Proc. Neutrino Astrophysics - MPP Theory Group

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52 there is a subdivision into three SN types and about five galaxy morphologies, which immediately creates 15 bins to group the supernovae. With typical numbers of about 200 SNe (e.g. van den Bergh & McClure 1994, Cappellaro et al. 1997) in the sample the rates are not immune against small number statistics. Over 1200 supernovae been discovered to date. Many of these objects are not classified and can not be used for the statistics. However, about 80% of all supernovae since 1989 have a type associated. The distribution is roughly 55% SNe Ia (thermonuclear explosions of white dwarfs) and 41% SNe II and SNe Ib/c (core-collapse in massive stars). Since SNe Ia are on average about 2 magnitudes brighter than other supernovae, they can be detected over a larger volume and thus are present at a higher percentage. Excluding all the supernovae from searches specifically targeted at very distant supernovae (Perlmutter et al. 1997, Leibundgut & Spyromilio 1997), which mostly are Type Ia, we arrive at a near equipartition between thermonuclear and core-collapse SNe (48% SNe Ia and 49.5% SNe II and SNe Ib/c since 1989). With the same argument as above (SNe Ia more luminous) we can immediately conclude that core-collapse SNe are more frequent than thermonuclear SNe in the nearby universe. This result is further amplified by dust obscuration which affects core-collapse SNe stronger than thermonuclear SNe. Several corrections enter the determination of supernova rates. The best known is the Shawn effect (Shawn 1979) which describes the effect of supernovae lost in the glare of centers of galaxies. Visual and CCD searches are less affected than older photographic searches which lose the contrast in bright regions. Absorption can obscure supernovae in the discs of galaxies and if, as currently believed, core-collapse supernovae stem from massive stars and are thus more affected by dust, the derived SN statistics are skewed. Several proposals how to correct for dust have been put forward (e.g. van den Bergh & Tammann 1991). The luminosity of the various subtypes of supernovae differs by factors of about 10 and the differences in light curve shapes introduces varying control times for the SN classes. These have to be factored in when the SN rate is derived. There are two distinct approaches to derive SN statistics. The ‘search technique’ uses only supernovae which have been discovered in controlled searches. The most recent and complete description of this method is given by Cappellaro et al. (1997). The advantage here is that the control times and the galaxy sample are defined very well. The drawback is the small number of supernovae in the sample. Cappellaro et al. (1997) had to discard about half of the discovered supernovae, because they appeared in galaxies which are not part of the catalogs. They were left with 110 supernovae from five searches which have lasted for almost 20 years and amounted to a total of 42500 years ×10 10 L⊙ control time (sometimes referred to as ‘galaxy years’). The ‘catalog technique’ makes use of all supernovae discovered in a known galaxy sample (Tammann et al. 1994). This maximizes the number of supernovae as all supernovae discovered in galaxies of the sample are included in the statistics, but strong assumptions on the control time have to be made. The latter quantity can be derived very badly as serendipitous SN discoveries enter the catalogs. Despite all these problems, there is a fair agreement for the rates of thermonuclear supernovae (Type Ia) in star-forming (spiral) galaxies. The distribution is independent of the detailed morphological type of the galaxy at about 0.2 SNu. A large discrepancy exists for old stellar systems (elliptical galaxies) for which Tammann et al. find a rate increasing to a level three times higher, while Cappellaro et al. actually find indication of slightly lower SN Ia rate in ellipticals. There is only a very small number of supernovae known in elliptical
galaxies, however, and the statistics are very uncertain. Core-collapse supernovae (Types II and Ib/c) have not been observed in elliptical galaxies. Their rate increases with the fraction of young stars in galaxies, i.e. the morphological type. The most prolific supernova producers are Sc and Sd galaxies with about 1.2 SNu. There is a discrepancy of about a factor of two in the absolute rates between Tammann et al. and Cappellaro et al. for all galaxy types. The relative rates, however, agree quite well. The SN rates in irregular galaxies are largely undetermined due to the small numbers of known SNe. The Galactic SN rate is about 20 ± 8 per millennium. This number depends on the morphological type and the total blue luminosity of the Galaxy. There are 6 historical supernovae on record (van den Bergh & Tammann 1991) which implies that roughly 2/3 of all Galactic supernovae have been hidden. Supernovae in the Local <strong>Group</strong> have been observed in M31 (S And: SN 1885A) and in the Large Magellanic Cloud (SN 1987A). The prediction for the Local <strong>Group</strong> is slightly above 2 (excluding the Galaxy), which appears consistent. The small observational baseline, however, excludes any firm conclusion from such a comparison. References [1] Cappellaro, E., Turatto, M., Benetti, S., Tsvetkov, D. Y., Bartunov, O. S., Makarova, I. N. 1993a, A&A, 268, 472 [2] Cappellaro. E., Turatto, M., Benetti, S., Tsvetkov, D. Y., Bartunov, O. S., Makarova, I. N. 1993b, A&A, 273, 383 [3] Cappellaro, E., Turatto, M., Tsvetkov, D. Y., Bartunov, O. S., Pollas, C., Evans, R., Hamuy, M. 1997, A&A, 322, 431 [4] Leibundgut, B., Spyromilio, J. 1997, The Early Universe with the VLT, ed. B. Bergeron, Heidelberg: Springer, 95 [5] Perlmutter, S., et al. 1997, ApJ, 483, 565 [6] Shawn, R. L. 1979, A&A, 76, 188 [7] Strom, R. G. 1995, The Lives of Neutron Stars, eds. M. A. Alpar, Ü. Kiziloglu, & J. van Paradijs, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 23 [8] Tammann, G. A. 1994, Supernovae, eds. S. Bludman, R. Mochkovitch, J. Zinn-Justin, Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1 [9] Tammann, G. A., Löffler, W., Schröder, A. 1994, ApJS, 92, 487 [10] Timmes, F. X., Woosley, S. E. 1997, ApJ, 489, 160 [11] van den Bergh, S., McClure, R. D. 1994, ApJ, 425, 205 [12] van den Bergh, S., Tammann, G. A. 1991, ARA&A, 29, 363 53
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arXiv:astro-ph/9801320v1 30 Jan 199
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Preface This was the fourth worksho
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vi S.J. Hardy Quasilinear Diffusion
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viii
Page 11 and 12: History of Neutrino Physics: Pauli
Page 13 and 14: Brief an Oskar Klein, Stockholm, vo
Page 15 and 16: Recent observations with the Hubble
Page 17 and 18: MACHO sample of ∼100,000 light cu
Page 19: Solar Neutrinos
Page 22 and 23: 14 In the depth range where an abun
Page 24 and 25: 16 as follows: (1) All the detector
Page 26 and 27: 18 [3] J.N. Bahcall and H.A. Bethe,
Page 28 and 29: 20 the opacity has a very slowly ch
Page 30 and 31: 22 Status of the Radiochemical Gall
Page 32 and 33: 24 known true source activity. The
Page 34 and 35: 26 Solar Neutrino Observation with
Page 36 and 37: 28 Events/day/kton/bin 0.3 0.25 0.2
Page 38 and 39: 30 log(Δm 2 (eV 2 log(Δm )) 2 (eV
Page 40 and 41: 32 Table 1: Neutrino event rates in
Page 42 and 43: 34 tank and sphere high purity wate
Page 44 and 45: 36 Measurements of Low Energy Nucle
Page 46 and 47: 38 Figure 1: The S(E) factor of 3 H
Page 48 and 49: 40 Solar Neutrinos: Where We Are an
Page 50 and 51: 42 [9] B. Pontecorvo, Chalk River R
Page 52 and 53: 44 Figure 2: The difference between
Page 55 and 56: Phenomenology of Supernova Explosio
Page 57 and 58: Figure 2: Theoretical classificatio
Page 59: Supernova Rates Bruno Leibundgut Eu
Page 63 and 64: Figure 1: The motions of pulsars re
Page 65 and 66: Convection in Newly Born Neutron St
Page 67 and 68: a b Figure 2: Panel a shows the rec
Page 69 and 70: ference). The angular variations of
Page 71 and 72: Figure 1: Neutrino luminosity and e
Page 73 and 74: [9] G.S. Bisnovatyi-Kogan, Astron.
Page 75 and 76: and the mass-to-luminosity ratio of
Page 77 and 78: Figure 1: Time variation of superno
Page 79 and 80: Figure 3: Energy spectra of the sup
Page 81 and 82: Supernova Neutrino Opacities G.G. R
Page 83 and 84: Quasilinear Diffusion of Neutrinos
Page 85 and 86: Assuming a saturated thermal distri
Page 87 and 88: Anisotropic Neutrino Propagation in
Page 89 and 90: So far the damping rate corresponds
Page 91 and 92: Cherenkov Radiation by Massless Neu
Page 93 and 94: on ω so that they are well approxi
Page 95: 2 2 / meff,e m eff 1.0 0.5 0.0 elec
Page 99 and 100: Gamma-Ray Burst Observations D.H. H
Page 101 and 102: Figure 1: The cumulative distributi
Page 103 and 104: [7] Lilly, S., in Critical Dialogue
Page 105 and 106: ) Phase Transitions in Neutron Star
Page 107 and 108: after the collapse began (nb., no e
Page 109 and 110: Models of Coalescing Neutron Stars
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Figure 2: Contour plots of the mass
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From our torus models we find that
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High-Energy Neutrinos
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110 in gamma-rays. However, the acc
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112 Atmospheric Muons and Neutrinos
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114 Today, however, charm productio
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116 Atmospheric Neutrinos in Super-
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118 number of events 300 200 100 (a
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120 Acknowledgements D.K. is suppor
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122 Key signatures for νµ nucleon
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124 (a.u) 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 1
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126 However, in order to operate th
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128 could be gravitationally captur
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130 Ground-Based Observation of Gam
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132 Figure 2: Sensitivities in unit
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134 Crab flux Figure 4: Gamma-ray f
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136
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Helium Absorption and Cosmic Reioni
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Non-Standard Big Bang Nucleosynthes
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) Non-standard Neutrino Properties
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some heating of the plasma. In cont
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Big Bang Nucleosynthesis With Small
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Neutrinos and Structure Formation i
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Photon and Neutrino Backgrounds The
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The (photon) temperature at aeq is
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spectrum has therefore changed to 1
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Figure 4: Growth of structure in CD
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Future Prospects
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162 Figure 1: Calorimetric β − s
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164 References [1] F. Gatti: Procee
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166 The frequency of Galactic super
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168 Table 1: Comparison of proposed
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170 Neutrinos in Astrophysics José
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172 N eq 7 6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3
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174 Figure 4: SN 1987A bounds on FC
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176 [5] A. Joshipura and J. W. F. V
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178 Some Neutrino Events of the 21s
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180 2099: Relic Neutrinos And last
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182
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184 Tuesday, Oct. 21: Supernova Neu
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186 Michael Altmann Technische Univ
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188 Paolo Gondolo Max-Planck-Instit
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190 Patrizia Meunier Max-Planck-Ins
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192 Torsten Soldner Technische Univ
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194 A Experimental Particle Physics
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196 C Astrophysics and Cosmology C1
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