The Java Language Specification, Third Edition

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4.3 Reference Types and Values TYPES, VALUES, AND VARIABLES 44 4.3 Reference Types and Values There are three kinds of reference types: class types (§8), interface types (§9), and array types (§10). Reference types may be parameterized (§4.5) with type arguments (§4.4). ReferenceType: ClassOrInterfaceType TypeVariable ArrayType ClassOrInterfaceType: ClassType InterfaceType ClassType: TypeDeclSpecifier TypeArgumentsopt InterfaceType: TypeDeclSpecifier TypeArgumentsopt TypeDeclSpecifier: TypeName ClassOrInterfaceType . Identifier TypeName: Identifier TypeName . Identifier TypeVariable: Identifier ArrayType: Type [ ] DRAFT A class or interface type consists of a type declaration specifier, optionally followed by type arguments (in which case it is a parameterized type). Type arguments are described in (§4.5.1). A type declaration specifier may be either a type name (§6.5.5), or a class or interface type followed by "." and an identifier. In the latter case, the specifier has the form T.id, where id must be the simple name of an accessible (§6.6) member type ( §8.5, §9.5) of T, or a compile-time error occurs. The specifier denotes that member type.
TYPES, VALUES, AND VARIABLES Objects 4.3.1 The sample code: class Point { int[] metrics; } interface Move { void move(int deltax, int deltay); } declares a class type Point, an interface type Move, and uses an array type int[] (an array of int) to declare the field metrics of the class Point. 4.3.1 Objects An object is a class instance or an array. The reference values (often just references) are pointers to these objects, and a special null reference, which refers to no object. A class instance is explicitly created by a class instance creation expression (§15.9). An array is explicitly created by an array creation expression (§15.10). A new class instance is implicitly created when the string concatenation operator + (§15.18.1) is used in a non-constant (§15.28) expression, resulting in a new object of type String (§4.3.3). A new array object is implicitly created when an array initializer expression (§10.6) is evaluated; this can occur when a class or interface is initialized (§12.4), when a new instance of a class is created (§15.9), or when a local variable declaration statement is executed (§14.4). New objects of the types Boolean, Byte, Short, Character, Integer, Long, Float and Double may be implicitly created by boxing conversion (§5.1.7). Many of these cases are illustrated in the following example: class Point { int x, y; Point() { System.out.println("default"); } Point(int x, int y) { this.x = x; this.y = y; } // A Point instance is explicitly created at class initialization time: static Point origin = new Point(0,0); // A String can be implicitly created by a + operator: public String toString() { return "(" + x + "," + y + ")"; } } class Test { public static void main(String[] args) { // A Point is explicitly created using newInstance: Point p = null; try { p = (Point)Class.forName("Point").newInstance(); } catch (Exception e) { System.out.println(e); } DRAFT 45
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The Java Language Specification Th
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The Java Language Specification Th
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Copyright © 1996-2005 Sun Microsys
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“When I use a word,” Humpty Dum
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Preface XXIII Preface to the Second
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5.4 String Conversion 101 5.5 Casti
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8.2.1.3 Inheritance with private 19
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10 Arrays 287 10.1 Array Types 288
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14 Blocks and Statements 359 14.1 N
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15.12.4.4 Locate Method to Invoke 4
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17.4.2 Actions 558 17.4.3 Programs
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Preface THE Java programming langua
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PREFACE was invaluable to us during
Page 27 and 28: Preface to the Second Edition ... t
Page 29 and 30: PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION Trici
Page 31 and 32: Preface to the Third Edition This e
Page 33 and 34: PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION Joe Da
Page 35 and 36: 1.0 CHAPTER1 Introduction If I have
Page 37 and 38: INTRODUCTION Introduction 1 declare
Page 39 and 40: INTRODUCTION Example Programs 1.1 B
Page 41 and 42: INTRODUCTION References 1.4 Goldber
Page 43 and 44: CHAPTER2 Grammars Grammar, which kn
Page 45 and 46: GRAMMARS Grammar Notation 2.4 actua
Page 47 and 48: CHAPTER3 Lexical Structure Lexicogr
Page 49 and 50: LEXICAL STRUCTURE Unicode Escapes 3
Page 51 and 52: LEXICAL STRUCTURE Input Elements an
Page 53 and 54: LEXICAL STRUCTURE Identifiers 3.8 E
Page 55 and 56: LEXICAL STRUCTURE Literals 3.10 3.9
Page 57 and 58: LEXICAL STRUCTURE Integer Literals
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Page 61 and 62: LEXICAL STRUCTURE Character Literal
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Page 65 and 66: LEXICAL STRUCTURE Operators 3.12 3.
Page 67 and 68: CHAPTER4 Types, Values, and Variabl
Page 69 and 70: TYPES, VALUES, AND VARIABLES Integr
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Page 111 and 112: CHAPTER5 Conversions and Promotions
Page 113 and 114: CONVERSIONS AND PROMOTIONS Conversi
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CONVERSIONS AND PROMOTIONS Assignme
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CONVERSIONS AND PROMOTIONS Assignme
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CONVERSIONS AND PROMOTIONS Method I
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CONVERSIONS AND PROMOTIONS Casting
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CONVERSIONS AND PROMOTIONS Unary Nu
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CONVERSIONS AND PROMOTIONS Binary N
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CHAPTER6 Names The Tao that can be
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NAMES Names and Identifiers 6.2 ❖
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NAMES Scope of a Declaration 6.3 in
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NAMES Shadowing Declarations 6.3.1
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NAMES Shadowing Declarations 6.3.1
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NAMES The Members of a Class Type 6
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NAMES The Members of an Array Type
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NAMES Syntactic Classification of a
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NAMES Reclassification of Contextua
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NAMES Meaning of Package Names 6.5.
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NAMES Meaning of Type Names 6.5.5 a
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NAMES Meaning of Expression Names 6
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NAMES Meaning of Method Names 6.5.7
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NAMES Details on protected Access 6
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NAMES Example: Access to public and
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NAMES Example: protected Fields, Me
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NAMES Fully Qualified Names and Can
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NAMES Class and Interface Type Name
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NAMES Method Names 6.8.4 DISCUSSION
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NAMES Local Variable and Parameter
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CHAPTER7 Packages Good things come
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PACKAGES Storing Packages in a File
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PACKAGES Compilation Units 7.3 7.2.
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PACKAGES Unnamed Packages 7.4.2 on
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PACKAGES Single-Type-Import Declara
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PACKAGES Type-Import-on-Demand Decl
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PACKAGES A Strange Example 7.5.6 7.
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PACKAGES Top Level Type Declaration
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PACKAGES Unique Package Names 7.7 t
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PACKAGES Unique Package Names 7.7 o
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CHAPTER8 Classes Origins: A Short E
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CLASSES Class Modifiers 8.1.1 8.1 C
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CLASSES Class Modifiers 8.1.1 class
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CLASSES Generic Classes and Type Pa
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CLASSES Inner Classes and Enclosing
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CLASSES Inner Classes and Enclosing
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CLASSES Superclasses and Subclasses
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CLASSES Superinterfaces 8.1.5 resul
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CLASSES Class Body and Member Decla
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CLASSES Class Members 8.2 Construct
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CLASSES Examples of Inheritance 8.2
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CLASSES Examples of Inheritance 8.2
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CLASSES Field Modifiers 8.3.1 If a
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CLASSES Field Modifiers 8.3.1 of ac
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CLASSES Initialization of Fields 8.
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CLASSES Initialization of Fields 8.
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CLASSES Examples of Field Declarati
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CLASSES Examples of Field Declarati
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CLASSES Method Declarations 8.4 fie
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CLASSES Formal Parameters 8.4.1 of
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CLASSES Method Signature 8.4.2 Two
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CLASSES Method Modifiers 8.4.3 an i
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CLASSES Method Modifiers 8.4.3 resp
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CLASSES Method Modifiers 8.4.3 Thes
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CLASSES Method Throws 8.4.6 • If
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CLASSES Method Body 8.4.7 Object do
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CLASSES Inheritance, Overriding, an
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CLASSES Inheritance, Overriding, an
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CLASSES Overloading 8.4.9 DISCUSSIO
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CLASSES Examples of Method Declarat
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CLASSES Member Type Declarations 8.
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CLASSES Static Initializers 8.7 aga
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CLASSES Constructor Modifiers 8.8.3
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CLASSES Constructor Body 8.8.7 clas
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CLASSES Constructor Body 8.8.7 •
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CLASSES Default Constructor 8.8.9 8
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CLASSES Enums 8.9 8.9 Enums An enum
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CLASSES Enums 8.9 DISCUSSION This i
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CLASSES Enums 8.9 Note that the exa
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CLASSES Enums 8.9 DIME: 10¢ SILVER
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CLASSES Enums 8.9 public static voi
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CHAPTER9 Interfaces My apple trees
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INTERFACES Superinterfaces and Subi
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INTERFACES Interface Members 9.2 9.
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INTERFACES Examples of Field Declar
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INTERFACES Inheritance and Overridi
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INTERFACES Examples of Abstract Met
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INTERFACES Annotation Types 9.6 DIS
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INTERFACES Predefined Annotation Ty
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INTERFACES Predefined Annotation Ty
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INTERFACES Annotations 9.7 • The
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INTERFACES Annotations 9.7 TypeName
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INTERFACES Annotations 9.7 The seco
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CHAPTER10 Arrays Even Solomon in al
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ARRAYS Array Access 10.4 Here are s
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ARRAYS Array Initializers 10.6 Arra
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ARRAYS Class Objects for Arrays 10.
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ARRAYS Array Store Exception 10.10
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CHAPTER11 Exceptions If anything ca
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EXCEPTIONS Exception Analysis of Ex
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EXCEPTIONS Why Runtime Exceptions a
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EXCEPTIONS Handling Asynchronous Ex
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EXCEPTIONS An Example of Exceptions
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EXCEPTIONS Virtual Machine Errors 1
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CHAPTER12 Execution We must all han
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EXECUTION Initialize Test: Execute
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EXECUTION The Loading Process 12.2.
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EXECUTION Resolution of Symbolic Re
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EXECUTION When Initialization Occur
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EXECUTION Detailed Initialization P
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EXECUTION Initialization: Implicati
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EXECUTION Creation of New Class Ins
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EXECUTION Finalization of Class Ins
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EXECUTION Implementing Finalization
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EXECUTION Finalizer Invocations are
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EXECUTION Program Exit 12.8 ers. A
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CHAPTER13 Binary Compatibility Desp
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BINARY COMPATIBILITY The Form of a
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BINARY COMPATIBILITY The Form of a
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BINARY COMPATIBILITY What Binary Co
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BINARY COMPATIBILITY Superclasses a
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BINARY COMPATIBILITY Class Body and
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BINARY COMPATIBILITY Field Declarat
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BINARY COMPATIBILITY final Fields a
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BINARY COMPATIBILITY static Fields
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BINARY COMPATIBILITY Method and Con
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BINARY COMPATIBILITY final Methods
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BINARY COMPATIBILITY Method and Con
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BINARY COMPATIBILITY Interface Form
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CHAPTER14 Blocks and Statements He
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BLOCKS AND STATEMENTS Local Class D
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BLOCKS AND STATEMENTS Local Variabl
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BLOCKS AND STATEMENTS Scope of Loca
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BLOCKS AND STATEMENTS Execution of
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BLOCKS AND STATEMENTS Statements 14
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BLOCKS AND STATEMENTS Expression St
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BLOCKS AND STATEMENTS The assert St
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BLOCKS AND STATEMENTS The assert St
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BLOCKS AND STATEMENTS The switch St
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BLOCKS AND STATEMENTS The switch St
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BLOCKS AND STATEMENTS Abrupt Comple
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BLOCKS AND STATEMENTS Example of do
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BLOCKS AND STATEMENTS The basic for
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BLOCKS AND STATEMENTS The enhanced
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BLOCKS AND STATEMENTS The break Sta
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BLOCKS AND STATEMENTS The continue
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BLOCKS AND STATEMENTS The throw Sta
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BLOCKS AND STATEMENTS The synchroni
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BLOCKS AND STATEMENTS The try state
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BLOCKS AND STATEMENTS Unreachable S
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CHAPTER15 Expressions When you can
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EXPRESSIONS Expressions and Run-Tim
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EXPRESSIONS Normal and Abrupt Compl
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EXPRESSIONS Evaluate Left-Hand Oper
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EXPRESSIONS Evaluation Respects Par
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EXPRESSIONS Evaluation Order for Ot
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EXPRESSIONS this 15.8.3 ing-point l
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EXPRESSIONS Class Instance Creation
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EXPRESSIONS Determining Enclosing I
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EXPRESSIONS Choosing the Constructo
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EXPRESSIONS Anonymous Class Declara
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EXPRESSIONS Array Creation Expressi
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EXPRESSIONS Example: Array Creation
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EXPRESSIONS Field Access Using a Pr
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EXPRESSIONS Field Access Using a Pr
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EXPRESSIONS Accessing Superclass Me
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EXPRESSIONS Compile-Time Step 1: De
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EXPRESSIONS Compile-Time Step 3: Is
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EXPRESSIONS Runtime Evaluation of M
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EXPRESSIONS Examples: Array Access
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EXPRESSIONS Postfix Increment Opera
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EXPRESSIONS Prefix Increment Operat
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EXPRESSIONS Unary Minus Operator -
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EXPRESSIONS Multiplicative Operator
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EXPRESSIONS Division Operator / 15.
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EXPRESSIONS Remainder Operator % 15
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EXPRESSIONS String Concatenation Op
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EXPRESSIONS String Concatenation Op
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EXPRESSIONS Additive Operators (+ a
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EXPRESSIONS Numerical Comparison Op
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EXPRESSIONS Equality Operators 15.2
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EXPRESSIONS Reference Equality Oper
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EXPRESSIONS Conditional-Or Operator
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EXPRESSIONS Conditional Operator ?
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EXPRESSIONS Simple Assignment Opera
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EXPRESSIONS Compound Assignment Ope
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EXPRESSIONS Constant Expression 15.
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CHAPTER16 Definite Assignment All t
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DEFINITE ASSIGNMENT Definite Assign
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DEFINITE ASSIGNMENT The Boolean Ope
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DEFINITE ASSIGNMENT Assignment Expr
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DEFINITE ASSIGNMENT Other Expressio
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DEFINITE ASSIGNMENT Local Variable
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DEFINITE ASSIGNMENT switch Statemen
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DEFINITE ASSIGNMENT for Statements
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DEFINITE ASSIGNMENT try Statements
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CHAPTER17 Threads and Locks And oft
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THREADS AND LOCKS Incorrectly Synch
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THREADS AND LOCKS Memory Model 17.4
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THREADS AND LOCKS Actions 17.4.2
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THREADS AND LOCKS Happens-before Or
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THREADS AND LOCKS Executions 17.4.6
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THREADS AND LOCKS Executions and Ca
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THREADS AND LOCKS Observable Behavi
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THREADS AND LOCKS Final Field Seman
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THREADS AND LOCKS Semantics of Fina
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THREADS AND LOCKS Subsequent Modifi
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THREADS AND LOCKS Non-atomic Treatm
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THREADS AND LOCKS Notification 17.8
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THREADS AND LOCKS Sleep and Yield 1
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CHAPTER18 Syntax Is there grammar i
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SYNTAX The Grammar of the Java Prog
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A abrupt completion See completion,
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definite assignment before, 548 det
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See also numbers literals, term def
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See local class member See member c
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See also hiding; obscuring; scope;
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in assignment conversion context, 9
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of blank final class variables, 199
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interface, multiply inherited, 266
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division, evaluation, 493 equality
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easons why constructors cannot be,
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identity conversion in assignment c
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order, 428 expressions as statement
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L labeled statements identifiers in
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term definition, 122 type, 44 memor
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class, 175 constructor, 241 declara
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conversions of and to See conversio
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importing all public types from a,
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Q superclasses, accessing instances
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internal symbolic reference table,
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declaring class methods with, 216 h
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applicable by subtyping, 445 applic
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unchecked, 301 executed, 409 exit o
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precision, loss of, 81 preparation,
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termination and virtual machine exi
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members and constructors, 55 reifia
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of binary representation, of classe
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Colophon CAMERA-READY electronic co
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