Occupation

V. Koutroulis – The application of international humanitarian law and international human rights law insituations of prolonged occupation: only a matter of time?Regulations is the one to restore and ensure ‘public order and safety’ or – moreaccurately in light of the formulation of the authentic French version (‘l’ordre et lavie publics’) –‘public order and (civil) life’. 67 ‘Public order and civil life’ have beeninterpreted as referring to ‘the whole social, commercial and economic life of thecommunity’. 68 In doing so, the Occupying Power must respect the laws of theoccupied territory ‘unless absolutely prevented’. These terms have been furtherspecified by Article 64, paragraph 2 of the Fourth Geneva Convention. 69 TheOccupying Power is not absolutely prevented from introducing legislative changesin order to, first, fulfil its obligations under the Fourth Geneva Convention; second,maintain the orderly government of the occupied territory; and third, ensure thesecurity of the Occupying Power and of the members and property of the occupyingforces or the administration. 70 In reality the limitations imposed by the ‘unlessabsolutely prevented’ exception are far less rigid than its negative formulationsuggests. 71 This is confirmed by the interplay between Article 43 of the HagueRegulations and Article 64, paragraph 2 of the Fourth Geneva Convention. As wejust explained, according to the first of these two articles, the Occupying Powershould preserve public order and civil life while respecting the legislation of theoccupied territory. Only in exceptional cases can this respect be circumvented.Among these exceptional cases, Article 64, paragraph 2 of the Convention includesthe need to maintain the orderly government of the occupied territory. However, thepreservation of public order and civil life itself forms an essential part of theoccupier’s obligation to maintain the orderly government of the occupied territory.Thus, the two parts of the rule laid down in Article 43 of the Hague Regulationsbecome tautological to a large extent: the occupier should preserve public order andcivil life without interfering with local legislation unless such interference isnecessary for the orderly government of the territory, orderly government thatcertainly includes the preservation of public order and civil life. In view of the above,67 M. Sassòli, above note 66, pp. 663–664; David Kretzmer, The Occupation of Justice: The Supreme Court ofIsrael and the Occupied Territories, State University of New York Press, Albany, NY, 2002, pp. 58–59;E. H. Schwenk, above note 66, p. 393.68 Court of Criminal Appeal established at the British Zone of Control in Germany, Grahame v. The Directorof Prosecutions, British Zone of Control, Control Commission, 26 July 1947, Annual Digest and Reports ofPublic International Law Cases, Vol. 14, 1947, p. 232. The Supreme Court of Israel, Askan case, above note9, p. 19, para. 18, states that Article 43 ‘extends to the public order and life in all their aspects ...such aseconomic, social, educational, hygenic [sic], medical, traffic and similar matters that are connected withlife in a modern society’.69 Commentary GC IV, above note 5, p. 335; M. Sassòli, above note 66, pp. 669–671; Y. Dinstein, above note66, pp. 4–6. Schwenk’s analysis confirms that the exceptions introduced by Article 64 of GC IV were inconformity with the interpretation of the phrase ‘unless absolutely prevented’ before the adoption of GCIV, Art. 64: see E. H. Schwenk, above note 66, pp. 399–402.70 See GC IV, Art. 64, para. 2, above note 65. For an analysis of the scope of this provision see M. Sassòli,above note 66, pp. 674–675 and 678–679. Penal legislation is specifically regulated by GC IV, Art. 64,para. 1.71 It has, for example, been considered that an Occupying Power would be absolutely prevented fromapplying local legislation contrary to international law in general, with particular reference to humanrights norms. See UK, Military Manual, above note 7, pp. 278–279, para. 11.11; M. Sassòli, above note 66,pp. 676–678; Robert Y. Jennings, ‘Government in commission’,inBritish Year Book of International Law,Vol. 23, 1946, p. 132, n. 1; F. A. Mann, ‘The present legal status of Germany’, inInternational LawQuarterly, Vol. 1, No. 3, 1947, p. 321.178