The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas Volume I, II, and III

592 Juan & Judith Villamarln
otherwise have had, as well as access to ritual services on the part of the
dominant community. Regional groupings permitted stronger defense
against enemies, more effective organization of trade, and specialization
in crafts and agricultural products. They involved tens of thousands of
people. At both the small and large regional bloc levels, multiple lineage
rights and obligations were managed in part through successive layers of
political hierarchy, creating larger, more diverse polities with emphasis,
although not exclusive dependence, on proactive alliance. Both the small
and the regional associations appear to have been integrated as whole
entities by the Zipa and Zaque.
Expansion beyond the regional level was carried on by outright military
conquest. It was by force that Bogota overpowered Guatavita and
others in the savannah and proclaimed himself Supreme Lord, Zipa.
Zipa Nemequene was in armed conflict with the Zaque just prior to the
European invasion, and he lost his life in that attempt. When the Spaniards
came, his successor, Zipa Tisquesusa, was in the process of organizing
a second expedition. He had built fortifications on the boundaries
with the Panches, sending some of his best military men {guechas) there.
The battle between Bogota and Tunja was well entrenched:
They strove to win each other's domains
to which effect at various times
there were great armed encounters and batdes
in which neither could attain
the fulfillment of his claims.
They were ancient, these contests. 25
When Bogota gained military control over the savannah and adjacent
areas, he did not dismande hierarchical structures but built on them,
arranging marriages for his sisters and other relatives with the traditional
political leaders. Bogota as Zipa made his confirmation of new chiefs
mandatory, with ceremonies that involved reciprocal exchanges. There
are indications that sijipcuas and other important military-political leaders
were graded in rank with reference to the Zipa, and that a warrior corps
and perhaps a permanent army were in the process of being established,
as well as overseers for tribute collection. The Zipa constructed storage
facilities in communities other dian his own for food and weapons in
preparation for war with the Zaque. Further underscoring the centrali-
25 Castellanos, Elegias de Varones Ilustra, IV, 141. In Anonymous, "Visita de 1560" (84), Bogoti and
Tunja are noted to each have had "en los con(n)fines de su tierra su capitan general y guarnici6n."
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