautomatically records broadcastsaccording to the viewer’s preferencesand also allows viewers to controlprograms in the same manner thatthey can control videotapes (pause,rewind).Tomlinson, John (1949–) wellknowncritic of globalization and theevolution of media in new technologicalforms. Among his best-knownworks are Media and Modernity290

tracking study(1995) and Globalization and Culture(1999).tonality 1. organization of musicaround a tone; 2. in painting, therelationship and effect of the colorsand/or shades of light and darktone 1. in music, sound made by thevibration of a musical instrument orof the human voice; 2. in language,variation in the pitch of the voicewhile speaking, usually signalinga meaning difference; for example,in Mandarin Chinese the word manmay mean either “trick” or “slow,”depending on its pitch; 3. in painting,any variation in color or shades oflight and darkTop 10 the best 10 in any pop culturesector: “top 10 records,” “top 10singers,” etc.Top 40 radio format that plays themost popular single recordings—thetop 40 on record sales charts. Thiswas a dominant radio format fromthe 1950s to the 1970s, uniting musicaltastes across audiences, promotingmainly rock and roll. By the1980s, audiences became highlyfragmented, leading to a reduction inthe importance of Top 40 radio in thepromotion of recordings.Toronto International Film Festivalprestigious film festival, foundedin 1976, held annually in Torontoin September. Many consider it tobe second only to the Cannes filmfestival in importance.total audience package advertisingstrategy of scheduling advertisementsacross time segments on radio andtelevision, so as to reach a wide rangeof listeners or viewerstotemism belief in an animal, plant,or natural object as the emblem ofa clan or family, often revered as itsfounder, ancestor, or guardiantouch mode of communication withthe hands. In most cultures, a basicform of greeting involves handshaking,which may have started as away to show that neither personwas holding a weapon. Other formsinclude patting someone on the arm,shoulder, or back to indicate agreementor to compliment; linking armsto indicate companionship; puttingone’s arm around the shoulder toindicate friendship or intimacy; holdinghands with family members or alover to express intimacy; hugging toconvey happiness at seeing a friendor a family member; and so on.touchscreen a computer screen thatresponds to touch so that it can be operatedwithout a keyboard or mousetown meeting on television, a programin which people from a regionor walk of life debate a certain issuemoderated by a hosttrack [see soundtrack]tracking study type of research studythat follows the same group of subjectsover an extended period of time291

trade advertisingtrade advertising promotions thatare directed at dealers and professionalsthrough appropriate tradepublications and mediatrademark legally protected sign(name, design, picture, sound) thatdistinguishes the products of onecompany from those of another. Mosttrademarks appear on the product,on its container, or in advertisementsfor it.traditional transmission passing oninformation by means of languagefrom one generation to anothertraffic in netlingo, number of visitorsto a Web sitetragedy [see theater] traditionaltheater genre, dating to ancientGreece, typically with an unhappy ordisastrous ending brought on by fateor a flaw in the main charactertragicomedy genre combining elementsof tragedy and comedy. Thethird-century b.c.e. Roman playwrightPlautus coined the word todenote a play in which gods and mortalsor masters and slaves reversedtheir traditional roles. Today, the termsuggests a text in which laughteris seen as the only response left tocharacters faced with an empty orproblematic life.trailer [also called preview] brieffilm showing snatches from an upcomingmotion picture so as to enticepeople to see the movietransaction journalism in cyberadvertising,the direct linkage of editorialcontent to salestransactional analysis study of themotives behind the discourse usedduring interpersonal communicationtransborder data flow transmissionof information across nationalborders so that it can be received,stored, or used outside the originatingjurisdictiontranscription recording of a broadcastor other event to be shown orreviewed at a later timetransformational appeal advertisingtechnique designed to link the productto meaningful emotional experiences(love, understanding, etc.)transgressivity in feminist theory,defiance of social norms. This notionhas been used to explain the powerof such forms of representation aspornography and cross-dressing.transient advertisement promotionthat is placed in specific locales,such as in movie theaters before thefeature is showntransistor small device that canamplify, control, and generate electricalsignals, invented by Bell Labs in1947, displacing the vacuum tube.Single transistors were supersededin the 1960s by integrated circuits.Today, transistors have differentfunctions in every type of electronicequipment.292

two-step flow theorytransmission sending messages to areceiverTransmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol [abbreviated asTCP/IP] set of rules that define howcomputers on the Internet (and onother computer networks) transmitand exchange informationtransmissional perspective viewthat media transmit information forthe purpose of controlling culturaland social trendstransparency realistic mode ofconstructing media representations,making their construction undetectableto readers or viewerstrial by media term used figurativelyin reference to the belief that mediacoverage often provides and/or influencesjudgments about a public figureby creating a widespread perceptionof guilt regardless of any verdict inan actual trial.tribalism 1. early form of humangroup life marked by individual allegianceto and identification witha tribe; 2. in the contemporary era,loyalty shown by individuals tospecific groups (teen tribalism, gangtribalism)trope figure of speech. Since the1980s the term metaphor has beenused increasingly in place of trope.tune 1. a melody; 2. a catchy popularsongtunesmith composer of popular songsturnover number of times somethingis sold during a particular periodturntable [also called record playeror phonograph] instrument thatrotates a phonograph record; a stylusis placed on the record and sound isreproduced through loudspeakers.Turntables were largely replaced bycassette tape recorders and compactdisc systems in the 1980s.TV [see television]TV newsmagazine television newsprogram format, pioneered by CBS’s60 Minutes in the 1960s, that featuresinterviews and investigative reporting,with a general focus on controversialissuesTwentieth Century Fox major Hollywoodfilm studio founded in 1935,known especially for its blockbusterfilms, including the Star Wars anthologyof films. Web site: www.foxmovies.comtwo-step flow theory model of themass media claiming that mediaproducts are shaped and modified byinteractions with social groups, especiallyopinion leaders. The theory assertsthat media impacts are indirectand are mediated by opinion leadersand thus that audiences tend to viewmedia products as interpretive communities.The name of the theoryderives from the fact that its primaryproponents, Paul Lazarsfeld and293

typification schemesElihu Kat z, viewed the reception ofa mass media message as a two-stepflow, in contrast to the hypodermicneedle theory, which saw it as aone-step flow that reaches an audiencedirectly. In two-step flow theory,the first step is through an opinionleader(s) of a group, who takes inmedia content, interprets it, and thenpasses it on to group members, whohave less frequent contact with themedia.typification schemes in culturaltheory, meanings that people assigntypically to certain texts, which, inturn, are incorporated by media andadvertising to bring about a preferredreadingtypography art, practice, or processof printing with type. Typographyoriginated after the invention ofmovable type in the mid-fifteenthcentury.294

UHF [see ultrahighfrequency]ultrahigh frequency[ abbreviated as UHF] typeof short radio wave widelyused in television broadcasting. UHFwaves also are used in aircraft andship navigation, in emergency communicationssystems, and cellulartelephone networks.umbrella advertising promotion ofan organization rather than of a singleproductunbalanced flow the unequal flow ofnews reportage between countriesuncensored any publication, movie,or program that has been released orbroadcast without prior censorshipunconscious [see subconscious]uncut [see uncensored]underground a movement or groupthat has separated itself from theprevailing social environment, oftenexerting a subversive or transgressiveinfluence on that environmentunderground press any publishingorganization that is antiestablishmentand thus likely toattract controversy and/or censorship.The term surfaced in the 1960s.last itemUcontains three elements:the type of protocol used toaccess the file (for example,HTTP for a Web page), thedomain name of the serverwhere the file resides, and,optionally, the pathname to the file(description of the file’s location).For example, the URL www. utoronto.ca/libraries instructs thebrowser to use the HTTP protocol, goto the www.utoronto.ca Web server,and access the file named libraries.United Press International[ abbreviated as UPI] internationalnews agency founded in 1907, providingnews in English, Spanish, andArabic. Web site: www.upi.comUniversal Copyright Conventionagreement among the member statesof UNESCO, first adopted in 1952,revised in 1971, “to provide for theadequate and effective protectionof the rights of authors and othercopyright proprietors in literary,scientific and artistic works, includingwritings, musical, dramatic andcinematographic works, and paintings,engravings and sculpture.” Website: www.unesco.org/culture/laws/copyrightUniversal Pictures major Hollywoodfilm studio, founded in 1912, producingblockbuster movies such asSpartacus (1960) and E.T. (1982)uniform resource locator [abbreviatedas URL] Internet address ofa resource or service. The addressunmetered Internet service that isavailable at a flat rate, rather than byconnection time295

upiUPI [see United Pressinternational]uploading [opposite of downloading]copying files from a computer toanother on the Interneturban legend story often thought tobe factual by those who circulate it,generally through the Internet, butwhich turns out to be not exactly asrecounted. It may be entirely untrueor, in some cases, partly true.Often, the events it describes maybe explained in different ways. Astory may be started by someone in achatroom, through e-mails, based onevents that the originator had actuallywitnessed. When it starts to circulateand is retold by different people,the story gathers momentum and alogic of its own, becoming an urbanlegend.urban music pop music genres thatappeal to an urban audience, includingrhythm and blues and hip-hop. Urbanis one of radio’s more popular formats.URL [see uniform resource locator]Ur-text original text that becomes atemplate for subsequent textsusage-based segmentation in advertising,classification of consumersaccording to how much they consumea certain productUsenet [abbreviation of Users Network;also called network news]internationally distributed bulletinboard system on the Internet. Usenetpredates the World Wide Web, constitutingthe original discussion forumcovering thousands of topics.uses and gratifications theory view,associated primarily with ElihuKat z in the 1970s, that audiences usethe mass media for their own purposes,especially to fulfill needs such asgaining information or being entertained.According to this theory, theaudience views the media in a selfconfirmatoryway. Thus, certain itemsin a representation are selected eitherbecause they provide entertainmentor because they satisfy some need.The theory maintains that media donot do things to people but rather thatpeople do things with media.utterance word or words (written orspoken) used in a specific social communicativesituation296

validity effect theory thatpeople tend to accept anidea, statement, or opinionas valid or true if it isrepeated enough times inthe mediaVALS [see values and lifestylesresearch]value 1. as defined by Ferdinand deSaussure, what something meansin practical terms; for example, thevalue of a letter such as A assignedto an essay in university is perceivedas different from that of a B; 2. incultural theory, any assumption thatsomething is important and crucial; 3.in the visual arts, the degree of lightnessor darkness of a hue or shadevalues and lifestyles research[abbreviated as VALS] advertisingresearch method based on groupingconsumers according to their valuesand lifestyles. VALS measures psychologicalfactors, such as how consumersfeel about products and howthey represent lifestyle aspirations.Van Dijk, Jan [see Dijk, JanA.G.M. van]vanity press a publisher that printsbooks for authors who pay all ormost of the costs of publication anddistributionvariety show live or televised showmade up of various kinds of performances:musical, comedic, acrobatic,magicallast itemV297vaudeville principal formof popular entertainment inNorth America before theadvent of cinema in the latenineteenth and early twentiethcenturies. Vaudevillewas also called burlesque, variety,or music hall. It consisted of a seriesof unrelated acts (singer, juggler,magician, dancer, dog act) presentedin a theater (the vaudeville house orvenue) to a paying audience. With theadvent of film, radio, and television,vaudeville effectively died as a formof entertainment, although its mainfeatures were incorporated into theHollywood musical and the radio ortelevision variety show.V-chip electronic chip in a televisionset that allows parents to block outprogramming with sexual and violentcontent. It is often assumed that the Vstands for “violence,” when in fact itstands for “viewer choice.”VCR [see video cassette recorder]vehicle specific channel or publicationfor carrying an advertisingmessage to a target audience. For example,in the medium of magazines,a vehicle would be Time magazine.Venice Film Festival annual filmfestival, founded in 1932, held inVenice every year in late August–early September; one of three majorEuropean film festivals (the other twoare the Cannes and Berlin festivals).Web site: www.labiennale.org/en/cinema

verbal communicationverbal communication exchange ofinformation by means of language.Among the various models of verbalcommunication, the model devisedby the linguist and semiotician RomanJakobson is one of the mostwidely used in media and communicationstudies. Jakobson positedsix constituents undergirding allinstances of verbal communication:an addresser who initiates a communication;a message that she or herecognizes must refer to somethingother than itself; an addressee who isthe intended receiver of the message;a context that permits the addresseeto recognize that the message is referringto something other than itself; amode of contact by which a messageis delivered (the physical channel)and the primary social and psychologicalconnections that exist or areestablished between the addresserand addressee; and a code providingthe signs and structural patternsfor constructing and decipheringmessages. Jakobson then pointedout that each of these constituentsdetermines a different communicativefunction: emotive is the influence ofthe addresser’s emotions, attitudes,and social status in the making ofthe message; conative is the effect—physical, psychological, social—thatthe message has or is expected tohave on the addressee; referentialis a message constructed to conveyinformation unambiguously; poeticis a message constructed to delivermeanings effectively, like poetry;phatic is a message designed toestablish social contact; metalingualis a message designed to refer to thecode being used.vernacular everyday form of language,in contrast to official, religious,or bureaucratic formsvertical integration acquisition ofthe different sectors involved in theproduction of media; for example,vertical integration occurs when asingle newspaper company acquiresthe printing company that producesits newspapers or the agency thatdistributes themvery high frequency [abbreviated asVHF] electromagnetic waves that theFederal Communications Commissionhas assigned to television andfrequency modulation (FM) radio stationsand to amateur radio operatorsVHF [see very high frequency]VHS most common type of videotapeused in home video recorders,being replaced by DVD and otheradvanced technologiesvicarious reinforcement in culturaltheory, the view that the observationof something in the media operates asif it were actual reinforcement. Thisframework is used to explain whyan individual does not expect actualrewards or punishments from observingsomething, but anticipates themto happen.video 1. general term for anythingrecorded on a visual device (a video-298

videodisctape, a DVD); 2. a videotape,DVD, or other image-carryingdevicevideo blog blog that uses videomaterial as its primary means ofcommunicationvideo cassette flat rectangular plasticbox that contains videotapevideo cassette recorder [abbreviatedas VCR] device that records andplays images and sound back on aTV set. The first commercial VCRswere marketed by Sony Corporationin 1969. The first commerciallysuccessful VCR for home use was theSony Betamax, launched in 1975. Itwas joined in the marketplace by theincompatible VHS format, launchedby JVC in 1976, which grew to dominatethe market. The heyday of theVCR was the 1980s. Its market sharehas dwindled in the face of competitionfrom digital recorders and theDVD player.video clip short video sequence, generallycreated to promote somethingsuch as a new songvideo conference conference inwhich participants are located in differentplaces but are linked by audioand video technologyvideo feed recorded video sent fromone location to anothervideo frequency frequency used tocarry television broadcast signalsvideo game [also called electronicgame] game played by an electronicdevice and displayed on a televisionscreen or other monitor. Mostvideo games are controlled by a tinycomputer. Video games deal with arange of subjects, such as war, space,adventure, horror, mystery, sports,playing cards, backgammon, chess,and so on. Some are educational,helping players learn to spell orcount. Overall, video games are nowseen to constitute texts within thelarger pop culture environment.video insert prerecorded film footageplayed at an appropriate point in aTV showvideo jockey person who plays videos,especially music videos, on televisionvideo nasty a video containingexplicitly violent or pornographicmaterialvideo news release [abbreviated asVNR] video segments released toaccompany a news storyvideo on demand [abbreviated asVOD] pay-per-view cable service,allowing viewers to instantly orderprogramming to be delivered digitallyto their television setsvideo vérité use of video to createdocumentaries of people and eventsvideodisc general term for a disc thatcontains both video and audio. It canbe played on a machine attached to299

videographya conventional television receiver.The most common type of videodisctoday is the DVD.videography making of movies or televisionprograms with video camerasvideophile someone who enjoyswatching video texts and makingvideo recordingsvideophone device that can transmitand receive audio and video, composedof a camera, receiver, and screenvideotape magnetic tape on whichaudio and video can be recorded andplayed backvideotext [also written as videotex]obsolete type of delivery of textualinformation via telephone networks.Videotext was used mainly by librariesto offer various services in homes.viewer person who watches televisionviewfinder 1. device on a camerashowing the area that will be includedin the photograph; 2. miniaturetelevision screen with a magnifyinglens mounted on a video camera,which allows the user to select ascene to record by viewing it throughthe eyepiece on the lensviewing act of watching television andthe psychological processes this entailsviewscreen screen on a digital camerashowing the image that has justbeen recordedvignette 1. brief scene from a movie;2. in the visual arts, a drawing withouta border that gradually fades atthe edgesvillain [opposite of hero] in a narrative,a character who represents the“bad” person whom the hero has todefeatviral advertising promotion thatattempts to capture consumers’ attentionby encouraging them to “pass iton” (like a virus) to othersviral marketing technique wherebycommunicative networks are usedto spread messages, such as affiliateprograms, co-branding, e-mails,word-of-mouth techniques, and so onvirtual community group of peoplewho interact on the Internet, forexample in chatrooms, because theyshare interests or businessvirtual reality [abbreviated as VR]technology that lets people engagein three-dimensional (3-D) environmentscreated by computers. VRdevices enable users to manipulatevirtual objects as if they were real.The user wears a head-mounteddisplay (HMD) with screens for eacheye.virus computer program designed tocopy itself into other programs, withthe intention of altering or damagingthem. The corrupted programsmay continue to operate according totheir intended functions while also300

vrexecuting the virus’s instructions,thus further propagating it. The virusmay transfer itself to other computersthrough storage devices, computernetworks, and online systems.Antivirus software is used to detectand remove viruses from a computer,but it must be updated frequently forprotection against new viruses.visual culture culture that gets alarge part of its information throughvisual electronic media such as televisionand the Internetvlog blog that incorporates a largeamount of visual materialVNR [see video news release]VOA [see Voice of America]vocable word constructed with noapparent meaning: for example,krunt, jintVOD [see video on demand]voice 1. sound made by human vocalcords; 2. characterization of the rightto express oneself as an individualor as part of a group: for example,women’s voices, the voices ofAfrican Americans, etc.Voice of America [abbreviated asVOA] U.S. government-fundedbroadcasting system, launched in1942, that provides radio, television,and Internet services, especiallynews, in over 40 languages. Web site:www.voanews.comvoicemail oral message left on aphone’s answering machine or recordingsystemvoiceover technique of using thevoice of an unseen speaker in filmsVoice-over-Internet-Protocol[ abbreviated as VoIP] technologythat allows voice messages to be sentvia the Internetvoice-pitch analysis advertisingtechnique in which a subject’s voiceis analyzed during his or her responses,in order to assess the subject’semotional reaction to an adVoIP [see Voice-over-Internet-Protocol]volumetrics study of the influenceof the relation between the overallnumber of people exposed to anadvertising campaign and the numberof those who buy the productvortal Web portal that enablese-commerce transactions amongvarious businessesvox pop the replies given to a reporter’squestions by people on thestreetvoyeurism obtaining gratificationfrom secretly viewing sexual acts.As a cinematic technique, it has beenused effectively in movies such asEyes Wide Shut (1999).VR [see virtual reality]301

W3 [see World Wide Web]W3C consortium of expertsin various areas seeking toguide the development ofthe World Wide Webfirst itemWnovel about interplanetaryinvasion, delivered in thestyle of an actual newsbroadcast, causing many tobelieve that the reportswere realwalk-on actor who has a small partin a play, movie, or programwalkie-talkie two-way radio enablingvoice communication overshort distances. Unlike many othertwo-way communication devices,a walkie-talkie cannot transmit andreceive signals at the same time.walled garden in netlingo, acontrolled-access area that attemptsto keep users within its confines; forexample, AOL is a walled garden inthat it attempts to provide users witheverything they may need within itsown servicesWAN [see wide area network]want ad classified advertisement ina newspaper, magazine, or Web siterequesting or offering something foracquisitionWAP [see Wireless ApplicationProtocol]war film cinematic genre dealingwith war, usually featuring a militaryhero; for example, the series ofRambo moviesWar of the Worlds radio broadcast1938 radio adaptation of H.G. Wells’sWarhol, Andy (1928–1987) Americanpop artist who is considered oneof the initiators of the postmodern erain the visual arts. Many of his worksdepict commonplace objects, such assoup cans, and include photographsof celebrities. In 1994 the AndyWarhol Museum was established inPittsburgh.Warner Brothers major Hollywoodfilm studio, founded in 1918, responsiblefor producing such highlypopular features as the Looney Tunescartoon series and the Superman andHarry Potter filmswatchdog individual or organizationon the lookout for unacceptable oroffensive practices by the mediaweather forecast radio or televisionbroadcast of weather conditionsweb [see World Wide Web]Web browser computer programallowing users to gain access to pageson the World Wide WebWeb hosting business providingserver space for storage on a Web siteWeb marketing online marketing302

webcastTypical Web pageWeb page a computer file displayedas a “page” on a computer screen,accessible through the World WideWeb by means of a Web browser.Web pages are multimedial, containingsome or all of text, graphics,files, sound, video, and hyperlinks.The first Web page, created by TimBerners-Lee, went online in 1991.Web phone service allows users tomake phone calls over the Internetwith other software usersWeb portal Web page on a particulartopic that provides links to otherWeb pagesWeb radio radio programmingdelivered to homes equipped with aspecial receiver via the InternetWeb site [also written as website]interconnected set of Web pagesWeb TV [full form: web television]high-definition television programmingdelivered to homes via the InternetWebby annual international awardmade by the International Academyof Digital Arts for an outstandingWeb sitewebcam digital camera connected tothe Internet, capable of transmittingimages livewebcast 1. video filmed with awebcam that can be viewed on theInternet or downloaded from the Internet;2. any broadcast on the WorldWide Web303

webcrawlerwebcrawler computer program thatallows users to search through Webpages for documents containing aspecific word, phrase, or sequence ofsymbolsweb-enabled any mobile phone orhandheld device capable of accessingthe World Wide Webwebform electronic document similarto a printed form that is used tocollect information from a visitor to aWeb sitewebhead frequent visitor of theWorld Wide Webwebisode episode, trailer, televisionprogram, or music video on a Web siteweblish form of English used online,characterized by abbreviated words,lack of appropriate punctuation, andvarious ungrammatical formsweblog [see blog]webmaster person responsible forcreating, organizing, and updating aWeb sitewebzine [full form: web magazine]magazine that publishes on the WorldWide WebWedom and Theydom characterizationof the tendency of some mediaof representing the world in termsof “us” and “them” in order to makea news report more forceful andattention-grabbingweekly newspaper or magazine publishedonce a weekWestern literary and cinematic genreset in the American West, during1850–1900, involving cowboys, featuringlawlessness and gun violence.Owen Wister’s The Virginian (1902)is regarded as the founding novel ofthe genre, whose popularity peakedin the middle decades of the twentiethcentury, declining thereafter.Movie versions of the Western playedan important role in establishing aplot formula—the conflict betweenoutlaws and the defenders of lawand order. One of the first importantmovies, The Great Train Robbery(1903), was a Western. From the1920s through the 1950s, hundreds ofWesterns made celebrities of cowboyactors Gene Autry, Tom Mix,Roy Rogers, Gary Cooper, and JohnWayne. In the 1990s some films portrayedcowboys in less heroic terms,as in Clint Eastwood’s Unforgiven(1992); the film Dances with Wolves(1990) revisited the role of NativeAmericans (called “Indians” in previousWesterns) in the history of theWest, restoring dignity to that role.Network television contributed to thepopularity of Westerns in the 1950sand 1960s with long-running seriessuch as Gunsmoke (1955–1975),Maverick (1957–1962), Have GunWill Travel (1957–1963), WagonTrain (1957–1965), and Bonanza(1959–1973).Western culture general designationof the cultures originating with304

Williams, Raymondpeople of European origin. The termis often used in opposition to orientalism,often understood as “anyculture” other than the Western oneon an “east-west” geographic plane.It is opposed to “southern cultures”on a “north-south” geographic plane.These are, however, artificial dichotomies,since they assume homogeneityin culture and inevitable oppositionamong cultures.Westerstähl and Johansson’s modelof news factors model devisedby Jorgen Westerstähl and FolkeJohansson in 1994, which claims thatproximity to the ideological mindsetof the country reporting a news itemand the perceived importance of thatcountry in an international contextare keys to how it is perceived inother countrieswhistleblower person who divulgesinformation to the media about asecret event, a scandal, or an issuethat is of interest to the publicwhite noise radio noise spread over awide range of frequenciesWhorf, Benjamin Lee (1897–1941)American linguist who kindledwidespread interest in the view thatlanguage affects worldviewwide area network [abbreviated asWAN] computer network coveringa broad geographical region or area,the largest being the Internetwidescreen 1. type of movie projectionwhereby the picture shown iswider than it is tall; 2. a television setwhose screen is larger than traditionalscreensWiener, Norbert (1894–1964) mathematicianwho pioneered cybernetics.His ideas contributed to the buildingof modern-day computers.Wi-Fi [see wireless fidelity]wiki name given to a Web site thatallows the visitors themselves to editand change its content, sometimeswithout the need for registration.The first software to be called a wikiwas WikiWikiWeb, so named by itsmaker Ward Cunningham, a computerprogrammer who took it from thename of a Hawaiian airport shuttle.Wikipedia the most popular ofthe Internet wikis, Wikipedia is amultilingual online free encyclopedialaunched on March 1, 2002.The name is a blend of the wordswiki and encyclopedia. It is writtencollaboratively by volunteers. Mostof its articles can be edited by almostanyone with access to the Web site,and for this reason there is controversyover Wikipedia’s accuracy, beingperceived as susceptible to vandalismand trendiness. Web site: www.wikipedia,orgWilliams, Raymond (1921–1988)British media critic who drew attentionto the various forms of cultureinvolved in a mediated society. Hedistinguished between residual,dominant and emerging cultural305

wipoforms: residual forms are those thathave historical significance and thusare still around; dominant forms arethose that have current salience; andemerging forms are those that arefomenting and that will soon becomedominant.WIPO [see World IntellectualProperty Organization]wire service news story sent by computerfrom a national or internationalnews agencyWireless Application Protocol [abbreviatedas WAP] protocol for transmittingdata between mobile phonesand other such deviceswireless fidelity [abbreviated asWi-Fi] marketing term for wirelessnetworking technologies based onthe Institute of Electrical and ElectronicsEngineers (IEEE) 802.11band 802.11a specifications. Wi-Finetworks are used to wirelessly connectcomputers to each other, or toconnect computers to the Internet orother networks, including Ethernetnetworks.wireless Internet capacity to accessthe Internet without having to connectto a phone linewireless local area network [abbreviatedas WLAN] local areanetwork that allows laptops with appropriatetechnology to connect withother computers without the need forcablesWLAN [see wireless local areanetwork]women’s liberation movementsocial movement seeking equalrights for women, dating back tothe Enlightenment. The firstimportant expression of the movementwas Mary Wollstonecraft’s AVindication of the Rights of Woman(1792). American women gainedthe right to vote in 1919, but theirparticipation in the larger socialsystem outside the home remainedlimited. Landmarks in the rise ofmodern feminism include Simonede Beauvoir’s The Second Sex(1949), Betty Friedan’s The FeminineMystique (1963), and the foundingof the National Organization forWomen (1966). Efforts in the 1970sto pass the Equal Rights Amendmentfailed, but its aims had been largelyachieved by other means by the endof the twentieth century.word magic belief that words evokemagical events or can cause thingsto happen by simply uttering them.Word magic is a common theme inliterature. A well-known example isthe “Open Sesame” phrase used byAli Baba in the Arabian Nights toopen the door of a cave. Another isabracadabra, which is made fromthe letters in an inverted pyramiddesign of an amulet that was popularseveral centuries ago. Each letterwas supposed to vanish until onlythe A remained. As the letters disappeared,so did the problems of itswearer.306

wwwword painting technique used inthe radio broadcast industry thatuses highly descriptive words duringdramatizations to evoke images inreading material as an attempt toplace the listener into the sceneWorld Intellectual Property Organization[abbreviated as WIPO]specialized agency of the UnitedNations, established in 1970, whichadministers and develops policy onintellectual property. Web site: www.wipo.org.World Wide Web [abbreviated asW3 or WWW] system of computerfiles linked together on the Internet,created in 1989 by Tim Berners-Lee and his colleagues at CERN(Conseil Européen pour la RechercheNucléaire), a nuclear physics laboratorynear Geneva in Switzerland. TheWeb provides access to a vast arrayof documents that are connected toeach other by means of hypertextor hyperlinks. Users may accessany page by typing in the appropriateaddress on a search engine.worm in Internet parlance, selfreplicatingcomputer programcapable of sending copies of itselfwithout any user intervention. Unlikea virus, it does not need to attachitself to an existing program. Wormsharm the network, whereas virusescorrupt files on a targeted computer.The name derives from a sciencefiction novel, The Shockwave Rider(1975), by John Brunner. John F.Shoch and John A. Hupp used theterm in a technical paper they publishedin 1982.writing 1. speech executed on somesurface with symbols and signs;2. literature in general.WWW [see World Wide Web]307

xerography copy-makingprocess that is the basis ofthe most widely used document-copyingmachines,or photocopiers. Xerographywas invented in the1930s by American physicist ChesterF. Carlson and was developed inthe 1940s and 1950s by the HaloidCorporation, later renamed Xerox.The first commercially successfulxerographic copier was introduced in1959.XM satellite radio founded in 1992as American Mobile Radio Corpo-first itemXration, a satellite servicein the United States andCanada providing pay-forserviceradio programming,with music, news, sports,talk, entertainment, andweather channels. Most of the channelsare available via the Internet.XM also offers music downloads.Web site: www.xmradio.comX-rated previous movie classification,replaced by NC-17, indicatingthat a film should not be viewed byanyone under the age of 17 becauseof its adult content308

Yahoo! American Internetservice providing a fullrange of Web services,founded by Jerry Yang andDavid Filo in 1994. It wasoriginally called “Jerry’sGuide to the World Wide Web,” butwas renamed “Yahoo!” The termwas derived from Jonathan Swift’sGulliver’s Travels, where it wasdefined as someone “rude, unsophisticated,uncouth.” Web site: www.yahoo.comyellow journalism use of lurid andsensationalized reporting to attractreaders and increase circulation.The term was coined in the 1890sto describe the rivalry between twoNew York papers, the World andthe Journal. Some of the techniquesused by the two newspapershave actually become permanentfeatures of journalistic presentation,including banner headlines,colored comics, and numerous illustrations.last itemYyouth culture variousforms of music, clothing,language, and generallifestyle that are adopted byyoung people. These formshave become powerfulforces in modern-day urban societywhere a dividing line between youthand adult forms of culture are nolonger clear-cut. Indeed, trends in theadolescent world quickly become thecultural norm, dictating look, taste inmusic, and fashion for many. Beforethe 1950s, there were few mediaoutlets aiming their products (movies,radio programs) at young audiences.By the mid-1950s, however,the courtship of such audiences bythe media and various entertainmentindustries (especially the music andmovie ones) began in earnest. Songsand movies became progressivelyjuvenilized in content. By the 1960s,youth culture came to constitute atrue community in the ethnographicsense, a self-contained system withinthe larger societal framework.309

zapping 1. flicking betweentelevision channelswith a remote control; 2. inpostmodern theory, the viewthat by offering so muchprogramming today, televisionhas led to zero consciousness,the art of watching nothingzeugma figure of speech in whicha single word, especially a verb oran adjective, is applied to two ormore nouns, even though its sense isactually appropriate to only one ofthem, or to both in different ways: forexample, The room was not light, buthis fingers werezine [abbreviation of magazine]self-published magazine, especiallyon the Internet, released at irregularintervals and, generally, with characteristiccontentZipf’s Law [also called Principleof Least Effort] principle definedin the 1930s by the Harvard linguistGeorge Kingsley Zipf, who foundthat many phenomena in languagecould be explained as the resultof an inborn tendency in the humanspecies to make the most of itscommunicative resources with theleast expenditure of effort (physical,cognitive, and social). This tendencywas independent of individual andculture. It explains, Zipf claimed,why speakers minimize articulatoryeffort by shortening the length ofwords and utterances. At the sametime, people want to be able tointerpret the meaning of words andfirst itemZ310utterances unambiguouslyand with least effort. Zipfdemonstrated that thereexists an intrinsic interdependencebetween thelength of a specific word(in number of sounds or letters) andits rank order in the language (itsposition in order of its frequency ofoccurrence in texts of all kinds). Thehigher the rank order of a word (themore frequent it is in actual usage),the more it tends to be “shorter”(made up with fewer phonemes). Forexample, articles (a, the), conjunctions(and, or), and other functionwords (to, it), which have a highrank order in English (and in anyother language for that matter), aretypically monosyllabic, consisting ofone to three phonemes. What is evenmore intriguing is that this “miniaturization”force does not stop at thelevel of function words, as Zipf andothers subsequently found. It can beseen to manifest itself, above all else,in the tendency for phrases that comeinto popular use to become abbreviated(FYO, UNESCO, Hi, Bye, ad,photo, Mr., Mrs., Dr., 24/7, etc.) orchanged into acronyms (aka, VCR,DNA, laser, GNP, IQ, VIP, etc.).It can also be seen in the creationof tables, technical and scientificnotation systems, indexes, footnotes,bibliographic traditions, and so onand so forth. In effect, the generalversion of Zipf’s Law proclaimsthat the more frequent or necessarya form for communicative purposes,the more likely it is to be rendered“compressed” or “economical” in

Zworykin, last item Vladimirphysical structure. And the reason forthis seems to be an inherent tendencyin the human species to expend theleast effort possible in representationand communication.zone culturally specific space thatpeople keep between themselveswhen interactingzombie in Internet parlance, anyworm transmitted from one infectedcomputer to another. Networks ofsuch computers are often referred toas botnets and are very commonlyused by spammers for sending junke-mail or to cloak their Web site’saddress. A botnet’s originator cancontrol zombie programs remotely.These have become a significant partof the Internet.zooming filmic technique of makingsomething appear larger or closer tothe camera than it iszoosemiotics study of communicationin animalsZworykin, Vladimir (1889–1982)Russian-born American electronicengineer who invented the iconoscope(a TV transmission tube)in 1923 and the kinescope (a TVreceiver) in 1924, which togetherconstituted the first true TV system311

chronologyChronologyThe following timelines include selected events that indicate only some of themajor “signposts” in the development of the major media.Books and Magazines2400 b.c.e. Papyrus made from plant reeds found along the Nile River isused for writing.350 c.e. The codex is produced by the Romans with parchment pagesbound together.600 Illuminated manuscripts featuring decorative designs on eachpage are created by scribes (primarily monks and nuns).700 Arab traders introduce paper to the West.1000 Movable clay typesetting invented in China.1234 Movable metal typesetting invented in Korea.1453 Johannes Gutenberg turns a wine press into a printing press thatuses movable type for the mass production of books.1455 The Gutenberg Bible is one of the first books published with thenew print technology.1602 The first lending library, the Bodlian is established.1640 The first book published in the American colonies, The BayPsalm Book, is printed in Boston.1731 One of the first magazines, The Gentleman’s Magazine, ispublished in England.1732 Poor Richard’s Almanack by Benjamin Franklin is published.1741 Colonial magazines appear in Boston and Philadelphia.1751 The first encyclopedia is produced by French scholars.313

chronology1790 First U.S. copyright law passed. Publishing houses startproliferating.1821 The Saturday Evening Post is launched, becoming the firstmagazine to appeal directly to women.1830 Sarah Josepha Hales becomes the first editor of Godey’s Lady’sBook, creating the first modern women’s magazine.1846 The rotary press is invented in the United States. Harper’sWeekly begins publication.1860s The dime novel (pulp fiction) becomes a mass culture device.1879 The Postal Act of 1879 lowers the postal rate for magazines,1880sallowing magazine distribution to thrive.Linotype and offset lithography lower the cost of bookproduction.1900 Magazine muckraking reporting becomes highly popular.1909 The Copyright Act of 1909 is passed.1922 Reader’s Digest is launched.1923 Time magazine, founded by Henry Luce, starts publication.1936 Life magazine starts publication.1939 Robert de Graaf introduces Pocket Books, America’s firstpaperbacks.1953 TV Guide is launched, indicating that various media were startingto converge.1954 Sports Illustrated begins publication.1960s Computer-based composition (typesetting) begins.1967 Rock and roll gets its own magazine with the launching ofRolling Stone.1969 The Saturday Evening Post succumbs to specialized competition.1971 Borders opens its first store in Ann Arbor. Chain bookstores andsuperstores start springing up across America shortly thereafter.1974 People magazine starts publication.1980s Desktop publishing gets under way.1995 Amazon.com is established, but it will only turn its first profit in2002.1998 The Digital Millennium Copyright Term Extension Act is passed.2000sNewspapersMicrosoft and Adobe start making online books (e-books)available. E-zines, e-toons, and other magazine genres also startproliferating in online versions.1600s1640sCorantos, the first newssheets, are published in northern Europe.Diurnals, the first daily newspapers, are published in England.314

chronology1644 English poet John Milton calls for freedom of speech in hispamphlet titled Areopagitica.1690 Boston printer Benjamin Harris publishes the first Americannewspaper, Publick Occurrences, Both Foreign and Domestick.1721 The New England Courant begins publication.1735 Freedom of the press is defended as a legitimate mode ofexpression after a jury rules in favor printer Peter John Zenger,who had criticized the government in print and who had beencharged with libel.1776 American Declaration of Independence disseminated throughoutthe nation by newspapers.1783 The first daily, the Pennsylvania Evening Post and DailyAdvertiser, published in America.1789 Freedom of the press is enshrined in the American Constitutionby enactment of the First Amendment.1790 The Copyright Act is passed.1798–1800 The Alien and Sedition Acts attempt to curtail press criticism ofthe government.1827 The first African American newspaper, Freedom’s Journal,makes its appearance.1828 The first Native American newspaper, The Cherokee, makes itsdebut.1833 The penny press era is ushered in after the New York Sun ispublished, costing only one cent and thus starting the trend ofmaking newspapers affordable.1848 Six newspapers form the Associated Press, relaying news storiesaround the country via telegraphy.1860 New York Morning reaches a circulation of 80,000, highlightingthe fact that newspapers have become an integral part of masscommunications.1878 Joseph Pulitzer starts the new journalism movement. Themovement had great appeal with afternoon editions, andfeaturing entertainment, crime and scandal, and devoted morespace to advertising and illustrations.1883 Pulitzer buys the New York World, ushering in the era of yellowjournalism.1895 William Randolph Hearst enters newspaper publishing withsensationalistic techniques, further promoting yellow journalism.1896 Adolph Ochs buys the New York Times, making achievement ofthe goals of responsible journalism its primary objective.1914 First Spanish-language paper in the United States, El Diario–La Prensa, is founded in New York.315

chronology1917 The Pulitzer Prize is established at Columbia University,rewarding achievement in journalism and other areas.1920s Newspaper chains spring up, marking a decline in the number ofdaily metropolitan newspapers.1930–1934 Hundreds of syndicated columns start up between 1930 and1934.1955 The Village Voice is launched as the first underground newspaperin Greenwich Village.1972 Watergate scandal stimulates a new era of investigativejournalism.1980 Ohio’s Columbus Dispatch is the first newspaper to go online.1982 USA Today is launched, the first paper modeled after television.1998 The Dallas Morning News is the first newspaper to break amajor story on its Web site instead of its front page. Increasinguse of the Internet leads to the development of blogs, discussiongroups, and the like, which take on many functions of traditionalnewspapers.2000s By 2003, thousands of newspapers offer some kind of onlinenews service.Advertising1625 The first true ad appears in an English newspaper.1735 Benjamin Franklin sells ad space in the Pennsylvania Gazette.1792 The first propaganda ministry is established in France.1804 The first classified ads in Colonial America run in the BostonNews-Letter, featuring land deals and ship cargoes.1830s The penny press becomes the first advertising-supported mediaoutlet.1841 The first ad agency is established in Boston by Volney Palmer torepresent newspaper publishers.1860s Advertising is incorporated into magazines.1869 The first true modern ad agency working for advertisers andcompanies is established by N.W. Ayer in Philadelphia.1871 P.T. Barnum establishes his Greatest Show on earth, creating awave of publicity stunts, posters, etc., which bring the advertisingage into being.1880s Brands (products with names) appear.1887 Ladies Home Journal is designed to be a medium for consumeradvertising.1914 The Federal Trade Commission is established to help monitoradvertising practices.316

chronology1920s Newspapers and magazines start depending heavily onadvertising revenues for their survival.1922 Newspaper columnist Walter Lippmann publishes a controversialbook, Public Opinion, in which he illustrates how slogans andother such devices shape public perception. The first radiocommercial is aired.1942 The systematic study of propaganda and advertising effects isbegun by the U.S. military.1950s–1960s 30-second and 60-second TV commercials become routine.1957 Vance Packard’s The Hidden Persuaders is published, warningpeople of the dangers of persuasive advertising.1971 Tobacco ads are banned from television.1984 Apple’s Macintosh commercial at halftime of the Super Bowlmid-1980schanges the nature of advertising.Brand placement and a general partnership between advertisingand pop culture solidifies.1994 Internet banner advertising begins.1995 The Internet advertising agency DoubleClick is founded.1998 Tobacco ads are banned from billboards.2000sThe Internet and the World Wide Web become increasinglyattractive as sites for advertising. New forms of advertising, suchas pop-ups, appear online.Radio and Sound Recording1877 The wax cylinder phonograph is invented by Thomas Edison,which allows for sound to be recorded and played back.1887–1888 Emile Berliner develops the gramophone, which can play themusic on mass-produced discs.1896 Guglielmo Marconi develops the first radio transmitter.1906–1907 Lee De Forest invents the vacuum tube, called the Audion tube,improving radio reception, and Reginald Fessenden makes thefirst radio broadcast from the Metropolitan Opera House in NewYork City.1910 Congress passes the Wireless Ship Act requiring ships to beequipped with wireless radio.1912 Congress passes the Radio Act, constituting the first piece ofgovernment regulation for licensing radio transmitters.1916 David Sarnoff, the commercial manager of American Marconi,writes his famous “Radio Box Memo,” in which he proposes tohis boss to make radio a “household utility.”1916–1920 Frank Conrad founds KDKA in Pittsburgh as the first317

chronologyexperimental radio station in 1916. The station’s broadcast ofthe 1920 presidential election results on November 2, 1920, isgenerally considered the beginning of professional broadcasting.1922 The first uses of radio for commercial purposes begin with theairing of the first advertisements by AT&T on station WEAF.This causes an uproar, as people challenge the right of the publicairwaves to be used for commercial messages.1926 The first radio broadcasting network, NBC, is created by RCA.AT&T abandons radio broadcasting.1927 Congress’s new Radio Act creates the Federal RadioCommission.1933 FM radio is developed.1934 Congress passes the Federal Communications Act, creatingthe Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and allowingcommercial interests to control the airwaves. AM stations areallocated.1938 Mercury Theater of the Air broadcasts War of the Worlds,demonstrating how quickly a mass medium can cause publicpanic.1941 Chain broadcasting rules are developed.1948 Radio starts to lose audiences to television. Magnetic audiotapeis developed by 3M. Wynonie Harris records Good Rockin’Tonight, the first true rock and roll song.1948 33 1/3 records are introduced by Columbia Records and 45-rpmrecords are introduced by RCA Victor. The DJ radio era takes off.1949 Red Hot ’n Blue becomes one of the first radio rock and rollshows.1955 Top 40 radio becomes the most popular type of radio format,indicating that radio is becoming more and more a marketingarm of the recording industry. Rock and roll enters the scene inthe mid-1950s, dominating pop music radio and the recordingindustry until the early 1990s.1956 Stereo recordings are introduced.1962 Cassette tapes are introduced.1960s Rock music is linked with social protest, spearheading thecounterculture movement.1967 The Beatles release Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band, the1970sfirst true concept album.FM radio stations gain popularity, transforming radio into a morespecialized medium.1971 National Public Radio starts broadcasting with All ThingsConsidered.318

chronology1979 Sony engineer Akio Morita invents the portable Walkman.1979–1980 Rap emerges out of hip-hop clubs in New York City.1981 Music Television (MTV) is born, becoming a new arm of therecording industry.1982 Compact discs are introduced. Rock fragments into many genres,from disco to punk, grunge, and techno. Rap and hip-hop startdominating pop music recordings until the early 2000s.1987 WFAN is launched as the first all-sports radio station.1990sTalk radio becomes popular. Old and new musical genres,from country to gospel and opera, become popular with targetaudiences, creating niche recording and radio markets.1996 Congress passes the Telecommunications Act of 1996, allowingfor consolidation in radio ownership across the United States.1997 DVDs make their debut, offering more storage space than CDsand making music videos popular.1998 Music download sites proliferate on the Internet.2000 MP3 technology shakes up the music industry, as Internet usersshare music files on Napster. Napster is eventually ordered tostop unauthorized file sharing.2000sSatellite and Web-based radio programs emerge in 2002. Filesharing,online radio programs, etc., become highly popular. Rapand hip-hop remain popular, but lose their market domination.2001 Peer-to-peer Internet services make music file sharing popular.2003 Apple Computer’s iTunes music store makes its debut, making itpossible to buy music on the Internet.Film and Video1877 Eadweard Muybridge captures motion on film for the first time.1888 Thomas Edison develops the first motion picture camera.1889 Hannibal Goodwin develops film technology that allows moviesto be created.1894 Thomas Edison opens up the first kinetoscope parlors with coinoperatedprojectors.1895 The Lumière brothers show the first short films in Paris.1896 Thomas Edison invents the Vitascope, which is capable of largescreenprojection.1903 Edwin S. Porter’s The Great Train Robbery, an early Western,gains popularity, indicating that the era of cinema is just aroundthe corner. The movie is the first violent film story.1907 Storefront movie parlors, called nickelodeons, with a five-centadmission, begin to flourish.319

chronology1910s Silent films become popular. The first movie celebrities emergein the late 1910s and early 1920s.1914 Movie palaces start opening up in New York City.1915 The first racist film, D.W. Griffith’s Birth of a Nation, is also the1920sfirst true feature film, gaining commercial success.The Big Five studios (Paramount, MGM, Warner Brothers, 20thCentury Fox, RKO) and the Little Three studios (Columbia,Universal, United Artists) are established in the late 1920s.1922 The American movie industry institutes voluntary censorship.1927 Soundtrack technology turns silent films into talkies. The firsttalkie is The Jazz Singer (1927) starring Al Jolson.1930s The era of the “golden age” of cinema.1946 Cinema becomes a major influence in society, as over 90 millionattend movies weekly.1947 The House Un-American Activities Committee starts holdinghearings on communism in Hollywood.1957 In Roth v. United States, the Supreme Court sets communitystandards as the criteria for defining obscenity.1968 Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) movie ratingsintroduced.1976 VCRs are introduced, creating a new movie rental and purchaseindustry.1977 Star Wars initiates a new era of big-budget blockbusters.1990sIndependent films become popular and successful, becoming alsoa source for identifying new talent.1995 The first megaplex movie theater is built in Dallas, leading to awave of megaplexes. Toy Story is the first completely computergeneratedmovie, starting a new trend in movie production.1997 DVDs come onto the scene in 1997, displacing videotapes.2000sTelevisionMovies integrate with the Internet, where trailers are shown andeven full features can be seen.Late 1800s The invention of the cathode ray tube makes televisiontechnology possible.1884 Paul Nipkow patents the electrical telescope in Germany, whichbecomes the basis for TV technology.1927 Philo T. Farnsworth (barely 21 years of age) transmits the firstTV picture electronically. Farnsworth applies for a TV patent.1935 Farnsworth conducts the first public demonstration of televisionin Philadelphia.320

chronology1936 First television service debuts in Britain.1939 NBC starts regular television broadcasts from New York City.1941 The FCC sets standards for television broadcasting.1948 Milton Berle and Ed Sullivan go on the air with the first TVvariety shows, ushering in the “golden age” of television. Thefirst community antenna television (CATV) is established.1950 The AC Nielsen Market Research Company starts trackingTV audience behaviors. The first swear words are heard on theArthur Godfrey Show.1950sTelevision becomes a dominant medium, with previous radiogenres and radio personalities moving to TV. Sitcoms like I LoveLucy (starting in 1951), the Today and Tonight Shows (1952),and later The Beverly Hillbillies (1964) establish the standardsfor TV broadcasting, bringing out the entertainment function oftelevision to the viewing public.1954 Color television technology is introduced, but does not becomea marketable technology until the 1970s. The U.S. Senate beginshearings on the purported effects of television violence onjuvenile delinquency.1960 The first satellite system, called Telstar, is established. TheKennedy-Nixon presidential debates reveal the power oftelevision to influence public opinion, as Kennedy, theunderdog, appeals to viewers as a young, handsome,dynamic candidate.1961 A second round of Senate hearings begins on television violence.The first exposure of a navel occurs on the Dr. Kildare series.1966 Prime time programs are broadcast in color.1967 Congress creates the Corporation for Public Broadcasting,leading to the establishment of public television.1968 60 Minutes starts broadcasting, showing the power of televisionto influence public opinion. The National Commission on theCauses of Violence concludes that TV violence encouragesviolent behavior. The first interracial kiss is seen on a Star Trekepisode.1971 All in the Family changes the character of sitcoms, introducingcontroversial social issues into the content of prime timeprogramming.1972 FCC makes cable available to cities. The U.S. Surgeon Generalreleases a research report on the relation between television andsocial behavior.1975 HBO (Home Box Office) begins broadcasting via satellite.VCRs are introduced. Under FCC pressure, broadcasters adopt a321

chronology“family hour” format to provide wholesome early evening familyprogramming.1976 Cable comes onto the scene, with Ted Turner’s WTBS in Atlanta,which uplinks to satellite technology, becoming the first true“superstation.”1977 The eight-part miniseries Roots sets new standards for televisionbroadcasting with its probe of the African American experience.The miniseries also shows the first bare female breasts ontelevision.1980sThe popularity of programs such as M*A*S*H (1983) and theCosby Show (1985) prompt some media critics to define thisdecade as the “era of the sitcom.”1980 CNN premieres as a 24-hour cable news network, ownedoriginally by Ted Turner, revolutionizing newscasting andtelevision formats.1981 Cable also brings MTV onto the scene in 1981.1987 Rupert Murdoch’s Fox television makes its debut.mid-1980s–1990s New channels and networks open up, such as UPN (UnitedParamount Network) and WB (Warner Brothers). Specialtycable channels emerge, from A&E and Discovery to the MovieChannel and the Disney Channel. Programs such as The X-Filesand other such series become staples of prime time, as theyco-opt themes in pop culture so as to appeal to a large audience.Quiz shows such as The Wheel of Fortune, Jeopardy, and WhoWants to Be a Millionaire rate highly as well.1990 The Children’s Television Act mandates children’s programming.1991 The first homosexual kiss on American television is seen on anepisode of L.A. Law.1994 The direct broadcast satellite (DBS) industry debuts.1996 The Telecommunications Act abolishes most TV ownershiprestrictions.1997 Parental advisories are mandated for TV programs.1998 The V-chip is introduced. HDTV broadcastings start.2000sNarrowcasting becomes a reality, with all the specialty channelsavailable along with network programming: TBS, Spike,ESPN, Discovery Channel, Weather Channel, A&E, TLC, USANetwork, etc. Television and the Internet merge to create a cobroadcastingsystem, whereby television channels and InternetWeb sites deliver the same or complementary content. Sitcomssuch as Everybody Loves Raymond (2000) and Will & Grace(2000) continue to be popular.322

chronology2002 The FCC rules to end antenna-based broadcasting by 2009,transforming the TV medium gradually into a digital one.2003 VOD (video on demand) is introduced.The Internet, World Wide Web, and Data Transmission1822 Charles Babbage develops a computer prototype.1830s The introduction of telegraphy constitutes a data networkforerunner.1866 Transoceanic telegraph service begins.1876 The telephone is introduced.1915 The first transcontinental phone call is made.1939 John Vincent Atanasoff of Iowa State University is credited withdesigning the first modern computer.1945 ENIAC, the first general-purpose computer, is invented byJ. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly, mainly for military purposes.1951 Eckert and Mauchly introduce UNIVAC as the first civiliancomputer.1962 The first communications satellite, the first digital phonenetworks, and the first pagers are introduced.1964 The first local area network (LAN) is put into service to supportnuclear weapons research.1965 A highly usable computer language, BASIC, is developed.1969 Arpanet is the first communication network established by theU.S. Department of Defense.1971 Microprocessors are developed, leading shortly thereafter to PCtechnology.1972 The first video game, Pong, is introduced. Urban cable is allowedto proliferate. E-mail is developed for communications onArpanet.1975 The first personal computer, Altair, is introduced.1977 First fiber optic network is created.1978 Cellular phone service begins. Nicholas Negroponte of MITintroduces the term convergence to describe the intersection of1980smedia.Fiber-optic cable is developed in the 1980s, making it possible totransmit digital messages. Hypertext is developed in the mid-1980s, leading eventually to the creation of the World Wide Web.1982 The National Science Foundation sponsors a high-speed communicationsnetwork, leading to the establishment of the Internet.1983 Arpanet starts using Transmission Control Protocol/InternetProtocol (TCP/IP), essentially launching the Internet.323

chronology1984 Apple Macintosh is the first PC with graphics.1989 Tim Berners-Lee develops concepts and techniques that afew years later are converted into the World Wide Web. Anew company called AOL (America Online) is formed, laterbecoming the first successful Internet service provider.1990 The first Internet search engine, Archie, is developed.1991 The Internet opens to commercial uses, HTML is developed, andthe World Wide Web is finally launched by Berners-Lee.1993 The first point-and-click Web browser, Mosaic, is introduced.1994 The first Internet cafés open. Jeff Bezos launches Amazon.com.1995 Digital cellular phones are introduced to the market. The firstonline auction house, eBay, is launched.1996 The Telecommunications Act and the Communications DecencyAct are passed. Google is launched.2000 Cookies technology allows for information profiles to be created,enabling data-mining practices to burgeon.2001 Instant messaging services appear.2002 Broadband technology is developed by South Korea.mid–late 2000sThe Internet converges with previous media (radio, television,etc.) to produce online versions of previous broadcasting. It alsobecomes a source of new forms of communication, with Websites such as MySpace and YouTube.324

ibliographyBibliographyGeneral WorksBaran, Stanley J. Introduction to Mass Communication, Media Literacy, and Culture. NewYork: McGraw-Hill, 2004.Berger, Arthur A. Manufacturing Desire: Media, Popular Culture, and Everyday Life. NewBrunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1996.————. Making Sense of Media: Key Texts in Media and Cultural Studies. Oxford:Blackwell, 2005.Biagi, Shirley. Media/Impact: An Introduction to Mass Media. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2001.Branston, Gill, and Roy Stafford. The Media Student’s Book. London: Routledge, 1999.Briggs, Asa, and Peter Burke. A Social History of the Media. London: Polity, 2002.Briggs, Asa, and Paul Cobley, eds. The Media: An Introduction. Essex: Addison WesleyLongman, 1998.Campbell, Richard, Christopher R. Martin, and Bettina G. Fabos. Media & Culture: AnIntroduction to Mass Communication. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2005.Carey, James W. Communication as Culture: Essays on Media and Society. Boston: UnwinHyman, 1989.Danesi, Marcel. Understanding Media Semiotics. London: Arnold, 2002.Dizard, Wilson P. Old Media, New Media. New York: Longman, 1997.Genosko, Gary. McLuhan and Baudrillard. London: Routledge, 1999.Hanson, Ralph E. Mass Communication: Living in a Media World. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005.Newbold, Chris, Oliver Boyd-Barrett, and Hilde Van Den Bulck, eds. The Media Book.London: Arnold, 2002.O’Sullivan, Tim, Brian Dutton, and Philip Rayner. Studying the Media. London: Arnold,2003.Straubhaar, Joseph, and Robert LaRose. Media Now: Communications Media in the InformationAge. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2002.325

ibliographyMedia EffectsBerger, Arthur A. Media and Communication Research Methods. London: Sage, 2000.Gunter, B. Media Research Methods. London: Sage, 2000.Liebert, Robert M., and Joyce N. Sprafkin. The Early Window: Effects of Television onChildren and Youth. New York: Pergamon, 1988.McQuail, Denis. Mass Communication Theory: An Introduction. London: Sage, 2000.Staiger, Janet. Media Reception Studies. New York: New York University Press, 2005.Van Zoonen, Liesbet. Feminist Media Studies. London: Sage, 1994.Print (Books, Newspapers, Magazines)Eisenstein, Elizabeth L. The Printing Press as an Agent of Change: Communications andCultural Transformations in Early-Modern Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress, 1979.Epstein, Jason. Book Business: Publishing Past, Present, and Future. New York: Norton,2001.GoughYates, Anna. Understanding Women’s Magazines. London: Routledge, 2003.Harris, Michael, and Tom O’Malley. Studies in Newspaper and Periodical History. Westport,CT: Greenwood Press, 1997.Innis, Harold A. Empire and Communication. Toronto: University of Toronto Press,1972.Janello, Amy, and Brennon Jones. The American Magazine. New York: Abrams, 1991.Winship, Janice. Inside Women’s Magazines. London: Pandora, 1987.Wright, Bradford W. Comic Book Nation. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,2000.Radio, Sound Recordings, TelevisionAbercrombie, Nicholas. Television and Society. Cambridge: Polity Press, 1996.Dovey, Jon. Freakshow: First Person Media and Factual Television. London: Pluto,2000.Fiske, John. Television Culture. London: Methuen, 1987.Holland, Patricia. The Television Handbook. London: Routledge, 2000.Kubey, Robert, and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. Television and the Quality of Life. Hillsdale,NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1990.McQueen, David. Television: A Media Student’s Guide. London: Arnold, 1998.Miller, Mark Crispin. Boxed In: The Culture of TV. Evanston, IL: Northwestern UniversityPress, 1988.Neer, Richard. FM: The Rise and Fall of Rock Radio. New York: Villard, 2001.Newcomb, H. Television: The Critical View. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.Film and VideoAbrams, Nathan, Ian Bell, and Jan Udris. Studying Film. London: Arnold, 2001.Balio, Tino. The American Film Industry. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press,1979.326

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Resources on the World Wide WebResources on the World Wide WebGeneralAction Coalition for Media Education: www.acmecoalition.orgBroadcasting & Cable News: www.broadcastingcable.comCorporation for Public Broadcasting: www.cpb.orgImages (Journal of Media Criticism): www.imagesjournal.comMedia Education Foundation: www.mediaed.orgMedia History Project: www.mediahistory.umn.eduNational Public Radio: www.npr.orgPaper Tiger TV: www.papertiger.orgPublic Radio Information: www.pri.orgWeb Journal of Mass Communication Research: www.scripps.ohiou.edu/wjmcc/AdvertisingAd Council: www.adcouncil.orgAd Forum: www.adforum.comAdbusters: www.adbusters.orgAdvertising Age: www.adage.com/datacenter.cmsAdvertising World: www.advertising.utexas.edu/worldAdweek: www.adweek.comAmerican Association of Advertising Agencies: www.aaaa.orgCannes International Advertising Festival: www.canneslions.comClio Awards: www.clioawards.comCultural AspectsAlt Culture: www.altculture.comCritical Communication Theory: www.theory.org.uk329

Resources on the World Wide WebMarshall McLuhan Studies: www.mcluhan.utoronto.caPop Culture: www.popcultures.comUrban Dictionary: www.urbandictionary.comFilm and VideoAcademy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences: www.oscars.orgCannes Film Festival: www.festival-cannes.frDreamWorks SKG: www.dreamworks.comHollywood Movies: www.hollywood.comInternet Movie Database: www.us.imdb.comMetro-Goldwyn-Mayer: www.mgm.comMotion Picture Association of America: www.mpaa.orgMovieweb: www.movieweb.comNew Line Cinema: www.newline.comSony Pictures: www.sonypictures.comSundance Film Festival: www.sundance.orgToronto International Film Festival: www.e.bell.ca/filmfestTouchstone Pictures: http://touchstone.movies.go.com20th Century Fox: www.foxmovies.comUniversal Studios: www.universalstudios.comWalt Disney Pictures: http://disney.go.com/disneypicturesWarner Bros.: www.warnerbros.comInternet and the World Wide WebCenter for Democracy and Technology: www.cdt.orgInternet2: www.internet2.eduInternet History: www.isoc/internet/history.orgInternet Information: www.netvalley.comInternet News: www.zdnet.comInternet Society: www.isoc.org/internet/Netlore: www.urbanlegends.about.comMedia Law, Watchdogs, Regulatory Agencies, and Media ExpressionCenter for Media and Democracy: www.prwatch.orgElectronic Frontier Foundation: www.eff.orgFederal Communications Commission: www.fcc.govFreedom Forum: www.freedomforum.orgMediawatch: www.mediawatch.orgWorld Intellectual Property Organization: www.wipo.intWorld Press Freedom Committee: www.wpfc.org330

Resources on the World Wide WebPrint Media, Press Organizations, and News AgenciesAll Headline News: www.allheadlinenews.comAssociated Press: www.ap.orgBookwire: www.bookwire.comE-Reads: www.ereads.comGutenberg Bible: www.gutenberg.de/english/bibel.htmInternational Federation of Journalists: www.ifj.orgMagazine Publishers of America: www.magazine.orgNew York Times: www.nytimes.comNewseum: www.newseum.orgOnline Newspaper: www.onlinenewspapers.comProject Gutenberg: www.gutenberg.netReporters Sans Frontières: www.rsg.orgReuters: www.reuters.comUnited Press International: www.upi.comUSA Today: www.usatoday.comWashington Post: www.washingtonpost.comWorld Association of Newspapers: www.wan-press.orgRadio and Sound RecordingsAll Music Guide: www.allmusic.comBillboard Magazine: www.billboard.comFreenet: www.freenetproject.orgInternet Radio: www.radio-locator.comRadio History: www.radiohistory.orgRecording Industry Association of America: www.riaa.comRock and Roll Hall of Fame: www.rockhall.comWeb Radio: www.radio-directory.comTelevisionABC: www.abc.comCBS: www.cbs.comClassic Television: www.classic-tv.comCNN: www.cnn.comFox: www.fox.comMTV: www.mtv.comNBC: www.nbc.comTiVo: www.tivo.comUltimate TV: www.ultimatetv.com331

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forewordAbout the AuthorMarcel Danesi is Professor of Semiotics and Anthropology at the Universityof Toronto. He has published extensively in the fields of media and popularculture. Among his recent publications are Brands (2006), Popular Culture: IntroductoryPerspectives (2007), and The Quest for Meaning: A Guide to SemioticTheory and Practice (2007). He is currently the editor-in-chief of Semiotica.He is also a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada.333