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flexibility and mobility as an instrument to actively develop their career plans and professional development. Their work identity is highly individualised, primarily based upon their personal skills, capacity for continuous learning and a project oriented work attitude. • Between these two extremes there is continuum of several forms of work identities that can be characterised as different kinds of ‘adjustment’, ‘re-definition’ or ‘cross-border’ strategies. These generally represent a more conditional form of adaptation – the individual may remain in an occupation and/or with a particular employer, but they recognise that this represents a compromise rather than an ideal situation. Typically factors from outside work (family commitments, personal networks, attachment to a particular location) may ‘hold’ an individual in place. The individual may still seek to satisfy the expectations (of employer, colleagues and customers, patients or clients) of how they should perform their role, but they typically have some reservations about their work or employer. However, employees may remain in the same job for a considerable period of time, but may (internally or externally) move on if the ‘holding’ circumstances or external conditions change. 2. Employer-employee relations are increasingly based upon a ‘user-provider’ concept of work by which the employee is rather considered as a self-employed ‘entrepreneur’ who is selling his or her services, skills and competencies upon demand. This model assumes a high level of flexibility, continuous learning, risk management capacity and the ability to actively shape and construct one’s own professional development and identity. This new form of employer-employee relations has a number of implications: 3. It promotes and supports a general trend towards the “individualisation” of work identities away from classical collective forms of work-related identities. This makes collective bargaining for workers and employees difficult. Instead, collective bargaining strategies are increasingly being replaced by individual negotiation to deal with tension and conflict situations at work. 4. For the employer, it transfers responsibilities for training, learning and professional development from the company to the individual level. 5. For the individual employee a pro-active, “entrepreneurial” multi-skilled work attitude develops complex, flexible and multi-dimensional work identities that can be continuously be adjusted to the requirements of change. Stability and continuity that were formally generated through, for example, by the employment contract and a stable company attachment, increasingly have to be actively constructed by the employees themselves. 6. However, not all employees and workers possess the personal resources to cope with such requirements concerning work, skills and professional development. For example, high pressure for time flexibility and horizontal mobility that involve changing work tasks, roles or employers, often lead to stress and a lack of control over work performance. This can be observed especially within occupations and organisations where the requirements for flexibility and mobility are high and related forms of work organisation and tasks are changing rapidly such as in the IT sector. 7. There is also a danger of segmentation of the work force by excluding an increasing number of people who cannot or do not have the means to be an “entrepreneurial” type of employee, because they lack the right qualification or skills; they may come from a disadvantaged socio-economic background; they may not be very flexible in general or prefer to hold onto more classical forms of work concepts. 8. The number of workers in Europe who are not of an “entrepreneurial” type and thus could be at a disadvantage is potentially high. 9. This has implications for the social costs that might be incurred by government and other agencies. These costs are dependent on the extent to which workers and employees are equipped and prepared to cope with these changing requirements. Key Recommendations 1. Most employees, but particularly skilled workers over 35 years of age need to be actively supported and guided to cope with changing work environments and avoid them falling into a passive ‘retreat’ strategy that will ultimately lead to their professional exclusion. 164
2. There is a need to encourage flexibility in learning during and between initial education and work-related continuous vocational training by: • Promoting “curricular flexibility” through the development of a balanced mix between specific/technical knowledge and transversal generic/soft skills; • The accreditation of informal learning to allow for a voluntary and effective access to further learning, promotion and horizontal job movements; • The development of a “competence audit regime” (“Bilan de Compétences”) that can be used as a guidance instrument to support the individuals in successfully responding to the demands for flexibility and mobility and empower them to become agents of their own socio-professional development. 3. There is a need to develop more comprehensive and active socio-vocational inclusion/re-inclusion programmes based upon effective and individualised accompaniment and continuing follow-up. 4. There is a need to encourage self-initiated and directed continuous vocational learning and “competence audits” for self-guided socio-professional development. Further Information The full title of the project is: FAME - Vocational Identity, Flexibility and Mobility in the European Labour Market. The project started in March 2000 and finished in July 2003. The project’s web site: http://www.itb.uni-bremen.de/projekte/fame/fame.htm Key Publications Working Papers: Brown, A., Marhuenda, F. and Navas, A., Managers’ perspectives on work-related identities, flexibility and mobility in the employment and deployment of radiographers in the UK and Spain, IER, University of Warwick, 2002. FAME Consortium, Work-related Identities in Europe: How Personnel Management and HR Policies Shape Workers‘ Identities, ITB Working Paper Series No. 46, University of Bremen 2003. Laske, G. (ed.), Project Papers: Vocational Identity, Flexibility and Mobility in the European Labour Market (FAME), ITB Working Paper Series No. 27, University of Bremen, 2001. Kirpal, S., Nurses in Europe: Work Identities of Nurses across 4 European Countries, ITB Research Paper Series, 07/2003. Books: Marhuenda, F., Navas, A. and Roda, F. Explorando las identidades profesionales. Materiales curriculares para el área de FOL, Universitat de València, ISBN: 84-370-5546-6, 2003. Martínez. F., Condiciones de trabajo e identidad laboral en el sector hotelero en la Comunidad Valenciana. Universitat de València, ISBN: 84-370-5655-1, 2003. Chapters in books: Brown, A. and Kirpal, S. (2002) “‘Old nurses with new qualifications are best’: managers’ attitudes towards the recruitment of health care professionals in Estonia, France, Germany, Spain and the United Kingdom”, Forthcoming in Warhurst, Keep and Grugulis (eds.), The Skills that Matter, New York: Palgrave. On-line publications: Dif, M., “On the Emerging Models of Labour Flexibility within the French CVT Institutions: Implications for inclusion, skill and identity formation”, paper presented at TSER FORUM on “Identities in VET and Labour Market”, Nant Gwythern, Wales, 29 June - 2 July 2000. - http://www.theknownet.com/xml/forum_front/changing_identities/meat.html Dif, M., “Induced Labour Mobility through Continuing Vocational Training: Investigating its Development in the French Context during the Last Three Decades”, in Manning, S. & Raffe, D. (eds.), VETNET ECER 2000 Proceedings, http://www.b.shuttle.de/wifo/abstract/difmh01.htm - (also at ERIC “Resource in Education” since September 2002) 165
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REPORT EUR 20791 European Union-sup
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2003 EUROPEAN COMMISSION European U
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Table of Contents Foreword ……
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Notes from the editor This report i
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Briefing Paper 1 Research Instituti
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4. Other incentives to improve mobi
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4. However, the push to make work e
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Key Publications Gornitzka, “Gove
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7. Despite strong resistance from e
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10. There needs to be encouragement
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The full title of the project is: E
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2. Some employers and politicians a
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Briefing Paper 11 Research Institut
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• A greater understanding of the
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The Final Report and results of thi
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9. Policy needs to provide opportun
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• The levels of teachers’ inter
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4. Strengthening the educational re
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Key Recommendations The project mad
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National Policy Recommendations 1.
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Key Recommendations The following r
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8. Lifelong Learning is still seen
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Key Recommendations Specific recomm
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Tikkanen, T., Teknologian muutos ty
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• Moving from training-based deve
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This project is now being taken for
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13. Some of the enterprises have ha
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Key Recommendations 1. Efforts shou
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10. Although, it has been found tha
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4. Separate analysis of the wage di
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Denny & Harmon, The impact of educa
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10. In addition, important learning
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8. Opening schools to activities be
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establishing links between the scie
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Sassi, Ogborn, Pintó, Quale, Vienn
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Page 119 and 120: Briefing Paper 35 Research Institut
Page 121 and 122: The Final Report and results of thi
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Page 129 and 130: Key Recommendations The following r
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Page 145 and 146: Key Recommendations Political and l
Page 147 and 148: Further information The final repor
Page 149 and 150: 8. Learning in a “learning compan
Page 159 and 160: Further Information The full title
Page 161 and 162: Adaptability and Entrepreneurship 6
Page 163 and 164: 18. Gender audits and relevant acti
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Page 187 and 188: Summaries of research project clust
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Page 197 and 198: 8. Compensation programmes/schemes
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