The Folk Biology of the Tobelo People - Smithsonian Institution ...

NUMBER 34 33
words. "Analyzable" words may be eitiier complex (i.e.,
derived from a single stem by die addition of a derivational
affix or by systematicaUy modifying die stem in some way), or
compound (combining two or more stems) (Lyons, 1977:521-
550).
simple
tight
sing
name
release (vb.)
complex
tightiy
sang
naming
release (n.)
compound
tight-rope
sing-along
nickname
hair-release
The example 'release' above (acceptable tf we consider tiiat
'release' in modern English is no longer analyzable into die
etymologicaUy important morphs 're' + 'lease') indicates tiiat
"simple" here is stricdy different from "unsegmentable" (cf.
Conklin, 1962:122 ), because (1) "frozen" segments, which are
no longer meaningful but which are etymologicaUy recognizeable,
are considered part of die stem (cf. also Marchand,
1960); and (2) words derived by die addition of a zero-morph
("zero-derivation") are complex, though homonymous witii die
simple stem from which they were derived. According to Lyons
(1977:523), nouns like 'release' and 'attempt' can be considered
derived from the verbs 'release' and 'attempt' by the
suffixation of a zero-morph, because
... they belong to die same subclass of nouns as 'extension,' 'justification,'
'arrangement,* etc., which are clearly deverbal and derived by suffixation:
deverbal nominalization is characteristically a matter of suffixation in
English |TJtis usually, though not always, clear which of die pair of lexemes
related by [zero-derivation] is simple and which is complex in terms of the
general patterns of derivation manifest in the language.
3.2.2.1 Simple Words, Including Foreign Compound Borrowings
Since simple words (by definition) are not buUt up from
simpler forms, tiiere are no "types" of simple word-formation
as tiiere are for complex or compound words. Nevertheless,
tiiere are foreign compound words tiiat have been borrowed
from other languages and may be treated as simple words in a
typology of Tobelo word formation. The degree to which these
original compounds are recognized as of compound origin may
vary. Examples include
o ate-jawa (< Ternatese compound hate 'tree' + jawa 'Java,
Javanese'; 'Javanese tree')
o baru-bongana (< baru '[a tree, Hibiscus tiliaceusY +
bongana, said to be from Tabaru 'jungle') 'jungle
baru' (N.B.: not in the baru class in Tbl)
o pala-patani (< Indonesian pala 'nutmeg (Myristica frangrans)'
+ patani 'Patani district (probably Patani,
Halmahera [?]),' 'Patani nutmeg'
We can clearly consider die first example a simple word,
because the original Ternatese hate jawa has been modified to
ate-jawa, and die foreign component ate- has no Tbl cognate.
The second example is more problematic, because bongana is
locaUy recognizable as 'jungle' (cf. Tbl H: o hongana, B and D:
o fongana). The tiiird can scarcely be caUed a simple word,
because die Indonesian head pala is now a synonymn (o pala)
for die original Tbl o gohora 'nutmeg.' Such problems in die
"degree of foreignness" of foreign compounds are common in
typologies of English word-formation also (Marchand, 1960:
6-8).
A similar area of uncertainty involves reduplicated words,
which morphologically seem like complex ratiier than simple
words. But some probably are borrowed into Tbl as reduplicated
forms. For example, Tbl: o efi-efi 'Avicennia sp. (a
mangrove tree)' might presumably be a reduplicated Tbl noun
or verb *efi or *-efi (such a word was unfamiliar to Tbl
informants); but more likely it is cognate witii the term api-api
widely used tiirough Malaysia, Indonesia, and die Phdippines
to designate members of this genus. The "original" term
api-api reflects its preferred use as firewood (cf. Malay api
'fire'). Such cases must be considered simple until proven
otherwise, though in cases of word compounding involving a
"possessor + possessive particle + possessed" construction, die
compound structure is so clear that such words may be
considered compounds even if die meaning of a compound-part
is not locally known.
Though we may Ulustrate "degree of foreignness" by
informants' abtiity to recognize parts of words, we can not rely
(at die descriptive level of dictionary-writing, at least) entirely
on local recognition to determine types of word formation.
Odierwise we would have to consider certain word-lexemes
"simple" for some people and "complex" or "compound" for
otiiers. Thus die grass caUed o aerani (see Appendix 1.1) was
thought to be labeled by a simple term by my B- and D-dialect
informants, tiiough in H dialect die word appears to be a noun
from die verb -aerani 'to be strange, wonderful'; as such, it
may be considered a complex word (Type 4 below, formed by
zero-derivation).
3.2.2.2 Types of Complex Words
Complex words may be distinguished into several types,
here illustrated witii examples:
Complex, Type 1. Reduplication of die verb X (or its participial)
to form die subordinate clause meaning 'which does X.'
Examples:
o maa-maata (< vb. -maata 'to be cold') 'which is cold'
(several species, see Appendix 1.1)
o bo-bobira (< vb. -bobira 'to have pimples' [cf. n.
bobira 'pimple']) 'having pimples' Jussiaea suffruticosa
L.
o gare-garehe (< participial of reduplicated verb -arehe