Evaluation of water supply system Case study in Naka ... - ENGEES

Cranfield UniversityInstitute of Water & EnvironmentMSc Water ManagementOption Community Water SupplyAcademic year: 2005-2006Florianne BourrigaultEvaluation of water supply systemCase study in Naka, NigeriaSupervised by Peter HowsamWord length: 9579Presented on 7 th September 2006This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of MScWater Management.© Cranfield University, 2006. All rights reserved. No part of this publication maybe reproduced without the written permission of the copyright holder.

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, NigeriaAbstractNigeria is the most populated country of Africa and therefore will play an important rolein whether or not Africa will meet Target 10 of the Millennium Development Goals: i.e.to halve by 2015 the proportion of people lacking access to safe drinking water. Giventhe inability of the government to provide adequate water supply, the tendencynowadays is to give more responsibilities to the community.Partners for Water and Sanitation, WaterAid and the Ministry for Water Resources andEnvironment formed a partnership to handle a pilot-project in 3 small towns in BenueState, before scaling it up to 70 other small towns. The project, through capacitybuilding of the community, aims to enable a water users’ association to take over themanagement of the water supply system.This study involved an evaluation of the water system, both infrastructure andmanagement aspects, in one of the pilot areas, in order to plan expansion of thefacilities. The WHO Minimum Evaluation Procedure approach was used to develop arange of criteria and measurable indicators. Data was gathered in the field through semistructuredinterviews and in-field observation. Various problems were highlighted, allcommon features for water project breakdown: e.g. operation and maintenance,government investment, community mobilisation, lack of resources. Considering thelow level of service of the water supply, the required expansion was not recommendeduntil the current system is working in a satisfactory and sustainable way. The success ofthe project will greatly depend on the quality of support from the government and otheragencies to the water users’ association.Further research is worthwhile in order to enlarge knowledge about strengths andweaknesses of the water users’ association option in a small town context.Cranfield University at Silsoe i Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, NigeriaAcknowledgmentsThis report results from the contribution of a large group of people:I am grateful to Partners for Water and Sanitation, especially Paul Turner and KayodeSanni, for giving me the opportunity to do this project in Nigeria and for funding myresearch.I am thankful to WaterAid Nigeria, to the Ministry for Water Resources andEnvironment of Benue State Government and to the Gwer-West Local Government inNaka for organising my stay in Nigeria and providing support for my research.I thank the Water Consumer Association for its collaboration.I am thankful to Peter and Abraham, the two caretakers of the Water Treatment Plant,for cooperating during my research.I am especially grateful to Amos, my translator and guide in Naka.I thank the Catholic Brothers of Mount La Salle College who took care of my stay inNaka.I am thankful to my supervisor Peter Howsam who provided me with guidance andadvice for this project.Finally, I thank my family and friends for supporting me during this research project.Cranfield University at Silsoe ii Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, NigeriaTable of contentsList of tables and figuresvList of abbreviationsvi1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 11.1 BACKGROUND ......................................................................................................... 11.2 SMALL TOWN CONTEXT........................................................................................... 21.3 PROJECT CONTEXT................................................................................................... 21.4 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES............................................................................................. 31.5 APPROACH OF THE SUBJECT..................................................................................... 31.6 STRUCTURE OF THESIS ............................................................................................. 42 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................... 52.1 EVALUATION OF WATER PROJECT ............................................................................ 52.2 GENERAL BACKGROUND ABOUT WATER PROJECTS ISSUES....................................... 72.3 COMMUNITY-MANAGED SYSTEM: THE WATER USERS’ ASSOCIATION OPTION........... 72.4 WATER QUALITY MONITORING ................................................................................ 83 METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................... 103.1 PROJECT CHARACTERISATION................................................................................ 103.2 DESK BASED PREPARATION OF FIELD RESEARCH.................................................... 103.3 FIELD WORK & ADAPTATION OF THE METHODOLOGY ............................................ 123.4 TECHNIQUES USED TO AVOID RESEARCH BIASES.................................................... 143.5 DATA ANALYSIS..................................................................................................... 144 FURTHER PRESENTATION OF THE COMMUNITY OF NAKA, BETWEENURBAN AND RURAL ................................................................................................. 165 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS .................................................................................... 185.1 INDICATORS’ VALUES TABLE ................................................................................. 185.2 INFRASTRUCTURE AND LEVEL OF SERVICES ........................................................... 205.2.1 Physical infrastructure state....................................................................... 205.2.2 Water quantity ............................................................................................ 205.2.3 Water quality at tap .................................................................................... 225.2.4 System performance at WTP ...................................................................... 225.2.5 Reliability of the water supply.................................................................... 235.2.6 Convenience of water points ...................................................................... 235.2.7 Use of water facilities and for what purposes ............................................ 245.2.8 Equity.......................................................................................................... 245.3 MANAGEMENT / SUSTAINABILITY ASPECT ............................................................. 255.3.1 Operation and maintenance ....................................................................... 255.3.2 Management ............................................................................................... 255.3.3 Financing.................................................................................................... 265.3.4 Equity.......................................................................................................... 275.3.5 Quality monitoring ..................................................................................... 275.3.6 Community (mobilisation, ownership, habits)............................................ 285.3.7 Stakeholders of the project ......................................................................... 285.4 EXPANSION PLAN................................................................................................... 29Cranfield University at Silsoe iii Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, Nigeria6 DISCUSSION............................................................................................................. 316.1 RESULTS FINDINGS................................................................................................. 316.2 VALIDITY OF METHODOLOGY ................................................................................ 326.2.1 Possible improvements of the method ........................................................ 326.2.2 Replicability of this evaluation approach................................................... 336.3 LIMITATIONS OF THE WORK ................................................................................... 347 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................... 357.1 EXTENT OF MEETING AIM AND OBJECTIVES............................................................ 357.2 CHALLENGE AHEAD............................................................................................... 368 RECOMMENDATIONS .......................................................................................... 378.1 CONCERNING THE RESEARCH PROJECT................................................................... 378.2 CONCERNING THE WATER PROJECT........................................................................ 378.3 FURTHER RESEARCH FOR THE COMMUNITY BENEFITS............................................ 379 LIST OF REFERENCES.......................................................................................... 38AppendicesCranfield University at Silsoe iv Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, NigeriaList of figures and tablesFigure 1: Approach of the subject .................................................................................... 4Figure 2: Project cycle...................................................................................................... 5Figure 3: Percentage of population using each water resources..................................... 21Figure 4: Relationships between the different actors of the project............................... 29Table 1: Summary of the values for indicators in Naka................................................. 19Table 2: Level of pressure delivered on the public and private taps .............................. 24Cranfield University at Silsoe v Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, NigeriaList of abbreviationsBESG: Benue State GovernmentCBO: Community-Based OrganisationCIA: Central Intelligence AgencyDFID: Department for International DevelopmentLBRBDA: Lower Benue River Development AuthorityLG: Local governmentMDG: Millenium Development GoalsMLSC: Mount La Salle CollegeMWRE: Ministry for Water Resources and EnvironmentNEPA: Nigerian Electricity Power AuthorityNGO: Non-Governmental OrganizationOECD: Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and DevelopmentPAWS: Partners for Water and SanitationSSI: Semi Structured InterviewSTU: Small Town UnitUNICEF: United Nations Children's FundWCA: Water Consumer AssociationWES: Water and Environmental SanitationWSP: Water Safety PlanWTP: Water Treatment PlantWHO: World Health OrganisationCranfield University at Silsoe vi Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, Nigeria1 Introduction1.1 BackgroundThe state of water supply and sanitation access worldwide is alarming: in 2000, 1.1billion people lacked access to improved water supply, and 2.4 billion to adequatesanitation, more located in rural than urban areas (WHO/UNICEF, 2000). Consideringthe population growth, these figures are going to increase unless appropriate andsound measures are taken to reverse this trend. Countries have a huge challenge toface in order to achieve Target 10 of the Millennium Development Goals (MDG),which is to “halve the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water by2015” (OECD, 2000). Water and sanitation projects coupled with hygiene promotionare also recognised as important in order to achieve all the MDG Goalsimprovements, including reduction of poverty, gender issue, health improvement andeducation (Trevett, 2005). Africa, where 28% of the total un-served population forwater supply live (WHO/UNICEF, 2000), has a great challenge ahead. As the mostpopulated country of the continent, Nigeria will be central as to whether or not Africareaches the MDG (DFID, 2004).Nigeria, the “giant” of Africa in terms of population and oil economy, has lots toachieve in order to reach these targets, meanwhile it has a rapid population growth.The relatively recent democratic government (1999) has to cope with extremepoverty, low human development (cf. Box 1), a history of corruption anddecentralisation of responsibility for water and sanitation from central to localgovernment (WaterAid, 2005). These constraints partially explain why theGovernment has not been successful in fulfilling its responsibility to provide safewater supply to his citizens up to now. Orubu (2006) promotes the need nowadays toinvolve all stakeholders in the process of sustainable water resources management –e.g. Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), the private sector and Community-Based Organisations (CBOs). The new national policies emphasising water andsanitation, the increasing involvement of local governments and these new actors havethe potential to improve the situation.Cranfield University at Silsoe 1 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, NigeriaBox 1 : Nigeria ProfilePopulation: over 130 millionPopulation growth: 2.38%Living in absolute poverty: 75 million (58% of total population)Life expectancy: 43 yearsInfant mortality: 198/1000Water supply coverage: 60%Sanitation coverage: 38%Human development index: 158Adult literacy: 67%International development Assistance: $2 per capita(average $21 per capita in sub-Saharan Africa)(Sources: DFID, 2006; Wateraid 2005; CIA, 2006)Nota: information varies significantly between different sources, meaning thatnational information are not always precise, sometimes underestimated.1.2 Small Town contextThe emphasis of water projects on small town areas is relatively recent. In the past,the attempt to apply management options taken from urban or rural areas often lead tofailure (Price, 2002). There are no specific types of small town; they are defined as“settlements sufficiently large and dense to benefit from the economies of scaleoffered by piped systems but too small and dispersed to be efficiently managed by aconventional urban water utility, usually with a population between 5,000 and50,000” (Roche, 2000). In Nigeria, socio-economic surveys of 37 small towns in 1997looking at people’s willingness to pay concluded that “it is possible to developfinancially viable water supply and sanitation solutions in Nigeria’s small towns”(Stoveland, & Bassey, 2000).1.3 Project contextWaterAid has been present in Nigeria since 1995 for development projects concerningwater and in 2005 it proposed Partners for Water and Sanitation (PAWS) to worktogether. These two partners, associated with the Ministry for Water Resources andEnvironment (MWRE) of the Benue State Government (BESG) are currentlyreactivating projects focused on small towns in Benue state. The aim is to create andbuild the capacity of community-based organisation, Water Consumer Association(WCA), so that they are able to operate and maintain the water system in theirCranfield University at Silsoe 2 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, Nigeriacommunity, particularly by selling water in water kiosks. Emphasis is given to thedemand driven approach rather than the supply driven one which has been applied inthe past. There are 3 pilot towns in Benue State: Naka, Lessel and Ugbokpo. The nextstep will be to implement this program in 70 other small towns of the state.1.4 Aims and objectivesThe aim of this study was to support Benue State government in its projects toincrease access to safe water supply and adequate sanitation. The subject, proposedthrough the partnership between Cranfield University and PAWS, was an integral partof the project and was concerned with evaluation of the water supply infrastructureand management in Naka, one of the pilot areas.This aim will be met by achieving the following objectives:- provide an independent assessment of quality and quantity of the watersupply- propose an expansion plan of the water facilities- do an evaluation of the needs of the WCA- monitor systems used to monitor and document water quality.This thesis is concerned with the water supply aspect only, but there should becomplementary studies in sanitation and hygiene promotion.1.5 Approach of the subjectThe evaluation process is a necessary stage allowing quantification of project impactsand adaptation of project targets. Moreover, the project is in a transition time: thewater system still belongs to the BESG but is going to be handed over to the WCAlater. So it is of particular interest to know the state of the system to determine if it canbe transferred to the community now and if it can be expanded.The scheme below describes the approach taken for the subject:Cranfield University at Silsoe 3 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, NigeriaWhat is an evaluation?How to conduct it?To what extent can it be aparticipatory evaluation?What makes a water project asuccess?What are the feedbacks from waterprojects?What are the guidelines forwater quality monitoring?What is a small town?Evaluation of the pipedwatersystem in the smalltown of Naka, NigeriaWhat are the feedbacksfrom water consumerassociations?1.6 Structure of thesisWhat has been the research done inNigeria concerning water projects?What is the current information aboutthe project in Naka?Figure 1: Approach of the subjectThe results for all these issues are included under the wide term of “evaluation of thepiped water system”, the expression “water system” involving both technical andmanagement aspects. The structure of the report does not follow linearly the previousstated objectives but takes an integrated approach of looking at the impact andsustainability aspects of the project. Chapter 2 introduces the existing literature andChapter 3 the methodology adopted. The context of the case study context is furtherdeveloped in Chapter 4. Chapters 5 and 6 concern respectively analysis of the resultsand discussion. Finally, conclusions and recommendations are presented in Chapters 7and 8.Cranfield University at Silsoe 4 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, Nigeria2 Literature reviewThe literature review addresses the understanding of evaluation issues and providesbackground about water supply projects’ feedback and experiences, especially forcommunity managed systems and water quality monitoring.2.1 Evaluation of water projectEvaluation is a necessary stage in the cycle of any project as it tries to answer thequestion “Did the project work?” (Carter, 2006) and then allows defining theproblems to solve (see figure 2).Did theproject work?EvaluationWhat’s theproblem?Inception/IdentificationHow tosolve itFormulation/Detailed designImplementationand monitoringAct, observe,measureProposal,approval,financingAppraisalFind thefundsReviewthe designFigure 2: Project cycleSource (Carter, 2006)There are several different ways of evaluating a project, but the core strategy is tocompare selected features of the projects to fixed values, targets or objectives in orderto determine to what extent the project met expectations and achieved positiveimpacts (Narayan, 1993).Focusing on water projects, the different approaches depend on the choice of thesetarget values. Carter (2006a) highlighted three different categories of objectives thatan evaluation can assess:Cranfield University at Silsoe 5 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, Nigeria- the objectives fixed on the early stage of the project design- the universal objectives common to overall water and sanitation projects- the wide objective of one of the agencies involved, like the donor agency.The problem encountered with the first method is that objectives are often not clearlydefined in the terms of references of the project; moreover, it gives limited flexibilityto adapt the real situation, as objectives always refer back to those fixed before theproject realisation (Carter, 2006a). The Department for International Development(DFID) adopts the third method, focusing on the way the project meets their wide goalof development such as reducing poverty (DFID, 1998). Carter (2006a) points to therisk of “an abuse of power by the donor” by orientating the project and all the otherpartners towards the donor vision and objectives. That is also problematic because itcan increase the distance between the people who are fixing objectives and the peoplewho are directly benefiting from them. Adopting the second approach, the WorldHealth Organisation (1983) developed a set of indicators concerning functioning andutilisation of water and sanitation systems. These indicators are general ones whichcan be used to define any type of water project. They therefore form a great universalbaseline check-list, focused on water issues objectives, applicable to any water systemevaluation.Projects in developing countries have often been done without involving thecommunity concerned, leading to a mismatch between the introduction of new watersystem and the people benefiting from it (Schouten & Moriarty, 2003). In fact,“participatory development - involving users and communities in all stages of thedevelopment process - is critical for achieving sustained benefits” (Narayan, 1993).As part of the project cycle, evaluation should be a learning process involving allstakeholders and allowing the community members, especially the women, to fix theirown criteria of project’s success (Narayan, 1993). Nevertheless, participation can notbe considered as a perfect solution as it has its own limits and inequity problems, suchas the gender issue and the risk of local empowerment of some part of the community(Cornwall, 2003). Especially for research, it is also sensible to plan a realistic level ofparticipation of the community, which does not interrupt the other necessary activitiesof the members, like farming or child caring (Pratt & Loizos, 1992).Cranfield University at Silsoe 6 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, Nigeria2.2 General background about water projects issuesEvaluations are undertaken in order to identify problems; in water and sanitation, themajor problem seems to be the lack of sustainability, as defined by “whether or notsomething continues to work over time” (Abrams, 1998): many water projects whichappeared successful at the beginning fell down after few years or less. Severalexperiences and feedback from all over the world point out some redundant causes forwater project problems: operation and maintenance, cost recovery, gender issue,hygiene education and financial support need to be addressed (Guerquin et al., 2003).Carter et al. (1999) promote greater importance to sustainability than impacts anddefine four interlinked conditions necessary to have a community water systemsustainable: motivation, maintenance, cost recovery and back-support. In fact,community management does not mean abandonment by the government of itsresponsibilities. On the contrary, this type of management can only be sustainable ifthere is support from governmental agencies (Abrams, 1996). Schouten & Moriarty(2003) give a wide definition of a sustainable water supply by considering also equityand water resources sustainability in addition to technical, institutional and indefinitesustainability.Taking into account the sustainability aspect therefore gives guidance for evaluatingpossibility of extension of water facilities, as “scaling up coverage is pointless unlesssustainability is improved at the same time” (Schouten & Moriarty, 2003).2.3 Community-managed system: the water users’ associationoptionThere are several options for water supply management, ranking from the agencymanaging it to the community owning and operating the system, with options inbetween. Trends are currently to give the community more responsibilities as analternative to government management of water supply (Carter et al., 1999). A wateruser’s association is one of the community-based possibilities, characterised by theassociation being responsible for operation and maintenance financed throughmember’s fees and bills; access to water services is reserved for members onlyCranfield University at Silsoe 7 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, Nigeria(Cairncross, 1980). Cairncross et al. (1980) shows two advantages of this option: topotentially avoid factionalism and to facilitate fees collection as members getprivileged towards non-members. They also point to the implicit exclusion of part ofthe population, mainly the poorest households unable to afford the prices.The option of water kiosks where members come to buy water have already beenimplemented in other African countries and even in Kabong in Nigeria; most often ithas been implanted in urban and peri-urban areas.2.4 Water quality monitoringAs there is for the moment neither national water-drinking quality standards norguidelines in Nigeria (Ocholi, 2006) there is a need to find universal water qualitystandards values. The “Guidelines for drinking-water quality” proposed by the WorldHealth Organisations set a complete list of parameter values which “ensures anaesthetically pleasing water and does not result in any significant risk to the health ofthe consumer” (WHO, 1985). These values are internationally recognised becausehealth issue oriented; however it does not take into account the specific context of thecountry or area (WHO, 1985). In fact, concerning developing countries, theseparameters need to be adjusted, considering the cost of treatment involved, cost andavailability of water testing in the country, as well as the type of water supplymanagement, like CBOs, which defines the financial affordability of these costs(Howard, 2002). Howard (2002) prioritises parameters to monitor as explained in theBox 2; he also proposes suggested frequency for some parameters testing andguidance for Water Safety Plan (WSP) and sanitary survey.Box 2: Parameters for water quality surveillancePriority of parameters to be included in surveillance programmes:1. Microbiological quality and those parameters that controlmicrobiological quality (disinfectant residuals, pH and turbidity)2. Parameters which cause rejection of water (include turbidity, taste,colour and odour of water3. Chemicals of known risks4. parameters that control operational efficiency such as corrosivityand hardness(Source: Howard, 2002)Cranfield University at Silsoe 8 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, NigeriaTo conclude this literature review, an overall remark concerns the commonrural/urban partition present in most of the literature whereas small towns lay inbetweenthese two. Even the peri-urban context does not really characterize the smalltown as it is applicable for areas around existing urban centres.Cranfield University at Silsoe 9 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, Nigeria3 Methodology3.1 Project characterisationThis thesis has an exploratory purpose by applying evaluation methods to the casestudy of Naka in order to draw relevant conclusions about the infrastructure andmanagement of this piped-water supply. General background about water andsanitation in Nigeria was found in Wateraid Nigeria, PAWS and DFID documentationand websites. The case study required collection on-site of both quantitative andqualitative data.3.2 Desk based preparation of field researchFirst a list of criteria was chosen to allow complete evaluation of the water system,looking at the existing literature and at the information available before field workconcerning the water project in Naka. Among the different methods of evaluationdiscussed in the literature review, the WHO approach was chosen for its adaptabilityfor any type of water project evaluation. At this stage, information on the system inNaka was not sufficient to adopt a project-specific approach. As the evaluation wasplanned to provide an independent assessment of the water system, it was also notappropriate to opt for an agency-focused approach.Therefore, according to the WHO approach, the following criteria were going to beassessed:o water quantityo water qualityo reliability of the water supplyo convenience of water pointso proportion of households using the facilitieso volume of water used and for what purposes.The last two criteria were grouped under a common title “use of water facilities andfor what purposes”. Then, considering the specific terms of reference of the thesissubject which include water quality monitoring and evaluation of the eventual gaps ofthe WCA, the following criteria were added in this check-list:Cranfield University at Silsoe 10 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, Nigeriao operation and maintenanceo management and financingo equity.This choice was driven by the existing literature (Carter et al., 1999) emphasizing theimportance of the sustainable aspect of water project rather than on just the impacts,and by the fact that this evaluation was going to assess the possibility of an expansionof the water supply facilities.The next step was to define indicators characteristic of these criteria which arerepresentative of the situation and measurable with the means available in the field.Not knowing the condition on-site, assumptions were made that were either validatedor not in which case indicators needed modifications (cf. 3.3 “Field-work andadaptation of the methodology” and appendix B). In order to give place toparticipation in this evaluation, the choice of criteria were planned to be discussedwith different actors, such as the Ministry for Water Resources of BESG, theexecutive committee of the WCA and women of the community.Among the wide panel of techniques available for field data collection (Pratt &Loizos, 1992, Robson, 2002), the following one were considered to be the mostappropriate for the research purpose of this study:- Taps Inspection (technical observation and testing of all the 15 public taps)- Semi-structured interview of users of public taps (50 interviewees chosenwith stratified random sample methods with sub-groups of interestdetermined by distance from the tap (Nichols, 1991)- Semi-structured interview with the different actors of the project (WCAexecutive committee members, caretakers)- Technical survey of the water supply infrastructure (WTP, storage andother assets)- Observation walks with focused groups (women, WCA executivecommittee)- Meeting with the women of the community- Data collection of existing resources (government, Water Board, WCA)Semi structured interviews (SSI) were chosen because it allowed direct contact withthe interviewee and is not driven by the mechanical way that a traditionalCranfield University at Silsoe 11 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, Nigeriaquestionnaire requires. Therefore it allows an open discussion and the opportunity togather unexpected relevant information (Robson, 2002).3.3 Field work & adaptation of the methodologyThe data collection in Naka, Nigeria took place during June/July 2006. A translatorwas provided to facilitate the communication and introduction to the communitymembers. He also had great understandings of the water supply facilities because hehad received capacity building training about water quality in the context of thePAWS project. Most movements inside Naka were realised using a bicycle, whichwas faster than walking and allowed independence to go on chosen areas of research.Some means for testing water quality were available in the WTP; i.e. paper forestimation of colour (Hazen methods), paper for turbidity measurement (pump-strokemethod) and pH papers.The level of functioning of the water supply infrastructure significantly modified theway of collecting data. As water was not flowing in the pipe system during the stay inNaka, inspection of the taps did not happen. Therefore, information about waterquality, quantity and convenience of the water points relied only on user appreciationcollected during the semi-structured interview instead of being cross-checked byindependent water quality measurements.The unexpected number of taps in the system (99 taps in total – this number wasunknown by all the actors and was discovered during the progress of the research)then influenced the number of SSI of users (96 interviews). This took more time thanwas previously planned for. In addition to observation data, the SSI covered thefollowing points:o general information about interviewee and tap surveyedo technical evaluationo user perception of level of services (frequency, quality, pressure)o user habits (sources used, for what purposes).Hand written notes as well as a sketch of the water point location were taken duringthe interviews.Cranfield University at Silsoe 12 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, NigeriaA snap-shot Semi-Structure Interview (SSI) of 26 community members was also doneto collect a) data on use of public taps from random people and b) level of awarenessof the WCA existence and activities among Tiv and non-Tiv people. The decision todo these SSI was influenced by the overall remark during the research of the lowawareness of the WCA as well as problem of the WCA to mobilize the members ofthe association and the women. Sample size was chosen according to the time leftavailable with the translator, with geographical spread (5 interviews in the 3 mediumdensity populated areas and 11 interviews in the most populated area), random chosenhousehold with at least one minority tribe interviewed in each part of the town (tokeep in the sample the estimation of 10% of minority in the population).In all community member interviews, level of wealth was determined by the type ofhouse: thatch huts, zinc roof and fenced house in ascending level of wealth. The wayof conducting interviews and asking question was adapted during the survey in orderto be clearly understood by the population and to fit the local situation. Some criteriaand indicators were also changed in order to be more representative of the situationand to fit on what information was really possible to extract from the data collected.The Appendix B sums up the evolution of the criteria and indicators as well as thealternatives and complementary techniques applied on site.Initial semi structured interviews and technical surveys of the infrastructures (state ofthe assets) were realised with the two caretakers of the WTP, followed by regular (ona daily basis) discussions and observation of operation and maintenance of the system.The semi-structured interview with the WCA, collection of data and SSI of staff fromthe Water Board, as well as the planned process of validating criteria for theevaluation, were not realised due to, among others, the following constraints:- problem of attendance at planned meetings- lack of introduction to the Water Board office- problems of transport availability- difficulties in raising interest in the research process (in comparison todesign)Cranfield University at Silsoe 13 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, NigeriaThese constraints cited above are common in the context of projects in developingcountries (Pratt & Loizos, 1992); they could perhaps be managed or overcome in alonger time period for the research.Various pieces of informal information were gathered during the stay in thecommunity. They have been used with care, or by only deducting indirect informationrather than using the raw information itself.A rapid visit to Lessel, another of the three small town pilot areas, allowed a quicksnap-shot to get a view of the similarities and differences of the issues concerningwater supply in the region.The spreadsheet of raw data from the baseline survey realised by the Small Town Unit(STU) of the MWRE concerning all water and sanitation aspects in the community ofNaka was also collected and examined in order to bridge the gaps in the data that thisstudy was able to collect. A sample of 709 households had been surveyed.3.4 Techniques used to avoid research biasesTwo ways of collecting the same information were carried out in order to cross-checkdifferent sources and therefore ensure reliability of the information. At least,observation was used to confirm data collected through personal interview, as answerscan sometimes be biased for different reasons – e.g the will of the interviewee to givethe “right answer”, or to answer even if he does not know the answer. The use of anindependent means of transport allowed choice of area of research to be free from theinfluence of other actors.3.5 Data analysisData were collated and then analysed in order to extract values for the differentindicators. Then they were compared to fixed values from the initial design of thewater supply system in 1998 when available, or to the values suggested (or deductionfrom these values) by Carter et al. (1999), Howard (2002), Schouten & Moriarty(2003) and the WHO (1985). Carter et al. (1999) have synthesised existing literatureconcerning water projects targets in two checklists of factors, one about impact andthe other about sustainability. Qualitative information gathered, combined withCranfield University at Silsoe 14 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, Nigeriaexisting literature, allowed the development of further understanding of the criteriavalues.The analysis of the baseline survey of the STU was a rapid one due to the timeavailable. The data which were clearly incoherent, either due to problems of dataentry or to ambiguity of question formulation, were excluded from the analysis. Amore detailed check of data coherence would be needed before greater use of the datacould be justified.Cranfield University at Silsoe 15 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, Nigeria4 Further presentation of the community of Naka, betweenurban and ruralA further description of the community of Naka is needed to draw a quick image ofthe case study context, between rural and urban environment. In fact, Naka, a smalltown of Nigeria, fits in-between this partition, rather than really match one of thesecategories. It is more the profile of a village in its transition to become a city.Box 3: Urban and rural characteristics in NigeriaUrbanRuralHigh density, >25 000 inhabitants Smaller population, lower densityServices: health centre, water & electricity No servicesBig market place, permanent shops Small markets, standsActivities: commerce, industryMajority farming activityHigh communication levelLimited communication with other placesDesserved by main roadsRemote areasTradition chiefs have lower influence Traditional chiefs with some influenceNB: These information have been gathered through discussions with Nigerians about their perceptionbetween rural and urban places in their country; further studies need to be done as this was in Benue Statebut may be different in other places, as the North of Nigeria.(Sources: observation in Nigeria, discussions with Nigerians)Naka is a small town located in Benue State, 40 km from Makurdi, capital of the state.By the Nigerian national standard a small town represents between 20,000 and 25,000inhabitants. The Ministry for Water Resources and Environment of BESG estimatesthe population at 18,000. The census is currently going on but as the results won’t beavailable before end 2006, only an approximation is possible, taken in this reportequal to 20,000.The population mostly belongs to the Tiv tribe with minorities such as Igbo, Idoma,Igala, and other tribes. They are mainly Christian and religion is taking a great part intheir life, as in all the country. The main activities are farming (cassava, yam, groundnuts, maize and guinea corn mainly), commerce in the market place of the town aswell as saw mill and fuel station activities.Cranfield University at Silsoe 16 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, NigeriaThe climate is clearly marked by a rainy season (precipitation from 1,200 to 1,400mm) from about April to September followed by a dry season. Water is used for alldomestic purposes but not for irrigation as growing crops is mainly done during therainy season. Dry season is time to prepare the field and hunt.Concerning water supply, Naka was primarily not concerned by the firstgovernmental project to provide water in the small town because there was nopotential sustainable water resources. The area is not suitable for groundwaterexploitation, and there are no important rivers close by. The construction of an earthdam by the Lower Benue River Development Authority (LBRBDA) in 1985 providedthe possibility to develop improved water supply. The project designed a piped-watersupply with an intake rate of 20m 3 per hour, a Water Treatment Plant (WTP) withsedimentation tank, filters, chlorination and an elevated-tank of 100m 3 capacityproviding water to 15 public tap stands. The scheme was constructed in 1998 and aclear water tank of 90 m 3 was later added in the WTP (cf. Appendix C). Water wassupplied free of charge for the consumers. The schools, estimated around 50 innumber do not have water supply, except Mount La Salle College (MLSC); onepublic clinic has got public tap.Nigeria has a federal government structure with three levels of government structures:federal, state and local. Naka is the place of the headquarters of the Gwer-West localgovernment which has got a Water and Environmental Sanitation (WES) Unit. Itremains in Naka the existence of traditional chiefs who are still influent in the life ofthe town. Concerning the WCA, the executive committee was elected in March 2006for a period of 2 years and is constituted by a chairman, a secretary, a treasurer, awater scheme supervisor and a woman representative (who is a woman).Cranfield University at Silsoe 17 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, Nigeria5 Results and analysisIt is difficult to present results and analysis in organised parts as all the criteria andindicators are more or less linked to each other in a holistic-manner. Therefore, thefirst part will present the table of criteria in order to give a synthesised overview ofthe system. Then, results and analysis are divided in two principal parts:1. the infrastructure and level of services themselves, with technical and impactaspects (hardware),2. the management aspect focused predominantly on the sustainability evaluation(software).This includes not only analysis of the criteria values but also further results gathered,especially qualitative ones, which allowed the drafting of reasons and explanations ofthe previous indicators values. Some overlap still remains but the divisionimpact/sustainability gives a good picture in order to evaluate any expansion plan.5.1 Indicators’ values tableA summary of the results are presented in the following table; it is an extract of thecomplete table presented in Appendix D.Cranfield University at Silsoe 18 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, NigeriaTable 1: Summary of the values for indicators in NakaCriteria & Indicators associated Values Target or suggested valuewater quantity (at the WTP)quantity of water resources available(rate of pumping intake)per capita water resources available atWTPwater quality (at tap)7m 3 /h 20m 3 /hturbidity, colour problems noticed sometimes Colour

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, Nigeria5.2 Infrastructure and level of services5.2.1 Physical infrastructure stateThe current assets were different to the one planned in 1998: from a design supplying15 public taps (from which only 12 taps are found today) to a system with at least 90added individual connections or yard taps. The system had many leakages: one third(32%) of the taps were broken assets (either turning head broken or tap totallymissing) and there were breakages on the pipe-lines, 8 being noticed during thesurvey. Some of the breakages were caused voluntarily by motorcyclists who fetchedwater through broken pipes to wash their machine; others were due to workers whobroke the pipe when digging to implant cable pillars. The pipes were often veryshallow buried and easily damaged. Many taps lacked maintained cement platforms,sometimes leading to the occurrence of stagnant water.The sedimentation tank, the clear-water tank (and the over-head tank in a lessimportant level) were in an advanced state of corrosion, which was a source of seriousleakages in the clear water tank, reduction of storage capacity as well as un-sealedstrength support of the clear-water tank structure, endangering the stability.5.2.2 Water quantityThe water quantity available was difficult to estimate considering the high irregularityof the water supply. Values were determined by taking the effective rate of pumpingin the ideal case of 6 hours pumping (far from reality) during the day so that it waspossible to estimate if the irregular supply was the only cause of insufficient waterquantity.The first surprising result concerns the very low intake pumping rate of 7m 3 /h,observed since the beginning of the functioning of the WTP in 1998, whereas thedesign planned a rate of 20m 3 /h. However, even if it was working at the designed rateof 20m 3 /h during 6 hours per day, it would not achieve the suggested 20 litres per dayper capita for all Naka population. The high population growth rate of Naka is a bigchallenge: a design report for water written in 1981 estimated the current populationat 4,100 and forecasted the population to reach 6,000 in 2000 (current estimation in2006 around 20 000). The irregular and low rate of pumping, coupled with the highCranfield University at Silsoe 20 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, Nigeriademand in water brings problems of operation: the over-head tank had to be fullbefore water is discharged, in order to ensure the maximum pressure and thesedimentation tank get emptied if output was not stopped.The majority of the population (89%) relied on more than one source and water fromtap was not the most used one: rainwater harvesting, hand dug well, shallow wells inthe dam bench, stream water were the most common at household level in this area,followed by ponds in the dam bed and stream water (cf. figure 3), with great variationof use between dry and rainy season.% of population …….8070605040302010019,6W +R&B73,367,627,513,41,7 0,30,3RW STWS W + HP S TW Others PImproved sourcesUn-improved sourcesW + R&B: Hand-dug well + rope and bucketRW: RainwaterSTWS: Small town water supply (taps)W + HP: Hand-dug well + hand-pumpS: StreamsTW: Traditional unlined hand-dug wellOthers: mainly dam (55%)P: PondsFigure 3: Percentage of population using each water resourcesSource: STU questionnaire dataOwning a household connection did not have much impact, as 82% people owning ayard tap connection still relied on other sources. For the public taps, particularlyduring rainy season when water was available in quantity at yard distance (hand dugwell, rain water harvesting) or nearby (stream water), community members preferredthese sources rather than the taps which were in a distance and where there was notenough water supplied for all the people queuing. The population was also used toCranfield University at Silsoe 21 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, Nigeriabuying water from water sellers during the dry season at the rate of 20 naira for 20litres; this water generally came from the WTP tap or from ponds in the dam bed.5.2.3 Water quality at tapA majority of the consumers interviewed (70%) were complaining about the chemicalodour and taste of the water supplied, blaming an over dosage of chemicals in thetreatment in the WTP. The manual treatment dosage could explain this problem, but itcould also be a matter of habits: the acceptance of treated water by consumers hasoften been a problem in developing countries’ water projects because people are notused to the “new” taste of this water and prefer the usual taste they have from theirtraditional sourcesThe appearance of water was often said to be coloured for the first litres dischargedbut good after, especially when water had not been discharged for a long time. Thecorrosion state of the assets, especially the tanks, combined with long stoppages couldexplain this problem.The non-accessibility or non-existence of data about faecal coliforms or residualchlorine testing led to only an estimation of potential risk rather than a measure ofcontamination itself. The sanitary survey showed that there are high risks ofmicrobiological contamination (cf. Appendix F). As the system was often down, therewas stagnant water in the clear-water tank and in the over-head tank, possibility ofexternal intrusion in the pipes due to the depression in the pipe and to the brokenassets. That was made worse by the fact that there was no post-chlorination.Nevertheless there had been no reported outbreak of water-related disease the last 2years. There were reported cases of diarrhoea which did not lead to death, but noguinea worm, nor cholera; but this might be because cases were not reported becausepeople do not always go to a health centre. There were cases of bilharziosis,especially among children, reflecting a problem of bathing in the dam and streams, orwalking bare foot in stagnant water.5.2.4 System performance at WTPAt the WTP, one major problem was the power supply. The diesel-generator had notbeen working for many months. The battery was changed around May 2006 and theCranfield University at Silsoe 22 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, Nigeriagenerator worked for one day but then the injector gets damaged probably because ofpoor quality fuel. Therefore power supply was dependent on the electricity supply bythe Nigerian Electrical Power Authority (NEPA) which was not really reliable: therewas no permanent power supply during the day, and sometimes the power was notenough to run the pumps. However, the Local Government repaired the generator atthe end of July.The treatment was not really efficient and not easy to monitor. Chemicals dosage wasdone manually on a daily-basis because the mechanical dosage system of alum, limeand chlorine went down after one year. Furthermore the water system was notpumping regularly so that it was really difficult to dose accurately. As thesedimentation tank was not covered, during rainy season the coagulation-flocculationsedimentationprocess and the chlorination were disturbed.The pH level was quite low all along the process, around 4.5 to 5.5 at the source andbetween 4.5 and 6.5 at the end of sedimentation tank. This was neither good for themetal assets (corrosion due to acidic water), nor for the coagulation-flocculationprocess (optimal pH from 6.0 to 7.2 when alumic sulphate is used, (South WestWater, 2005)). The pH then lied between 6.5 and 7.2 just after the clear-water tank;apparently lime was poured in this tank until pH reach acceptable level. Colour at theend of the process was nil, but the turbidity was always higher than the target of lessthan 1 NTU.5.2.5 Reliability of the water supplyThe level of services was not reliable, from twice a week to once a month, with alower supply or even no supply at all during the rainy season. This could be partiallyexplained by the fact that during the rainy season, water from rain harvesting andhand dug well usually covered the needs of the households so that they sometimeseven did not look if there was water in the tap, especially people who did not own ayard tap. Moreover, the supply usually stopped after 30 to 60 minutes, theapproximate time to empty the over-head tank, without allowing all the people whowere waiting to fetch water.5.2.6 Convenience of water pointsThe main reasons why people were not using the taps were the distance and thecongestion at the water point. Observation during the taps survey clearly showed thatCranfield University at Silsoe 23 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, Nigeriaindividual connections were concentrated in the area around the market place, themost populated one. The public taps were spread in the 4 parts of the town, but theywere too few. Moreover the system did not provide satisfactory pressure as shown inTable 2.Table 2: Level of pressure delivered on the public and private tapsTaps High or Problems Not Nil Totalmoderatepressureofpressureworking atallPublic taps 2 4 6 0 12Individual taps 35 31 18 3 87Total 37 35 24 3 99Women and some interviewed people reported that they did not like the push-up taptype which requires power and the need to stay near the tap, compared to the turningheadtap. However, the push-up type appeared to be more resistant as there were nobreakages of the head in contrast to the turning-head tap; it also avoided waste ofwater through the taps being left opened.5.2.7 Use of water facilities and for what purposesConsumers generally used tap water for every domestic purpose, drinking, cooking,bathing and washing. They did not practice irrigation. The proportion of populationusing tap water was very low, due to the low level of services. Therefore, they used allthe water discharged when it occurred, which did not meet all their needs. Overallsources included, the questionnaire from the STU showed an average consumption of23 litres in dry season versus 40 litres in rainy season for daily consumption percapita. There seemed to be no conflict for water use, as there was no irrigation and nocattle; it was all for domestic use, except those using it for their restaurant or to sellwater in plastic bag.5.2.8 EquityAlmost all the public taps from the initial design in 1998 were either not functional atall or with very low pressure (cf. Table 1); the two functioning with high pressurewere located inside the compound of the private school of MLSC, just near the WTP,which explained the high pressure (connection is just near the pump output to theoverhead tank). Even if households with individual connections often shared tapCranfield University at Silsoe 24 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, Nigeriaaccess with people external to the households, it meant that there were very lowpublic level services.5.3 Management / sustainability aspect5.3.1 Operation and maintenanceTwo caretakers from the Water Board were effectively running the WTP fromMonday to Friday and sometimes at weekends and during night when there wasimportant need of water supply. Some of the main problems for operating havealready been discussed earlier, as it was due to infrastructure assets and not to thecaretakers themselves.During the wet season, the caretakers did sometimes take the decision to delay thesupply of water up to the time when rain had not occurred for few days. Theyaffirmed that otherwise water will be wasted as people will use the rainwater and thewells and will not care about the taps.The chemicals and diesel were normally supplied by the Water Board and/or theLocal Government but there were some difficulties: there was a shortage of supply ofchemicals in Benue State in June and July. Sometimes, money to buy fuel wasprovided by private donors, as the MLSC which had different water connections tothe WTP.Most of the breakages or problems were not repaired or it took lots of time, due tolack of resources to buy materials. The maintenance of the assets from the WTP wasalso not effective because of lack of resources and investment from either the MWREof Benue State or the Local Government.For the future, training for water quality monitoring had been given to 2 persons fromthe community but for the moment no decision have been taken by the WCA and itsmembers for the choice of caretakers.5.3.2 ManagementThe WCA in Naka, as well as in the 2 other pilot towns, did not yet have theregistration in the BESG Ministry of Women Affairs which will make it a legalCranfield University at Silsoe 25 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, Nigeriaassociation allowed to open a bank account. They had agreed, signed and published aconvention which explains the objectives, organisation and rules of the association.They were lacking an office place for the moment, which did not facilitate interactionwith the community population.Among the weaknesses noticed, the executive committee did not seem unified, asinformation circulates with difficulty between members. They also needed somesupport to help them in taking the initiative, as for example start to take interest at thewater system in order to have an understanding of it before the day the WCA willoperate it. There was also a need for basic training concerning water systemsupervision for the water scheme supervisor, and training or support for communitymobilisation, especially towards women.Looking at the strengths, they were meeting twice monthly, one for exclusivelyexecutive committee meeting, and one for general meeting with the members. Theykept regular records of meeting minutes, accounts, membership’s payments; fewimprovements needed to be done in these record keepings. The account records hadnot been studied in details but it is a domain where training will be essential.5.3.3 FinancingAt that time, the water system was still managed by the Water Board so that financialevaluation had been reduced to advice or recommendations. The lack of a bankaccount was a matter to solve because even if they were not managing the system forthe moment, they were already collecting membership’s fees and commitments. Atthe time the WCA will own the system it will be important to check that the pricescharged and the proportion of bills effectively paid are sufficient to cover theoperation and maintenance costs. Emphasis on transparency and regular accountaudits will be of good sense, particularly to maintain customers’ confidence.It is of primary importance to ensure that once the WCA will be fully effective, it hasa back support from the government in case of any major breakages or problems, andeven just in order to maintain motivation, even after few years.Cranfield University at Silsoe 26 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, Nigeria5.3.4 EquityThere was no great attendance in the WCA meetings of women, and women memberswere few compared to men. It clearly appeared that the Women Representative of theexecutive committee was encountering difficulties in mobilising women, sometimesmissing the opportunity at the different women meetings of the community to spreadinformation. Some interviewed women were aware their husband was member of theWCA, but they did not themselves have much feedback about it.The tribes were not very well integrated as the WCA meetings were held in Tivlanguage, which is usually not heard by the other tribes, used to speaking their ownlanguage and English as well. The involvement of the poorest household had not beenevaluated but it is something to look at in the future.5.3.5 Quality monitoringThere were records of the water quality done on a daily-basis since November 2005when there was power supply in the WTP. The person assigned to do so receivedtraining concerning water treatment and quality monitoring; he did not belong to theWCA executive committee and was not employed by anybody to do the job. He wasoften involved in the activities of water projects (household numbering, interviewerfor questionnaire, help for election, community map drawing...) on a voluntary basisas well as being teacher and student; that explained why there was absence of datasometimes, as he could not come to the WTP.Some of the documents used for testing were not appropriate (printing problemsbothering the measurement reading for the pump-stroke evaluation of turbidity). Assometimes it was done by the caretakers as well, units and place where sample wastaken may vary from one person to another, making the analysis difficult. There wasno method in the WTP to test residual chlorine. Data concerning the tests done by theWater Board not being accessed, there was no information whether there had beenalready a faecal coliform testing.Cranfield University at Silsoe 27 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, Nigeria5.3.6 Community (mobilisation, ownership, habits)The community in Naka did not appear as a whole unique community but as severalsmaller communities living in the same town; the distinction could be fromgeographical, religious or tribe differences. In fact, the town itself was divided in 5parts, each of them had a chairman responsible for development and informationspreading. There were several associations in Naka, even several different womenmeetings. There was a low level of caring about the public assets: breakages on thepublic tap were not reported in spite of the breakages of the individual connections;the breakages realised by the motorcyclists proved it also. Ownership feeling willneed to be enhanced to ensure infrastructure is not damaged.The poor level of attendance from members to some of the monthly meetings of theWCA, had different causes: the rainy season is a peak labour period for the farmers,the information may not always be announced in the church, and the time is in themiddle of the working day (first Wednesday of the month, 8 o’clock). It appearedthrough random interviews of the community members that many people were notreally aware of the existence and aim of the WCA, either Tiv people or tribeminorities. Many of them had not participated in the election of the WCA executivecommittee members. It seemed as well that election results had not been veryrepresentative of what the community was expecting. Some of the members seemed tohave been chosen more because of their local notoriety, influence or the fact that theyare “from Naka” rather than their skills to fit their role. There was also a suspicionfeeling among some of the people to become member of the WCA, because as theydid not see water rush, they were not confident in where their money was going.5.3.7 Stakeholders of the projectThe stakeholders of this project were numerous and from different sources: civilsociety, governmental and non-governmental agencies, from local to internationalinfluence scale (cf. figure 4). Their respective office desks were also located indifferent geographic locations, Naka, Makurdi or Abuja, so that all stakeholders weremeeting in Makurdi once a month during the Steering Committee. There wassometimes ambiguity between the different governmental organisations to fix theresponsibilities of each one, especially for the investment in repair and maintenance,Cranfield University at Silsoe 28 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, Nigeriabetween the different levels of government. It had been noticed that the Water Board,either staff from Makurdi or from the WTP in Naka, were not involved in the differentcommittees, whereas they had been running the water scheme since 1998. The schemebelow highlights the relationships which were in need to be strengthened.PartnershipBenue StateGovernmentMWRESmall Town Unit- Naka team- Ugbokpo team- Lessel teamWater Board- Makurdi staff- WTP staff in NakaPartners forWater andSanitationWateraidWater ConsumerAssociationGwer-WestLocalGovernmentWater andEnvironmentalSanitationCommunity of NakaRelationshipRelationship to strengthenFigure 4: Relationships between the different actors of the project5.4 Expansion planThe strong will of all the stakeholders was to have an expansion of the current pipedsystemto provide better coverage for some dense populated areas of Naka;community members were requiring household connections in particular and a biggeroverhead tank. It was real that the number of public water-points was not enough forthe moment compared to the population, leading to long distance walking to fetchwater.Cranfield University at Silsoe 29 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, NigeriaHowever, considering the importance of sustainability for the success of water supply,it was not considered appropriate to expand a system which was not actuallyproviding a basic satisfactory level of services: continuous, regular, durable, goodquality and with equity. At that time, the system was not fulfilling any of these criteriaso that any addition of connection would make the service quality worse, especiallyfor the pressure delivered at tap. That was mainly due to the physical incapacity of theassets to deal with 100 taps connections whereas the system was initially designed for15 taps, leading to accrued problems of pressure. Therefore inequity increasedbecause the connections added closer to the over-head tank had greater advantagesthan taps at other location. The fact that the system was even not working at the rate itwas designed for (7m 3 /h instead of 20m 3 /h) weighed in the favour of refusing theexpansion for the moment and rather to look deeply at the current system in order tomake it work in an optimum and sustainable manner. As the generator had just beenrepaired, that would improve the quality of services, on condition that the supply offuel is reliable in terms of frequency, quantity and quality.The requirements from community members also related to an increase of the intakepumping rate and an expansion of the existing dam. Increase of pumping rate morethan 20m 3 /h may first disturb the treatment process; then capacity of recharge of thedam need to be known because there is no point endangering the sustainability of thewater resource. Nevertheless, these were options to study later on, when the systemwould be ready for expansion and after acknowledgment of the present concerns.Cranfield University at Silsoe 30 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, Nigeria6 Discussion6.1 Results findingsThe results, even affected by the fact that the system was not working during theduration of the study, allow some important remarks: the current water supply systemin Naka, due to the low level of services provided, did not have the expected positiveimpact. Therefore the community still relied on other resources, mainly un-improvedones. As a consequence, expansion cannot be considered until the system providessatisfactory services in a sustainable way.The results concerning both infrastructure and management are not surprising incomparison to the other case studies feedbacks of water project in developingcountries: problems of operation and maintenance, lack of government investment,low community mobilization, financial difficulties are characteristic causes of watersystems breakdown (WHO/UNICEF, 2000). To that extent, the case study of Naka inNigeria does not escape the common rules.Nevertheless, the Naka case study highlights a specific issue Nigeria will have toaddress: the involvement of the tribe minorities in the management and decisionmaking.In fact, it is often advised in the literature to run the community meetings inthe local language but the presence in Nigeria of about 400 different languages begsthe problem of communication. People who are educated speak English, the nationallanguage, whereas the non-educated keep their tribal one. It may vary geographically,but in Naka, the minorities were often able to hear and even speak English.Considering the state of the infrastructure and the difficulties to operate and maintainthe assets, the system was not ready to be handed over to the WCA. Measures to betaken include repairing or replacing damaged assets such as broken pipes, thesedimentation tank and the clear-water tank. Adequate water treatment is also reallyimportant to manage, both for the adequacy for consumption and for the infrastructure(acidic water). Moreover, surface water of the dam can easily be subject of pollution,especially regarding the fast population growth and the development of the town.Cranfield University at Silsoe 31 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, NigeriaThe WCA has a great challenge ahead to mobilise the community and manage thesystem in a sustainable way; it will require support (in training, financially and for theenabling environment) from the government or/and other agencies in order to achieveit. Feedback from the WCA once managing the system will be useful to assess thestrengths and weaknesses of water users’ association management option in the smalltown environment, compared to other type of management.6.2 Validity of methodologyThe fact that there has never been water flowing during the study, have had someconsequences to the application of it: relying on only people interviews to assess thefunctioning of the tap as well as the difficulty sometimes to evaluate the impact of thetap system only and not the impact of all the water resources in general.6.2.1 Possible improvements of the methodThe WHO approach for evaluation proves to be really flexible to adapt the context;the added indicators allowed drawing a complete picture of the situation.When doing the surveys of the taps and mapping it, the use of a GPS would havehelped to directly get a map on scale concerning position and altitude of the waterpoints, the water system assets, as well as delimiting the different density areas. Infact, even if the map was designed with the translator who is living in Naka and whoparticipated in drawing the community map, perception of geography are sosubjective that it may be difficult to use for any further design plan carried by anotherperson.Concerning the evaluation of the WCA needs and gaps, personal interviews of each ofthe executive committee members would have been a useful source of information asduring meeting it is difficult to get equal participation of each member.In order to have a more complete view of the water issue in Naka, there should be asimilar evaluation carried out during the dry season as people’s habits to fetch waterare really different and water shortages are more acute.Cranfield University at Silsoe 32 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, NigeriaA guide and translator was absolutely necessary to ensure dialogue with thecommunity members; the bias can however be that he thinks he knows the answeralready, so it is sometimes important to insist that he still asks the question to theinterviewee even if he thinks the answer is obvious.The local context of Naka led to do one interview per tap; even if there were severalpeople, it is important for the public tap to interview different people using the sametap, as it was planned in the initial method.6.2.2 Replicability of this evaluation approachIn the objective of the PAWS to run similar projects in 70 other small towns in BenueState, applying this evaluation process can provide a good first acknowledgment ofthe situation, allow comparison and orientate policy of actions. Local specificities orin contrary similarities can then draw priorities to address in the state water sector.The short visit to Lessel allows pointing similar concerns than in Naka: problems ofpower supply, chemicals supply, vandalism and government investment. Thetreatment process did not appear to be very clear also. This evaluation can even bereused in Naka to measure evolution of the water system.To ensure optimal output, real explanation of purposes and outputs of evaluationshould be honestly and clearly explained to all actors so that it can promote greatparticipation of all stakeholders. When possible, the initial chosen indicators in themethodology should be taken rather than alternative ones as they may describe moreprecisely the situation.Cranfield University at Silsoe 33 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, Nigeria6.3 Limitations of the workThe main limitations to the work were the following:- the field work was conditioned by the availability of the translator, crucial forall interviews of community members.- the time in the field did not allow a whole understanding of the social andpolitical constraints to the project as they are not always consciously known or noteasily admitted.- a stronger working relationship with the STU of the MWRE would havefacilitated the research as they had been working in Naka for one year already.Cranfield University at Silsoe 34 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, Nigeria7 Conclusion7.1 Extent of meeting aim and objectivesThis thesis project met the initial objective to carry out an independent evaluation ofthe quality and quantity of water supply, revealing that the piped-water system wasnot working properly. Recommendations to improve the existing system wereproposed instead of the expansion plan, giving priority to sustainability of watersupply rather than impacts only. The assessment of the needs of the WCA werepartially addressed, as the WCA was not owning the water system at the moment ofthe research and as all executive committee members have not been interviewedspecifically. The water quality records from the WTP have been monitored as part ofthe evaluation of the system.As the results of this evaluation were presented orally to the WCA members duringthe WCA meeting in July and discussed, the process of learning from the evaluationdid happen. Prime results were shared as well with almost all stakeholders during theSteering Committee Meeting (Wateraid could not attend this meeting).All these lead to the achievement of the overall aim, to provide some support to theBenue State Government in its projects to increase access to safe water supply andsanitation.Cranfield University at Silsoe 35 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, Nigeria7.2 Challenge aheadThe project of scaling up the WCA model with water kiosks in the 70 other smalltowns would benefit from waiting to gain experiences from these 3 pilots areas inorder to know if it is the best option and what are its strengths and weaknesses.Meanwhile, evaluation of water supply in these towns can be done and action taken inorder that the water infrastructure is ready (functioning fully and sustainable) to behanded to a consumer association or any other chosen organisation. Anyway,flexibility will be required as small towns have different features. One challenge ofthe WCA will be to deal with the inequity factors implied by member privileges.The water supply system in Naka required several measures before it could be handedover to the WCA and before it could be expanded. The challenge for the future, inNaka as in other water projects, will be to ensure sustainability while trying toincrease proportion of people getting access to safe water as targeted by theMillennium Development Goals. The following sentence clearly sums up the concernof focusing exclusively on improving coverage: “a sustained but small impact adds adrop to the ocean of need; an impact which fails to be sustained evaporates and islost” (Carter et al., 1999).Cranfield University at Silsoe 36 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, Nigeria8 Recommendations8.1 Concerning the research projectLooking at the short stay on-site for collecting data, it could be worth clearly definingthe purpose of the research with PAWS prior to the field work.8.2 Concerning the water projectBefore being handed over to the WCA, the water supply infrastructure must be fullyfunctional at the designed rate in a sustainable way. To meet these targets, thefollowings issues should be addressed simultaneously:1. restore the technical capacity and focus on water quality monitoring2. organise a strong institutional framework to support WCA3. focus on community education and mobilisation, especially women andminorities8.3 Further research for the community benefitsConsidering the potential of rain water harvesting during the rainy season, furtherresearch should be carried out on rainwater harvesting systems and management forinstitutions like schools and clinics. Some schools are already using rainwatersystems.Further research is also needed in the management of water systems in small towns, toincrease knowledge in this area and provide advice and document on strengths andweaknesses of the different options.Cranfield University at Silsoe 37 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, Nigeria9 List of ReferencesAbrams, L.J. (1996) Africa sector review – Report. Water supply and sanitationcollaborative council. Working group on water supply and sanitation development inAfrica, October 1996.Abrams, L.J. (1998) Understanding sustainability of local water services. As cited inCarter, R., Tyrrel, S., Howsam, P. (1999) Impact and sustainability of communitywater supply and sanitation programmes in developing countries. Journal of theChartered Institution of Water and Environment Management. Vol 13 No 4 pp 292-296.Benue State, Partners for Water and Sanitation, WaterAid (2005) Small towns waterand sanitation project. PAWS documentation.Cairncross, S., Carruthers, I., Curtis, D., Feachem, R., Bradley, D. & Baldwin, G.(1980) Evaluation for village water supply planning. WHO IRC.Carter, R. (2006) Monitoring and evaluation. Lecture for Master of Sciences WaterManagement option Community Water Supply, Cranfield University, Silsoe.Carter, R. (2006a) Evaluation of water and sanitation programmes. Lecture for Masterof Sciences Water Management option Community Water Supply, CranfieldUniversity, Silsoe.Carter, R., Tyrrel, S., Howsam, P. (1999) Impact and sustainability of communitywater supply and sanitation programmes in developing countries. Journal of theChartered Institution of Water and Environment Management. Vol 13 No 4 pp 292-296.CIA (2006) The world factbook – Nigeria. (Accessed: 20 August 2006, Last up-dated:8 August 2006).https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ni.htmlCornwall, A. (2003) Whose voices? Whose choices? Reflections on gender andparticipatory development. World Development. Vol. 31, No. 8, pp. 1325-1342.DFID (1998) DFID Guidance Manual on Water Supply and Sanitation Programmes.As cited in Carter, R (2006a) Evaluation of water and sanitation programmes. Lecturefor Master of Sciences Water Management option Community Water Supply,Cranfield University, Silsoe.DFID (2004) Draft Country Assistance Plan 2004. DFID documentation.DFID (2006) Country Profiles: Africa – Nigeria. (Accessed: 20 August 2006, Last updated:10 July 2006).http://www.dfid.gov.uk/countries/africa/nigeria.aspCranfield University at Silsoe 38 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, NigeriaGuerquin, F., Ahmed, T., Hua, M., Ikeda, T., Ozbilen, V. & Schuttelaar, M. (2003)World water actions: Making water flow for all. London, Earthscan Publications Ltd.Howard, G. (2002) Water supply surveillance: A reference manual. Loughborough,WEDC.Narayan, D. (1993) Participatory evaluation: tools for managing change in water andsanitation. World Bank Technical Paper No 207. World Bank, Washington. Accessedvia internet.http://www.netlibrary.com/Details.aspxNichols, P. (1991) Social survey methods: a field guide for development workers.Development guidelines, v. 6. Oxford, Oxfam.Ocholi, M. (2006) Water quality blues. WaterAid Nigeria – Mai Ruwa. Vol. 2, pp. 12OECD (2000) Millenium Development Goals – MDG targets and indicators.(Accessed: 20 August 2006).http://www.oecd.org/document/40/0,2340,en_2649_34585_33978664_1_1_1_1,00.htmlOrubu, C. (2006) Water resources, environment and sustainable development inNigeria.Available onlinehttp://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/JHE/JHE-19-0-000-000-2006-Web/JHE-19-3-000-000-2006-Abstract-PDF/JHE-19-3-169-181-2006-1302-Orubu-C-O/JHE-19-3-169-181-2006-1302-Orubu-C-O-Text.pdfPratt, B. & Loizos, P. (1992) Choosing research methods: data collection fordevelopment workers. Development guidelines, v. 7. Oxford, Oxfam.Price, S. (2002) Public-Private Partnerships in small towns: Water supply in Uganda.Msc Thesis, Cranfield University at Silsoe.Robson, C. (2002) Real world research: A resource for social scientists andpractitioner-researchers. 2 nd edition. Oxford, Blackwell Publishers Ltd.Roche (2000) Conference facilitator: Summary report on the small towns water andsanitation electronic conference. 31 st January to 10 th March 2000. As cited in Price, S.(2002) Public-Private Partnerships in small towns: Water supply in Uganda. MscThesis, Cranfield University at Silsoe.Schouten, T. & Moriarty, P. (2003) Community water, community management:From system to service in rural areas. London, ITDG Publishing.South West Water (2005) Coagulation Flocculation. Capacity building for watertreatment, Makurdi, Nigeria.Stoveland, S. & Bassey, B.U. (2000) Status of water supply and sanitation in 37 smalltowns in Nigeria. Donor Conference in Abuja, 2-4 February 2000.Cranfield University at Silsoe 39 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, NigeriaTrevett, A. (2005) Impacts and sustainability of water supply and sanitation projects.Lecture for Master of Sciences Water Management option Community Water Supply,Cranfield University, Silsoe.Wateraid (2005) Country information – Nigeria. Wateraid documentation, accessibleonline.http://www.wateraid.org.uk/documents/nigeria_1.pdfWHO (1983) Minimum evaluation procedure. Geneva, unpublished WHO documentETS/83.1 CDR/OPR/83.1. As cited in Carter, R (2006a) Evaluation of water andsanitation programmes. Lecture for Master of Sciences Water Management optionCommunity Water Supply, Cranfield University, Silsoe.WHO (1985) Guidelines for drinking-water quality. Volume 3: Drinking-waterquality control in small-community supplies. Geneva, Switzerland, WHO.WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (2000)Global water supply and sanitation assessment – 2000 Report. Geneva, WHO.Cranfield University at Silsoe 40 Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, NigeriaAppendicesAppendix A: Map of NigeriaAppendix B: Methodology – Criteria & IndicatorsAppendix C: Scheme of the water supply system in NakaAppendix D: Results – Criteria & IndicatorsAppendix E: Semi-Structured Interview of userAppendix F: Sanitary survey of the water supplyCranfield University at Silsoe Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, NigeriaAppendix AMap of NigeriaSource: CIA website (2006)Cranfield University at Silsoe Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Preparation of field researchAdaptation on the fieldMeans of verification - Methods Done Alternatives/complementary New indicators/criteria chosen toCriteria of evaluation - Indicators associatedplanned? data collection in-fieldadapt the local situationwater quantity (supplied at tap) water quantity (at the WTP)per capita water resources availablecollect data from Water Board Measurements at WTPcollect data from governmentCollect data of nationalcensus about populationstandardsvariation of water resources available throughout theyear SSI with users of taps SSI with caretakerswater quality (at tap)turbidity, pH, colour, taste, odour, chlorine residualcollect water quality monitoringdocuments of WTP SSI with users of tapstaps inspection measurements at WTPsanitary survey of the pipepresence of coliformscollect data from Water Boardsystemcollect data from LGA HealthDepartmentcollect water quality monitoringvariation of quality throughout the yeardocuments of WTP SSI with users of taps reliability of the water supplyfrequency of stoppages SSI with users of taps duration of stoppages SSI with caretakers convenience of water pointsdistance of households from public water points SSI with users of taps acceptance of taps in placetime of queuing / of feeling a bucketuse of the water facilities and for what purposesSSI with users of taps meeting with women SSI with users of tapstaps inspection% of household using the water facilitiesSSI with users of tapsrepartition of the use of water SSI with users of taps volume of water used SSI with users of taps Realisation of non-scaled mapof the water facilitiescollect data from baselinesurveycollect data from baselinesurveycollect data from baselinesurveyquantity of water resources available(rate of pumping intake)per capita water resources availableat WTPturbidity, colour, taste, odourpotential risk of faecal / bacteriologicalcontaminationoccurrence of outbreaksfrequency of water supplyoccurrence of congestion in the waterpointssatisfactory pressure at water pointsAppendix BMethodology – Criteria & Indicators (1)

Preparation of field researchAdaptation on the fieldCriteria of evaluation - Indicators associatedoperation and maintenanceMeans of verification -Methods plannedDone?Alternatives/complementarydata collection in-fieldpresence of effective caretakers at the treatment planttreatment plant survey SSI with caretakers water quality monitoring recordscollect water quality monitoringdocuments of WTP interview of Water Board staffproportion of unutilised water points taps inspection SSI with users of tapsduration to repair/replace spare partsSSI with users of taps SSI with caretakers frequency of operation work (treatment and pumping)WTP survey management and financinglegal structure of the WCAcheck legal attestation ofassociation regular meeting book record check % of fee collection book record check cost recovery of O&M book record checkback support from governmental/non-governmental SSI with WCA executiveagencycommitteeequitycheck record of womenmemberships implication of women in the WCAobservation during WCAmeetings meeting with women implication of the poorest household in the WCA SSI with users of taps SSI with community membersSSI with users of tapsNew indicators/criteria chosen toadapt the local situationfrequency of shortage of powersupply, either generator or electricitysupplyindicators not adequate as WCA doesnot yet own the water system, butrelevant for later evaluationimplication of the minority tribesmembersproportion of public taps workingcompared to individual connectionAppendix BMethodology – Criteria & Indicators (2)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, NigeriaAppendix CScheme of the water supply system in NakaSource: Benue State, Partners for Water and Sanitation, WaterAid in Small towns waterand sanitation project, 2005Cranfield University at Silsoe Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Criteria of evaluation - IndicatorsassociatedValues Target or suggested value Source of the targetwater quantity (at the WTP)quantity of water resources available (rate ofpumping intake)7m 3 /h (*) 20m 3 /hMaster plan of thedesign in 1998per capita water resources available at WTP 2.1l/d (**) 20l/day Carter & al. (1999)variation of water resources availablethroughout the yearwater quality (at tap)turbidity, colourtaste, odourdam never dries, even during dry seasonproblems noticed sometimes70% of interviewees complaining aboutchemical taste or/and odourno target as long as the water resourcesavailable is enough to provide the targetedquantity per capitaColour

Criteria of evaluation - Indicatorsassociated Values Target or suggested value Source of the targetuse of the water facilities and for what purposes% of household using the water facilities < 2% no specific targets -repartition of the use of water all domestic purposes no specific targets -volume of water usednot representative as water is not flowingregularlyno specific targets -operation and maintenancepresence of effective caretakers at theCarter & al. (1999)yescaretaker fulfilling their assigned jobstreatment plantwater quality monitoring recordsproportion of unutilised water pointsyes, but hardly exploitable24% in total, 50% of public taps and 20% ofindividual connectionsurveillance should provide information usefulfor management decisionssystem infrastructure fully functionalduration to repair/replace spare parts up to months, some never repaired no more than 7 days a year of downtimesfrequency of shortage of power supply, eithergenerator or electricity supplymanagement and financingdailyno more than 7 days a year of downtimeslegal structure of the WCA no CBO needs legal ownershipregular meeting yes committee should be meeting regularly% of fee collection revenue collection in an effective waycost recovery of O&Mindicators not adequate for the moment asWCA does not yet own the water system, butrevenue collection in an effective wayrelevant for later evaluationback support from governmental/nongovernmentalagencyequityimplication of women in WCAimplication of the poorest household in theWCAimplication of the minority tribes membersproportion of public taps working compared toindividual connectionlownot evaluatedvery low17% of public taps and 40% of individualconnections working appropriately (high ormoderate pressure)the back stopping agency shall be in regularand effective contact with the communityachieve equity in all aspects of serviceprovisionHoward (2002)Carter & al. (1999)Schouten & Moriarty(2003)Carter & al. (1999)Carter & al. (1999)Appendix DResults – Criteria & Indicators (2)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, NigeriaAppendix ESemi-Structured Interview of userIntroduction: Presentation of the purpose of the survey- date- quarter location (town divided in 4 parts around the round about and the mainroads infrastructure as shown below)NorthIIIIIIIVMakurdidirection- number identification1 – General information about interviewee and tap surveyed- persons interviewed / type of house- owner (public or private) / approximate numbers of users of the tap- type of tap (type A: push up system / type B: turning head / type C: valve)- date of construction- density of population around :- environment (property, road, markets, buildings nearby)2 - Technical evaluation- is it working? If no, why and for how long?- experiences of breakages either in the taps itself or in the pipes? When? Howoften? Time to get things repaired/fixed right?- is technology appropriate?- drainage? Cement platform?- Leakages?3 - User perception of level of services- turbidity, color, taste, smell- discharge or time to fill a basin of 25l / pressure (good enough or too slow)- is there lots of queuing? Approximate time?- Frequence of working time4 - User habits (sources used, for what purposes)- Do you have to pay for water? How much? Is it the same for everybody?- For which purposes is the water used? (drinking, bathing, washing, cooking,gardening…)- Other sources used? For what purposesCranfield University at Silsoe Florianne Bourrigault (2006)

Evaluation of water supply system – Case study in Naka, NigeriaAppendix FSanitary survey of the water supply1. Does the pipe leak between the source and storage tank? Y / N2. Are the storage tanks cracked, damaged or leak? Y / N3. Are the vents and covers on the tanks damaged or open? Y / N4. Do any taps leak? Y / N5. Does surface water collect around any tap? Y / N6. Is area uphill of any tap eroded? Y / N7. Are pipes exposed close to any tap? Y / N8. Is human excreta on the ground within 10 m of any tap? Y / N9. Has there been discontinuity within last 10 days at any tap? Y / N10. Are there signs of leaks in the main supply pipe in the system? Y / N11. Do the community report any pipe breaks in last week? Y / N12. Is the main supply pipe exposed anywhere in the system? Y / NTotal Score of Risks: 10/12 ⇒ High risksSource: Sanitary Survey for gravity-fed piped water proposed by Howard in WaterSupply Surveillance – A reference Manual, 2002Cranfield University at Silsoe Florianne Bourrigault (2006)