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36 #232 Iranian-sponsored terrorist groups also used moored contact mines off the coast of Lebanon during that same time; however, that campaign inflicted little damage and proved a major embarrassment once Tehran’s involvement was exposed. It also embarrassed the USN. Lacking effective mine countermeasures units that could operate in the Persian Gulf, American forces escorting tankers there had to have the tankers they were protecting precede them. In effect, they used those tankers as ad hoc minesweepers. The need to do so was driven home on 14 April 1988, when the USS Samuel B. Roberts was nearly sunk by an Iranian mine. A modern warship was put out of action for months, and nearly sunk, by a mine using 80-year-old technology. The Iranian mine wasn’t even as advanced technologically as the 1906 British mine from which it reportedly was derived. That incident highlighted mine warfare’s potential cost-effectiveness and inspired a new round of American investment in mine countermeasures. The USN, however, still had to rely on its allies’ mine countermeasures units during the 1991 Gulf War, and two of its ships suffered mine damage during that deployment. The Cold War was not marked by major naval engagements, not even during the hot war conflicts that occurred during that era such as Vietnam. Naval mine warfare was a key concern, however, and remains so in the present day. It doesn’t take high technology to make or deploy a naval mine. They are cheap and easy to make and lay, particularly if accurate placement isn’t a concern. Their existence or suspected presence in a harbor or shipping lane has a paralyzing effect on the affected governments and populations. Defeating naval mines and, perhaps more importantly, identifying the perpetrators who made or laid them, will remain a political and military concern well into this new century. — Carl Otis Schuster Peace in Cambodia: untaC The UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) was the largest UN operation conceived until that time, with an order of battle of up to 22,000 personnel and US $3 billion in funding. It also had the broadest mandate ever given a UN force since the end of the Korean War: run the country until elections could be held, while also overseeing the withdrawal of the Vietnamese Army, and the repatriation from refugee camps of nearly a quarter of the population. UNTAC also marked firsts for several of the participant nations, as China deployed peacekeepers and Japan shared with Australia the leading diplomatic role in running the mission. Bulgarian infantry also participated for the first time. As has often happened with UN efforts, carelessness and expediency came close to defeating everyone’s best efforts. Though they had the mandate and manpower to do more, the international civil administration merely co-opted the existing government infrastructure. Predictably, that offended the other three factions in the country, with the enraged Khmer Rouge, who had never been enthusiastic about UNTAC, pulling out of the process altogether. Following elections, King Sihanouk was reinstated as the titular head of government, with his son Prince Ranariddh, in his capacity as leader of the royalist Funcinpec Party, and Hun Sen, of the Cambodian People’s Party, serving as joint deputy prime ministers. Unfortunately, the elections merely papered over existing divisions, and all parties maintained control of parts of the armed forces, which were actually “national” in name only. On 5 July 1997 the unstable situation changed when Hun Sen launched a coup with only minimal armed conflict. He claimed the coup was triggered by Ranariddh’s open alliance with the Khmer Rouge, at that time under Khieu Samphan’s control following Pol Pot’s death. One of the most important factors in the new government was the potential change to the military status quo, as the Khmer Rouge were still under arms. In fact, the future of Cambodia remains uncertain to this day. Factions Besides the Vietnamese staying behind, who are a mix of settlers, retired soldiers and members of the existing (Hang Samrin) government’s forces, there were four main Cambodian factions during the UNTAC period. In descending order of importance, they were as follows. The Heng Samrin-led, Vietnamesebacked, government based on the National Union Front for the Salvation of Kampuchea Party, which had been formed when the Khmer Rouge split into pro-China and pro-Vietnam factions during 1977 and 1978. The Khmer Rouge were the rabidly Maoist communist remnants of the murderous Pol Pot regime, still supported by China and at least ideologically still under Pol Pot’s sway. The Armee Nationale Sihanoukist (ANS) was composed of the armed supporters of Prince Sihanouk, who had been deposed by his prime minister Lon Nol. His faction received the largest share of western support during the guerilla war against the Vietnamese occupation. The Khmer Peoples National Liberation Front (KPNLF) had its origins in the old American-backed Lon Nol government that had come to power in 1970. Peacekeepers For administrative purposes Cambodia was divided by UNTAC into 11 regions, usually along provincial boundaries, each under the titular command of the peacekeeping nation deploying the largest force. At the time of the elections, when UNTAC’s maximum strength was reached, there were a total of 15,991 military personnel including nearly 900 observers, 3,359 civilian police and about 1,600 other UN civilians and contractors deployed. The following military order of battle lists units by those regions along with the unit’s main base town. 1 – Sisophon: Dutch infantry battalion (including marines). 2 – Siem Riep: Bangladeshi infantry battalion, Indian medical company, Polish logistics company, French engineering company. 3 – Phnom Thbeng Meanchey: Pakistani infantry battalion. 4 – Stung Treng: Uraguayan infantry battalion, Indian medical platoon, Singaporean logistics platoon. 4 – Kratie: Polish engineer company. 5 West – Kampong Thom: Indonesian infantry battalion, Chinese engineer battalion, Polish logistics platoon, Indian medical (field ambulance) platoon. 5 East – Kampong Cham: Indian infantry battalion, Polish logistics company. 6 – Sihanoukville: French infantry battalion, Polish logistics company, Philippine naval patrol.
7 – Takeo: Japanese engineer battalion. 8 – Battambang: Malaysian infantry battalion, Thai engineer battalion, Pakistani logistics company, Australian signals company and air transport group, multi-national mine clearance training unit. 9 East – Kampong Speu: Bulgarian infantry battalion. 9 West – Kampong Chnang: Tunisian infantry battalion, Malaysian air transport group. Phnom Penh: Ghana and Indonesian infantry battalions, German medical battalion, Australian signals battalion, French air transport group, Uruguayan naval patrol. Most of those contingents were composite forces rather than standing formations. Forty New Zealanders served with the Australian communications unit. There was also a multi-national MP company with a maximum strength of 217, including 20 Australians. Notable Events On 26 February 1992 an Australian soldier was wounded when his helicopter took ground fire in the Kompong Thom area. April 1993 was the most dangerous month for UN military personnel, with seven fatalities and 15 injured. Three separate incidents around Kampong Speu left four Bulgarians dead and nine wounded. One Japanese UN employee and his interpreter also died. During early May 1993, a Japanese policeman was killed and 13 UN personnel were injured. On May 20 1993, a rocket fired during factional fighting missed its target and killed two UN observers in the Chinese engineer compound in Kampong Cham. On 27 July 1993, an Australian soldier on guard at UNTAC headquarters in Phnom Penh killed a Cambodian policeman after he fired at a criminal suspect fleeing past the building. In August 1993, an Australian soldier was forced to smash his radio before fleeing from a Khmer Rouge attack with his mixed nationality team. The team was rescued by Thai soldiers and returned to their base unharmed. That same month, the commander of the Australian contingent, Lt. Col. Russell Stuart, faced charges after his service pistol was stolen along with his vehicle. And Chinese troops were forced to wear differently patterned uniforms because the Khmer Rouge were extensively supplied with standard green Chinese uniforms and weapons. A German army medic was shot dead in a motorcycle drive-by in Phnom Pehn. After the trouble experienced during the repatriation homeward of the first 400 Bulgarians, Australian military police escorted the second flight home. A total of 41 military personnel became casualties, as well as four observers and 14 civilian police. operation Gemini Australia’s military involvement in UNTAC reached its peak strength of 600 during the elections, winding down to 150 by the time UNTAC disbanded. There were also substantial contributions to the civilian police and election forces. Australia also provided the initial military commander, Lt Gen. John Sanderson, who retired in October 1992. —Peter Schutze the Long tradition: 50 issues ago, S&t 182: Balkans 1941. Joseph Miranda drives in with a simulation of the Wehrmacht’s 1941 blitzkrieg against Yugoslavia and Greece. Veteran gamer Maj. Donald Mack marches into the Sudan with “Chinese” Gordon and the Khartoum campaign, while David Nicholas takes to the barricades with the Freikorps. Pierre Corbeil, Charles Plummer and Jay Schindler go Beyond Wargaming with an analysis of the simulation game as a professional tool. And Anthony Howarth closes out with a look at unit cohesion during the wars of religion. 100 issues ago, S&t 132: iron Cross.Tactical level combat in World War II, brought to you by Mark Sprock and Allyn Vannoy. Thomas Kane updates everyone on the fighting in Beirut, and Al Nofi goes to historical extremes with pieces on both the gladiators and the proliferation of weapons in the modern world. 150 issues ago, S&t 82: fifth Corps. This was something of a modern warfare issue, with Fifth Corps, a grand tactical simulation of the US Army versus the Soviets in a “what if” World War III. Design credits include the prolific Jim Dunnigan, the solid John Butterfield and the artistic Redmond Simonsen. Elsewhere in the issue, Col. Trevor Dupuy (yes, that Col. Dupuy!) analyzes the Suez battles in the 1973 Arab-Israeli War, and Charles T. Kamps covers N<strong>AT</strong>O’s Central Front. Rounding out the issue and keeping readers up to date are Briefings and FYI. 200 issues ago, S&t 32: napoleon at War. John Young uses the Napoleon at Waterloo system to wargame the Battle of Borodino, where the Grande Armee took on the Russians on the road to Moscow in one of the biggest bloodbaths of the Napoleonic era. The game puts the slightly superior French against the entrenched Russians in a contest that is often not decided until the last roll of the die. Issue articles include Al Nofi’s Napoleon at War and Lenny Glynn and Dave Isby on Pershing in the Great War. Plus Pass in Review and Sid Sackson on games. strategy & tactics 37
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