Hypoglycaemia in Clinical Diabetes

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REFERENCES 119MacDonald MJ (1987). Postexercise late-onset hypoglycemia in insulin-dependent diabetic patients.Diabetes Care 10: 584–8.McGowan K, Thomas W, Moran A (2002). Spurious reporting of nocturnal hypoglycemia by CGMSin patients with tightly controlled type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 25: 1499–503.Melki V, Ayon F, Fernandez M, Hanaire-Broutin H (2006). Value and limitations of the ContinuousGlucose Monitoring System in the management of type 1 diabetes. Diabetes and Metabolism 32:123–9.Moriarty KT, Maggs DG, Macdonald IA, Tattersall RB (1993). Does ethanol cause hypoglycaemia inovernight fasted patients with type 1 diabetes? Diabetic Medicine 10: 61–5.Muhlhauser I, Koch J, Berger M (1985a). Pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of injected glucagon:differences between intramuscular, subcutaneous, and intravenous administration. Diabetes Care 8:39–42.Muhlhauser I, Berger M, Sonnenberg G, Koch J, Jorgens V, Schernthaner G et al. (1985b). Incidenceand management of severe hypoglycemia in 434 adults with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus.Diabetes Care 8: 268–73.Muhlhauser I, Toth G, Sawicki PT, Berger M (1991). Severe hypoglycemia in type 1 diabetic patientswith impaired kidney function. Diabetes Care 14: 344–46.Nilsson A, Tideholm B, Kalen J, Katzman P (1988). Incidence of severe hypoglycaemia and its causesin insulin-treated diabetics. Acta Medica Scandinavica 224: 257–2.Pereira MA, Parker ED, Folsom AR (2006). Coffee consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus:an 11-year prospective study of 28 812 postmenopausal women. Archives of Internal Medicine 26:1311–6.Polinsky RJ, Kopin IJ, Ebert MH, Weise V (1980). The adrenal medullary response to hypoglycemiain patients with orthostatic hypotension. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 51:1401–6.Potter J, Clarke P, Gale EA, Dave SH, Tattersall RB (1982). Insulin-induced hypoglycaemia inan Accident and Emergency Department: the tip of an iceberg? British Medical Journal 285:1180–2.Pramming S, Thorsteinsson B, Bendtson I, Binder C (1990). The relationship between symptomaticand biochemical hypoglycaemia in insulin-dependent diabetic patients. Journal of Internal Medicine228: 641–6.Pukakainen I, Koivisto VA, Yki-Jarvinen H (1991). No reduction in total hepatic glucose output byinhibition of gluconeogenesis with ethanol in NIDDM patients. Diabetes 40: 1319–27.Rasmussen BM, Orskov L, Schmitz O, Hermansen K (2001). Alcohol and glucose counterregulationduring acute insulin-induced hypoglycemia in type 2 diabetic subjects. Metabolism 50:451–7.Richardson T, Rozkovec A, Thomas P, Ryder J, Meckes C, Kerr D (2004). Influence of caffeine onheart rate variability in patients with long-standing type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 27: 1127–31.Richardson T, Thomas P, Ryder J, Kerr D (2005a). Influence of caffeine on frequency of hypoglycemiadetected by continuous interstitial glucose monitoring system in patients with long-standing type 1diabetes. Diabetes Care 28: 1316–20.Richardson T, Weiss M, Thomas P, Kerr D (2005b). Day after the night before: influence ofevening alcohol on risk of hypoglycemia in patients with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 28:1801–2.Rivier C, Bruhn T, Vale W (1984). Effect of ethanol on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis inthe rat: role of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF). Journal of Pharmacology and ExperimentalTherapy 229: 127–31.Rosen B, Miodovnik M, Holcberg G, Khoury J, Siddiqi T (1995). Hypoglycaemia: the price ofintensive insulin therapy for pregnant women with insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. Obstetricsand Gynaecology 85: 417–22.
120 MODERATORS, MONITORING AND MANAGEMENTRyder RE, Owens DR, Hayes TM, Ghatei MA, Bloom SR (1990). Unawareness of hypoglycaemia andinadequate hypoglycaemic counterregulation: no causal relation with diabetic autonomic neuropathy.British Medical Journal 301: 783–7.The DCCT Research Group (1991). Epidemiology of severe hypoglycemia in the Diabetes Controland Complications Trial. American Journal of Medicine 90: 450–9.The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group (1995). Adverse events and theirassociation with treatment regimens in the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. Diabetes Care18: 1415–27.The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group (1997). Hypoglycemia in the DiabetesControl and Complications Trial. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group.Diabetes 46: 271–86.Ting JW, Lautt WW (2006). The effect of acute, chronic, and prenatal ethanol exposure on insulinsensitivity. Pharmacology and Therapeutics 111: 346–73.Trojan N, Pavan P, Iori E, Vettore M, Marescotti MC, Macdonald IA et al. (1999). Effect of differenttimes of administration of a single ethanol dose on insulin action, insulin secretion and redox state.Diabetic Medicine 16: 400–7.Turner BC, Jenkins E, Kerr D, Sherwin RS, Cavan DA (2001). The effect of evening alcohol consumptionon next-morning glucose control in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 24: 1888–93.UK Hypoglycaemia Group (2007). Risk of hypoglycaemia in types 1 and 2 diabetes: effects oftreatment modalities and their duration. Diabetologia 50: 1140–7.Veneman T, Mitrakou A, Mokan M, Cryer P, Gerich J (1993). Induction of hypoglycemia unawarenessby asymptomatic nocturnal hypoglycemia. Diabetes 42: 1233–7.Vinik AI, Maser RE, Mitchell BD, Freeman R (2003). Diabetic autonomic neuropathy. Diabetes Care26: 1553–79.Ward CM, Stewart AW, Cutfield RG (1990). Hypoglycaemia in insulin dependent diabetic patientsattending an outpatients’ clinic. New Zealand Medical Journal 25: 339–41.Watson JM, Jenkins EJ, Hamilton P, Lunt MJ, Kerr D (2000). Influence of caffeine on the frequencyand perception of hypoglycemia in free-living patients with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 23:455–9.Wehrenberg WB, Janowski BA, Piering AW, Culler F, Jones KL (1990). Glucocorticoids: potentinhibitors and stimulators of growth hormone secretion. Endocrinology 126: 3200–3.Yki-Jarvinen H, Nikkila EA (1985). Ethanol decreases glucose utilisation in healthy man. Journal ofClinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 61: 941–5.
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Hypoglycaemia in Clinical DiabetesS
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Hypoglycaemia in Clinical DiabetesS
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ToEmily, Ben and Marc
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viiiCONTENTS13 Long-term Effects of
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ContributorsProfessor Stephanie A.
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1 Normal Glucose Metabolismand Resp
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NORMAL GLUCOSE HOMEOSTASIS 3Box 1.2
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Fed state (Figure 1.1b)EFFECTS OF G
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COUNTERREGULATION DURING HYPOGLYCAE
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COUNTERREGULATION DURING HYPOGLYCAE
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HORMONAL CHANGES DURING HYPOGLYCAEM
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HORMONAL CHANGES DURING HYPOGLYCAEM
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PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES 15hormones.
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PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES 17Figure 1.
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PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES 19We do not
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REFERENCES 21NORMAL GLUCOSE HOMEOST
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REFERENCES 23Hamilton-Wessler M, Be
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2 Symptoms of Hypoglycaemiaand Effe
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SYMPTOMS OF HYPOGLYCAEMIA 27appeare
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SYMPTOMS OF HYPOGLYCAEMIA 29aware o
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SYMPTOMS OF HYPOGLYCAEMIA 31Table 2
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SYMPTOMS OF HYPOGLYCAEMIA 33frequen
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SYMPTOMS OF HYPOGLYCAEMIA 35Figure
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ACUTE HYPOGLYCAEMIA AND COGNITIVE F
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ACUTE HYPOGLYCAEMIA AND EMOTIONS 43
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REFERENCES 45Bremer JP, Baron M, Pe
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REFERENCES 47McAulay V, Deary IJ, F
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3 Frequency, Causes and RiskFactors
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FREQUENCY OF HYPOGLYCAEMIA 51Box 3.
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Table 3.1 Frequency of mild hypogly
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FREQUENCY OF HYPOGLYCAEMIA 55some i
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FREQUENCY OF HYPOGLYCAEMIA 57Jansse
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Table 3.2 Frequency of severe hypog
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CAUSES OF HYPOGLYCAEMIACAUSES OF HY
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RISK FACTORS FOR SEVERE HYPOGLYCAEM
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Page 82 and 83: RISK FACTORS FOR SEVERE HYPOGLYCAEM
Page 88 and 89: CONCLUSIONS 75Other Risk FactorsThe
Page 90 and 91: REFERENCES 77Bott S, Bott U, Berger
Page 92 and 93: REFERENCES 79Leckie AM, Graham MK,
Page 94: REFERENCES 81Vervoort G, Goldschmid
Page 97 and 98: Table 4.1 Frequency of nocturnal hy
Page 99 and 100: 86 NOCTURNAL HYPOGLYCAEMIACAUSES OF
Page 101 and 102: 88 NOCTURNAL HYPOGLYCAEMIAPlasma Ep
Page 103 and 104: 90 NOCTURNAL HYPOGLYCAEMIACAN NOCTU
Page 105 and 106: 92 NOCTURNAL HYPOGLYCAEMIABox 4.2 C
Page 107 and 108: 94 NOCTURNAL HYPOGLYCAEMIAconflicti
Page 109 and 110: 96 NOCTURNAL HYPOGLYCAEMIA• Noctu
Page 111 and 112: 98 NOCTURNAL HYPOGLYCAEMIAHolleman
Page 114 and 115: 5 Moderators, Monitoring andManagem
Page 116 and 117: LIFESTYLE MODERATORS 103• absolut
Page 118 and 119: LIFESTYLE MODERATORS 10520 22 24 2
Page 120 and 121: LIFESTYLE MODERATORS 107Growthhormo
Page 122 and 123: LIFESTYLE MODERATORS 109mean change
Page 124 and 125: MONITORING 111flow) while simultane
Page 126 and 127: MONITORING 113• It is unclear whe
Page 128 and 129: MANAGEMENT OF HYPOGLYCAEMIA 115MANA
Page 130 and 131: REFERENCES 117CONCLUSIONS• Hypogl
Page 134 and 135: 6 Counterregulatory Deficienciesin
Page 136 and 137: NORMAL GLUCOSE COUNTERREGULATION 12
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Page 140 and 141: DEFECTIVE HORMONAL GLUCOSE COUNTERR
Page 142 and 143: DEFECTIVE HORMONAL GLUCOSE COUNTERR
Page 144 and 145: MECHANISMS OF COUNTERREGULATORY FAI
Page 146 and 147: AGE, OBESITY AND GLUCOSE COUNTERREG
Page 148 and 149: TREATMENT OF COUNTERREGULATORY FAIL
Page 150 and 151: REFERENCES 137Bingham EM, Dunn JT,
Page 152 and 153: REFERENCES 139McCall AL, Fixman LB,
Page 154 and 155: 7 Impaired Awareness ofHypoglycaemi
Page 156 and 157: NORMAL RESPONSES TO HYPOGLYCAEMIA 1
Page 158 and 159: IMPAIRED AWARENESS OF HYPOGLYCAEMIA
Page 160 and 161: PREVALENCE OF IMPAIRED AWARENESS OF
Page 162 and 163: PATHOGENESIS OF IMPAIRED AWARENESS
Page 172 and 173: Table 7.3 Studies of antecedent hyp
Page 174 and 175: IMPAIRED AWARENESS OF HYPOGLYCAEMIA
Page 176 and 177: TREATMENT STRATEGIES 163or unexplai
Page 178 and 179: CONCLUSIONS 165Box 7.5 Treatment st
Page 180 and 181: REFERENCES 167Boyle PJ (1997). Alte
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REFERENCES 169Kerr D, Sherwin RS, P
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8 Risks of Strict GlycaemicControlS
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CONTRIBUTORS TO INCREASED RISK OF S
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CONTRIBUTORS TO INCREASED RISK OF S
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CEREBRAL ADAPTATION 177severe, are
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CEREBRAL ADAPTATION 179hypoglycaemi
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THERAPEUTIC MANIPULATION 181Figure
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PATIENTS UNSUITABLE FOR STRICT CONT
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REFERENCES 185It is the patient who
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REFERENCES 187Egger M, Davey Smith
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REFERENCES 189Simonson DC, Tamborla
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192 HYPOGLYCAEMIA IN CHILDREN WITH
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Table 9.2 Summary of studies examin
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10 Hypoglycaemia in PregnancyAnn E.
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FREQUENCY OF HYPOGLYCAEMIA IN DIABE
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FREQUENCY OF HYPOGLYCAEMIA IN DIABE
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CLINICAL MANAGEMENT BEFORE AND DURI
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Figure 10.2 Example of home blood g
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MATERNAL COMPLICATIONS OF DIABETES
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COMPLICATIONS IN THE INFANT OF THE
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REFERENCES 235Akazawa M, Akazawa S,
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REFERENCES 237Ray JG, O’Brien TE,
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240 HYPOGLYCAEMIA IN TYPE 2 DIABETE
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Table 11.2a Prevalence of severe hy
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266 MORTALITY, CARDIOVASCULAR MORBI
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13 Long-term Effects ofHypoglycaemi
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COGNITIVE FUNCTION AND HYPOGLYCAEMI
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FUNCTIONAL EFFECTS OF HYPOGLYCAEMIA
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STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL CHANGES I
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REFERENCES 303disease (Fisher and F
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REFERENCES 305Fisher M, Frier BM (1
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REFERENCES 307Seidl R, Birnbacher R
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310 LIVING WITH HYPOGLYCAEMIAPSYCHO
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312 LIVING WITH HYPOGLYCAEMIABox 14
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314 LIVING WITH HYPOGLYCAEMIAprophy
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316 LIVING WITH HYPOGLYCAEMIAMost t
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318 LIVING WITH HYPOGLYCAEMIAfor pu
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320 LIVING WITH HYPOGLYCAEMIAVocati
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322 LIVING WITH HYPOGLYCAEMIAif the
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324 LIVING WITH HYPOGLYCAEMIAestabl
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326 LIVING WITH HYPOGLYCAEMIAwith g
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328 LIVING WITH HYPOGLYCAEMIAalcoho
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330 LIVING WITH HYPOGLYCAEMIAChante
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332 LIVING WITH HYPOGLYCAEMIASonger
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334 INDEXanterior pituitary gland,
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336 INDEXcomplications due to diabe
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338 INDEXemployment aspects, 323-32
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340 INDEXhypopituitarism, 74, 102,
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342 INDEXmood changes due to hypogl
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344 INDEXpsychological factors, and
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346 INDEXtrain drivers, 323, 324tra
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